What Works?: A systematic overview of published meta evaluations / synthesis studies within the knowledge domains of Situational Crime Prevention, Policing, and Criminal Justice Interventions, 1997 – 2022

Abstract

This document presents a summary overview of knowledge on effective preventive and repressive criminal justice interventions and measures. The goal is to provide a systematic overview of recently published meta evaluations and synthesis studies of proven effective and ineffective measures and interventions. This will allow a policy to be pursued based on reliable facts, thorough analyses and useful concepts and insights from science and practice: so-called ’evidence based crime policies’. It will also provide a description of a number of core factors and characteristics which determine the efficacy and effectiveness of those interventions and measures. A systematic classification is used via which the scientific knowledge is subdivided into three knowledge domains:

• Situational Crime Prevention (166 meta evaluations);
• Policing (146 meta evaluations); and
• Criminal Justice Interventions (410 meta evaluations).

Within these three knowledge domains, some 722 recently published meta evaluations are summed up chronologically. These studies can be accessed separately by clicking the attached deep links. In this way the studies can be examined 'without leaving one's desk'.

Full text

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What Works?: A systematic overview of published meta evaluations /
synthesis studies within the knowledge domains of Situational Crime
Prevention, Policing, and Criminal Justice Interventions, 1997 – 2022
Jaap de Waard1
The Hague: Dutch Ministry of Justice and Security, Law Enforcement Department, Unit for
General Crime Policy, update 1 December 2022
'A systematic review is the Rolls Royce of research.' - David Farrington, April 2010
’The question we ask today is not whether our government is too big or too small, but whether it works” – Barack
Obama, inaugural address, 20 January 2009
’Facts, not fear, must be the basis of our discussion’. (Former) Attorney General Eric Holder March 16, 2010
“Well, obviously there is a political context to almost everything that we do. Ministers want to be seen to be taking
action and sometimes any action is better than no action … There are often political commitments that lead you in
directions that the evidence doesn’t necessarily strongly support.” (anonymous n.d.)
Introduction
An effective crime (prevention) policy can only be drawn up using 'lessons from science'. The
basis for such a policy is reliable and validated knowledge, from proven high-quality and edited
research. In recent years a multitude of studies have been published comparing the effectiveness
of various criminal justice policy measures and interventions. In particular these were what are
1 Jaap de Waard is a senior policy advisor at the Netherlands Ministry of Justice and Security. He is the
former secretary of the European Crime Prevention Network. He has published widely on crime prevention
models, international trends in the private security industry, and international benchmark studies in the field
of crime control. For publications see: https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jaap-De-Waard-2/publications
For so-called ´Pearls of knowledge´ see: https://prohic.nl/pearls-of-knowledge/?lang=en

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known as synthesis studies or meta evaluations which compare large quantities of research. These
are a source of lessons which can be learned by those involved in both policy making and
practice. They highlight features of policy which, in principle, promise to be effective, or – in any
event – features which are almost certain not to have any effect. Here, 'effect' means a reduction
in crime and / or reoffending / reduction in recidivism.
Thanks to the large number of recently performed meta evaluations in the criminological field, it
is becoming increasingly more easy to make statements about the effectiveness or ineffectiveness
of interventions and measures. Meta evaluations which are intended to identify the efficacy of
measures take account of the methodological accuracy of available research according to the degree
to which they allow conclusions to be drawn. In this context, the following five point scale is used:
1 (weakest assessment) – a simple correlation between cause and effect; 2 – before and after
measurements without a control group; 3 – before and after measurements with a control group; 4 –
before and after measurements in conjunction with large-scale sample surveys consisting of
'processed' and 'unprocessed' groups; 5 (strongest assessment) – random allocation with controlled
experiments.
This document presents a summary overview of knowledge on effective preventive and
repressive criminal justice interventions and measures. The goal is to provide a systematic
overview of recently published meta evaluations and synthesis studies of proven effective and
ineffective measures and interventions. This will allow a policy to be pursued based on reliable
facts, thorough analyses and useful concepts and insights from science and practice: so-called
’evidence based crime policies’. It will also provide a description of a number of core factors and
characteristics which determine the efficacy and effectiveness of those interventions and
measures. A systematic classification is used via which the scientific knowledge is subdivided
into three knowledge domains:
• Situational Crime Prevention (166 meta evaluations);

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• Policing (146 meta evaluations); and
• Criminal Justice Interventions (410 meta evaluations).
Within these three knowledge domains, some 722 published meta evaluations are summed up
chronologically. These studies can be accessed separately by clicking the attached deep links. In
this way the studies can be examined 'without leaving one's desk'. Of course, the subject matter is
very empirical in nature, meaning that not everyone can evaluate or understand it. The main goal
of this overview is to demonstrate that knowledge has been accumulated in recent years relating
to the effectiveness of criminal justice policies (prevention, detection, repression, or a
combination of these issues).
The Campbell Crime and Justice Group
Following on from the Cochrane Collaboration, which publishes overview studies on the
functioning of prevention and intervention activities in the healthcare sector, the Campbell
Collaboration has set itself the goal, since 2000, to provide an insight into the outcomes of
interventions in the fields of education, welfare and crime and justice.
The Campbell Crime and Justice Group uses an accessible approach to encourage researchers,
policymakers and employees in the field to find out about the effectiveness of interventions in
relation to crime, without them losing their way in the sometimes contradictory outcomes of
different studies. An extensive and strict peer-review procedure has been developed. Systematic
reviews of research into specific interventions or the tackling of problems take place in
accordance with strict scientific criteria. The outcomes are made understandable and accessible
for people from the fields of policy and practice who do not have the time and opportunity to
familiarise themselves with all the different publications. The strict criteria and review procedures
must ensure that people can have implicit faith in the conclusions. If a systematic review states
that an approach works, then this can be regarded as being true. If it does not work, it does not
work. These meta evaluations can be regarded as ‘’the pearls in criminal justice research’’.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/journal/18911803
Effective situational crime prevention
One of the basic points of departure in the case of situational crime prevention is that opportunity
makes the thief. The guru of the situational approach, Ron Clarke, therefore maintains that 'It is
easier to change places than people''. This is the essence of the approach: proper protection using
technical and social measures generates a much greater preventive effect than direct influence on
the personality or private life of the (potential) perpetrator. The aim, therefore, is to offer as little
opportunity for crime as possible and thereby not tempt people to commit crimes. This means
criminal behaviour is influenced indirectly.

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A significant number of synthesis studies have shown that the situational approach can have
considerable crime-reducing effects. All of those different security measures, also referred to as
situational crime prevention, can be applied to various different types of crime. Many of the
measures are applied on a large scale, which means that the scope is often very great indeed. That
applies particularly in the case of car theft (the obligatory inbuilt immobilizers) and also in the case
of house break-ins (certification / "secured by design" / Buildings Decree). There has also been a
significant decrease in shoplifting from department stores and retailers (due to CCTV, no cash, anti-
theft strips, private security, sensors, alarms, dummy packaging). In a large number of countries the
application of these types of measures has led to a significant decrease in these specific offences
What appears to work? The deployment of supervisors in housing complexes, public transport and
public space. The raising of lighting levels in (semi) public spaces. The use of CCTV at certain
locations, aimed at specific crimes. The use of the Secured by Design Instrument. The raising of
the general security level and the restructuring of residential areas. The installation of standard
security measures during the production phase of consumer goods (cars, cameras, bicycles, mobile
telephones, laptops). Lastly, the discontinuation of situations conducive to crime, such as dealer's
premises and pawn shops, through the application of (civil) legislation and regulations, also appears
to be effective.
Key characteristics of effective situational crime prevention
A key characteristic of an effective situational approach is the relative simplicity of the measures.
Examples are the straightforward increasing of lighting levels, ensuring visibility and accessibility.
These are often relatively cheap measures. For example, the risk of burglary is reduced by a factor
of sixteen by investing in extra locks, leaving a light on and the installation of an outside light in
combination with a burglar alarm. Locations and places where there is an above-average level of
crime can be made safer by relatively simple structural and technical measures, and by raising the
level of supervision. Changing closing times and providing public transport in areas with pubs,
clubs and discos will prevent a situation from arising in which (drunken) people congregate in the
streets. This is a simple way of preventing violence.

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Published synthesis studies relating to situational crime prevention
‘’It is easier to alter environmental conditions than individual behavioural tendencies’’
1997 - 2009
• Sherman, L.W., et al. (1997). Preventing crime: What works, what doesn’t, what’s
promising. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
http://www.ncjrs.org/works/wholedoc.htm
• Clarke, Ronald V. (1997) Situational crime prevention: Successful case studies. New
York: Harrow and Heston. http://www.popcenter.org/Library/scp.htm
• Coben, Jeffrey H. & Gregory L. Larkin (1999). Effectiveness of ignition interlock
devices in reducing drunk driving recidivism. American Journal of Preventive Medicine,
vol. 16, pp. 81–87. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/9921390
• Casteel, Carri and Peek-Asa, Corrine (2000). 'Effectiveness of Crime Prevention Through
Environmental Design (CPTED) in Reducing Robberies', American Journal of
Preventive Medicine, vol. 18, no. 4S,pp. 99-115
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/10793286
• Tilley, Nick & Gloria Laycock (2002). Working out what to do: Evidence-based crime
reduction. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/prgpdfs/crrs11.pdf
• Elder R., Shults R., Sleet D., Nicols J., Thompson R. and Rajab W., (2004). Effectiveness
of Mass Media Campaigns for Reducing Drinking and Driving and Alcohol-Involved
Crashes: A Systematic Review, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27:1; 57-65.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749379704000467
• Clarke, Ronald V. & Graeme Newman (2005). Designing out crime from products and
systems. Crime Prevention Studies, vol. 20.
http://www.popcenter.org/Library/CrimePrevention/Volume%2018/index18.htm
• Clarke, Ronald V. (2005). Closing streets and alleys to reduce crime.
http://www.popcenter.org/Responses/response-closing_streets.htm
• Hahn, Robert A. et al. (2005). Firearms laws and the reduction of violence: A systematic
review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, vol. 28, no. 2S1, February, pp. 40-71.
http://www.thecommunityguide.org/violence/viol-AJPM-evrev-firearms-law.pdf
• Bullock, Karen, Rosie Eroll & Nick Tilley (2006) Problem-oriented partnership:
Implementing an evidence-based approach to crime reduction.
http://www.willanpublishing.co.uk/cgi-bin/indexer?product=1843921391
• Gill, Martin & Angela Spriggs (2006). Assessing the impact of CCTV.
http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/hors292.pdf
• Knaap, Leontine et al. (2006). Geweld verslagen?: Een studie naar de preventie van
geweld in het publieke en semipublieke domein (Violence defied?: A review of prevention
of violence in the public and semi-public domain).
http://www.wodc.nl/onderzoeksdatabase/geweldscriminaliteit-in-nederland.aspx
• Knutsson, Johannes & Ronald V.Clarke (2006). Putting theory to work: Implementing
situational prevention and problem-oriented policing. Crime Prevention Studies, vol. 20.
http://www.popcenter.org/Library/CrimePrevention/Volume%2020/index20.htm
• Shepherd, Jonathan (2007). Effective NHS contributions to violence prevention: The
Cardiff model. http://www.vrg.cf.ac.uk/Files/vrg_violence_prevention.pdf
• Summers, Lucia (2007). Tackling violent crime programme: Good practice guide.
http://www.jdi.ucl.ac.uk/downloads/publications/research_reports/TVCP/TVCP-
GoodPracticeGuide_FinalNOV2006.pdf
• Bennett, Trevor H., Katy R. Holloway & David P. Farrington (2008). Effectiveness of
neighbourhood watch in reducing crime.

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http://www.bra.se/extra/faq/?module_instance=2&action=question_show&id=461&categ
ory_id=9
• Farrell, Graham et al. (Eds.) (2008). Imagination for crime prevention: Essays in the
honour of Ken Pease. Crime Prevention Studies, vol. 21.
http://www.popcenter.org/Library/CrimePrevention/Volume_21/index.html
• Hahn, Sabine et al. (2008). Patient and visitor violence in general hospitals: A systematic
review of the literature. Aggression and Violent Behavior, vol. 13, no. 6,
November/December, pp. 432-441.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178908000475
• House of Commons (2008). Reducing the risk of violent crime.
http://www.parliament.the-stationery-
office.com/pa/cm200708/cmselect/cmpubacc/546/546.pdf
• Kunst, Maarten, et al. (2008). Preventie van herhaald slachtofferschap: Een research
synthese ter voorkoming van herhaling (Prevention of repeat victimization: A research
syntheses). http://www.wodc.nl/onderzoeksdatabase/synthese-preventie-herhaald-
slachtofferschap.aspx
• National Audit Office (2008). The Home Office: Reducing the risk of violent crime.
http://www.nao.org.uk/publications/0708/reducing_the_risk_of_violent_c.aspx
• Noije, Lonneke van, & Karin Wittebrood (2008). Sociale veiligheid ontsleuteld:
veronderstelde en werkelijke effecten van veiligheidsbeleid. (Social safety unlocked:
Presumed and actual effects of safety policy). The Hague: Sociaal en Cultureel
Planbureau.
http://www.scp.nl/Publicaties/Alle_publicaties/Publicaties_2008/Sociale_veiligheid_ontsl
euteld
• Savage, Joanne & Christina Yancey (2008). Effects of media violence exposure on
criminal aggression: A meta-analysis. Criminal Justice and Behavior: An International
Journal, vol. 35, no. 6, June, pp. 772-791.
http://cjb.sagepub.com/content/35/6/772.abstract
• Welsh, Brandon C. & David P. Farrington (2008). Closed-circuit television surveillance
and crime prevention.
http://www.bra.se/extra/faq/?module_instance=2&action=question_show&id=436&categ
ory_id=9
• Welsh, Brandon C. & David P. Farrington (2008). Improved street lighting and crime
prevention.
http://www.bra.se/extra/faq/?module_instance=2&action=question_show&id=435&categ
ory_id=9
• Brennan, I.R. & Moore, S.C. (2009). Weapons and violence: A review of theory and
research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, vol. 14, pp. 215 225.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222823584_Weapons_and_violence_A_review
_of_theory_and_research
• Guerette, Rob T. (2009). The pull, push, and expansion of situational crime prevention
evaluation: An appraisal of thirty-seven years of research. Crime Prevention Studies, vol.
24, pp. 29-58. http://www.popcenter.org/library/crimeprevention/volume_24/03-
Guerette.pdf
• Guerette, Rob T. & Kate J. Bowers (2009). Assessing the extent of crime displacement
and diffusion of benefits: A review of situational crime prevention evaluations.
Criminology, vol. 47 , no. 4, November, pp. 1331-1368.
http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/123207302/abstract
• Noije, Lonneke van, & Karin Wittebrood (2009). Overlast en verloedering ontsleuteld:
veronderstelde en werkelijke effecten van het actieplan overlast en verloedering. (Social
and physical disorder unlocked). The Hague: Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau.

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http://www.scp.nl/Publicaties/Alle_publicaties/Publicaties_2009/Overlast_en_verloederin
g_ontsleuteld
• Popova, S. et al. (2009). 'Hours and Days of Sale and Density of Alcohol Outlets:
Impacts on Alcohol Consumption and Damage: A Systematic Review', Alcohol &
Alcoholism, vol. 44, no. 5, pp. 500-516. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19734159
• Silvestri, Arianna, Mark Oldfield, Peter Squires & Roger Grimshaw (2009). Young
people, knives and guns: A comprehensive review, analysis and critique of gun and knife
crime strategies. London: King’s College London, Centre for Crime and Justice Studies.
https://www.crimeandjustice.org.uk/sites/crimeandjustice.org.uk/files/YP%20knives%20
and%20guns.pdf
• Stockwell, T. & T. Chikritzhs, (2009). 'Do relaxed trading hours for bars and clubs mean
more relaxed drinking? A review of international research on the impacts of changes to
permitted hours of drinking. Crime Prevention and Community Safety, vol. 11, no. 3, pp.
153-170. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1057/cpcs.2009.11
• Welsh, Brandon C. & David P. Farrington (2009). Public area CCTV and crime
prevention: An update systematic review and meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly, vol. 26,
no. 4, December, pp. 716-745.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07418820802506206
• Wilcox, Aidan et al. (2009). Tackling the demand for prostitution: A rapid evidence
assessment of the published research literature.
http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs09/horr27c.pdf
• World Health Organization (2009). Violence prevention the evidence: Overview.
http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/4th_milestones_meeting/public
ations/en/index.html
• World Health Organization (2009). Preventing violence by reducing the availability and
harmful use of alcohol.
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2009/9789241598408_eng.pdf
2010 - 2019
• Welsh, Brandon C., David P. Farrington & Sean J. O’Dell (2010). Effectiveness of public
area surveillance for crime prevention: Security guards, place managers and defensible
space.
http://www.bra.se/extra/measurepoint/?module_instance=4&name=Effectiviness_of_Pub
lic_Area_Surveillance_for_Crime_Prevention.pdf&url=/dynamaster/file_archive/100309/
0a3ceabb221375f51f9a82824942a662/Effectiviness%255fof%255fPublic%255fArea%25
5fSurveillance%255ffor%255fCrime%255fPrevention.pdf
• Welsh, Brandon C., & David P. Farrington (2010). The future of crime prevention:
Developmental and situational strategies. http://www.nij.gov/nij/topics/crime/crime-
prevention/working-group/future-of-crime-prevention-research.pdf
• Bangpan, Mukdarut et al. (2011). Fraud and error in financial, welfare and revenue
services: A Systematic Map of the empirical research evidence with particular reference
to ‘notification of changes of circumstances’
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/214394/W
P97.pdf
• Bowers, Kate et al. (2011). Spatial displacement and diffusion of benefits among
geographically focused policing initiatives. Journal of Experimental Criminology, vol. 7,
pp. 347-374. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-011-9134-8
• Elder, R.W. et al. (2011). Effectiveness of Ignition Interlocks for Preventing Alcohol-
Impaired Driving and Alcohol-Related Crashes. American Journal of Preventative
Medicine vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 362-376. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21335270

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• Grove, Louise E. (2011). Preventing repeat domestic burglary: A meta-evaluation of
studies from Australia, the UK, and the United States. Victims and Offenders, vol. 6, no.
4, October-December, pp. 370-385.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/15564886.2011.607400
• Hanna, Rema et al. (2011). The effectiveness of anti-corruption policy: What has worked,
what hasn’t, and what we don’t know, a systematic review.
http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/Outputs/SystematicReviews/Anti_corruption_2011Hanna.pdf
• Nivette, Amy E. (2011). Cross-national predictors of crime: A meta-analysis. Homicide
Studies, vol. 15, no. 2, May, pp. 103-131.
http://hsx.sagepub.com/content/15/2/103.abstract
• Ekblom, Paul (Ed.) (2012). Design against crime: Crime proofing everyday products.
Crime Prevention Studies, vol. 27, 293 pp.
http://www.popcenter.org/library/crimeprevention/volume_27/
• Grove, Louise E. et al. (2012). Preventing repeat victimization: A systematic review.
http://www.bra.se/download/18.1ff479c3135e8540b29800015728/2012_Preventing_repe
at_victimization2.pdf
• IOM (Institute of Medicine) and NRC (National Research Council). (2012).
Communications and technology for violence prevention: Workshop summary.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
http://www.nap.edu/catalog.php?record_id=13352
• IOM (Institute of Medicine) and NRC (National Research Council). (2012). Social and
economic costs of violence: Workshop summary. Washington,DC: The National
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• Spink, John et al. (2013). Defining the types of counterfeiters, counterfeiting, and
offender organizations. Crime Science, vol. 2, no 8, 10 pp.
https://crimesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/2193-7680-2-8
• Steffgen, Georges, Sphia Recchia & Wolfgang Viechtbauer (2013). The link between
school climate and violence: A meta-analysis review. Aggression and Violent Behavior,
vol. 18, no. 2, March-April, pp. 300-309.
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• Johnson, Shane D., Rob T. Guerette & Kate Bowers (2014). Crime displacement: what
we know, what we don’t know, and what it means for crime reduction. Journal of
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• Lastdrager, Elmer E.H. (2014). Achieving a consensual definition of phishing based on a
systematic review of the literature. Crime Science, vol. 3, no. 9, 10 pp.
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https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-014-9208-5

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• Cozens, Paul & Terence Love (2015). A Review and Current Status of Crime Prevention
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• Lee, Lois K. et al. (2016). Firearm Laws and Firearm Homicides: A Systematic Review.
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• Kurland, Justin, et al. (2017). Wildlife crime: a conceptual integration, literature review,
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• Lee, YongJei et al. (2017). How concentrated is crime at places? A systematic review
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x?site=crimesciencejournal.springeropen.com
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3?site=crimesciencejournal.springeropen.com

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• Perkins, Cloe et al. (2017). Personal security alarms for the prevention of assaults
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• Schindeler, Emily & Danielle M. Reynald (2017). What is the evidence? Preventing
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2022). Effects of media stories of hope and recovery on suicidal ideation and help-
seeking attitudes and intentions: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Public
Health, vol. 7, no. 2, February, pp. 156-
168. https://www.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/lanpub/PIIS2468-2667(21)00274-7.pdf
• Patel, Jay, Katherine Leach-Kemon, Gwenetta Curry, Mohsen Naghavi, & Devi Sridhar
(November 2022). Firearm injury: A preventable public health issue. The Lancet Public
Health, vol. 7, no. 11, November, pp. 976-982.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S246826672200233X
• Satchell, Jessica, Tabitha Craston, Vari M. Drennan, Jo Billings & Marc Serfaty
(November 2022).Psychological Distress and Interventions for Older Victims of Crime:
A Systematic Review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 3 November, pp. 1-20.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/15248380221130354
• Trozze, Arianne, Josh Kamps, Eray Arda Akartuna, Florian J. Hetzel, Bennett Kleinberg,
Toby Davies & Shane D. Johnson (January 2022). Cryptocurrencies and future financial
crime: Systematic review. Crime Science, 5 January, pp. 1-
35. https://crimesciencejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40163-021-00163-8
• Turanovic, Jillian J. & Sonja E. Siennick (February 2022). The Causes and Consequences
of School Violence: A Review. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, National
Institute of Justice, 86 pp. https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/302346.pdf
• Vanwersch, Lucie, Annick Willem, Bram Constandt & Wim Hardyns (August 2022). A
Scoping Review of the Causes and Consequences of Fraud in Sport. Journal of Sport and
Social Issues, 10 August, pp. 1-39.
https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/01937235221119811
• Weisburd, David, Michael Wolfowicz, Badi Hasisi, Mario Paolucci & Giulia Andrighetto
(February 2022).What is the best approach for preventing recruitment to terrorism?
Findings from ABM experiments in social and situational prevention. Criminology &
Public Policy, 21 February, pp. 1-25. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1745-
9133.12579
• Welsh, Brandon C., David P. Farrington & Stephen Douglas (April 2022).The impact and
policy relevance of street lighting for crime prevention: A systematic review based on a
half-century of evaluation research. Criminology & Public Policy, 11 April, pp. 1-
27. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1745-9133.12585
• Windisch, Steven, Susann Wiedlitzka, Ajima Olaghere & Elizabeth Jenaway (June 2022).
Online interventions for reducing hate speech and cyberhate: A systematic
review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, vol. 18, no. 2, June, pp. 1-
25. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cl2.1243

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Effective policing
What appears to work? The tackling of repeated victimisation. The chance of repeated
victimisation is particularly great during a short period after the initial victimisation, mostly within a
month. The specific tackling of repeated victimisation appears to be successful in areas
characterised by a high crime level. The so-called hotspots approach, which involves the police
carrying out specific surveillance on criminal hot spots reduces crime. Research shows that
identifying and formulating a strategic response to hot spots can reduce crime in both the hot spot
and surrounding areas. Focusing on small geographic locations when and where crimes occur, and
targeting specific, high-impact repeat offenders, can effectively decrease crime. Collecting and
using DNA evidence substantially increases the likelihood of solving property crimes — twice as
many arrests and twice as many cases accepted for prosecution. When people see the police as fair,
lawful and respectful, officers are safer and citizens are more likely to obey the law and comply
with police orders.
The police appear to be able to reduce crime through (enforced) cooperation and information
exchanges with local authorities and other parties, based on the strategy of so-called third party
policing. The better the police are at identifying – in accordance with policy – the (causal) factors in
relation to crime, the less crime there is. This strategy is known as a problem-oriented policing.
Lastly, the hard core / top ten approach also appears to be effective. The strategy used is a specific
person-oriented approach to habitual offenders.
Key characteristics of effective policing
It appears that whether policing is effective or not depends on a number of characteristics. These
include a specific focussed approach to (potential) perpetrators, victims and crime locations and
times (‘’hot offenders, hot victims, hot times and hot places’’). Moreover, the policy is targeted and
takes account of the wishes and expectations of residents and businesses. Lastly, a thorough crime

19
analysis is a must. This analysis will determine the nature and extent of crime, and analyse its
causes, possible measures and interventions, and its effectiveness.
Published synthesis studies relating to policing
1997 - 2009
• Sherman, L.W., et al. (1997). Preventing crime: What works, what doesn’t, what’s
promising. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
http://www.ncjrs.org/works/wholedoc.htm
• Jordan, P. (1998). Effective policing strategies for reducing crime. In: Goldblatt, P. &
Lewis, C. (Eds.) Reducing offending: An assessment of research evidence on ways of
dealing with offending behaviour. London: Home Office, Research and Statistics
Directorate, pp. 63-82 http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs/hors187.pdf
• Brookman, Fiona & Mike Maguire (2003). Reducing homicide: A review of the
possibilities. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs2/rdsolr0103.pdf
• Scott, Michael S. (2003). The benefits and consequences of police crackdowns.
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Community Oriented Policing
Services. http://www.cops.usdoj.gov
• Skogan, Wesley & Kathleen Frydl (Eds.) (2004). Fairness and effectiveness in policing:
The evidence. http://www.amazon.ca/Fairness-Effectiveness-Policing-National-
Research/dp/0309084334
• Bradbury, Sarah-Anne & Andy Feist (2005). The use of forensic science in volume crime
investigations: A review of the research literature.
http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/rdsolr4305.pdf?bcsi_scan_BBC5F9F623E34C
49=0&bcsi_scan_filename=rdsolr4305.pdf
• Hahn, Robert A. et al. (2005). Firearms laws and the reduction of violence : A systematic
review. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, vol. 28, (2S1), pp. 40-71.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15698747
• Jansson, Krista (2005). Volume crime investigations: A review of the research literature.
http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/rdsolr4405.pdf
• Myhill, Andy (2006). Community engagement in policing: Lessons from the literature.
http://www.crimereduction.homeoffice.gov.uk/policing18.htm
• Weisburd, David & Anthony Braga (Eds.) (2006). Police innovation: Contrasting
perspectives. New York: Cambridge University Press.
http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=052183628X
• Braga, Anthony A. (2007). Effects of hot spots policing on crime.
http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/CCJG/reviews/hotspots_protocol.pdf
• Braga, Anthony A. & David L. Weisburd (2007). Police innovation and crime
prevention: Lessons learned from police research over the past 20 years.
http://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/218585.pdf
• Hesseling, René, Peter Versteegh & Jaap de Waard (2007). Politiezorg die werkt:
Buurtgebonden en doelgericht. Secondant, vol. 21, no. 5, October, pp. 28-32.
http://www.hetccv.nl/binaries/ccv/secondant/2007/secondant_5_07.pdf
• Mazzerolle, Lorraine, David W. Soole & Sacha Rombouts (2007). Street-level drug law
enforcement: A systematic review.
http://www.cops.usdoj.gov/files/ric/Publications/e04072678.pdf
• Fisher, H., P. Montgomery & F. Gardner (2008). Opportunities for preventing youth gang
involvement for children and young people (7-16).
http://www2.cochrane.org/reviews/en/ab007008.html

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• Goss C., Bramer L., Gliner J., Porter T., Roberts I., & DiGuiseppi C.: (2008). Increased
police patrols for preventing alcohol-impaired driving (Review), The Cochrane
Collaboration, Issue 4.
http://whatworks.college.police.uk/Research/Briefings/Documents/CoP(What%20works(
online_land_Driving_AIv2a).pdf
• Weisburd, David et al. (2008). The effects of problem-oriented policing on crime and
disorder. http://db.c2admin.org/doc-pdf/Weisburd_POP_review.pdf
• Weisburd, David (2008). Place-based policing. Ideas in American Policing, no. 9,
January, 16 pp. http://www.policefoundation.org/pdf/placebasedpolicing.pdf
• Denning Rebecca, Sarah Bennett, Lorraine Mazerolle & Belinda Stocks B (2009).
Serious violent crime investigations: A systematic literature search and technical report.
Brisbane: Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Policing and Security.
https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:230760
• Erke A., Goldenbeld C. & Vaa T. (2009). The effects of drink-driving checkpoints on
crashes – A meta-analysis, Accident Analysis and Prevention, vol. 41, no 5, pp. 914-923.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0001457509001067
• Harris, Christopher J. (2009). Police use of improper force: A systematic review of the
evidence. Victims & Offenders, vol. 4, no. 1, January, pp. 25-41. http://christopher-
harris.wiki.uml.edu/file/view/harris_police+UOF.pdf
• Lum, Cynthia (2009). Translating police research into practice. Ideas in American
Policing, no. 11, August, 16 pp. http://www.policefoundation.org/
• Lum, Cynthia, Leslie W. Kennedy & Alison J. Sherley (2009). The effectiveness of
counter terrorism strategies: A Campbell systematic review.
http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/lib/download/53/
• Rix, Andrew, Faye Joshua, Mike Maguire & Sarah Morton (2009). Improving public
confidence in the police: A review of the evidence.
http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs09/horr28c.pdf
2010- 2019
• Mackenzie, Simon et al. (2010). The drivers of perception of anti-social behaviour.
http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs10/horr34c.pdf
• Weisburd, David, Cody W. Telep & Anthony A. Braga (2010). The importance of place
in policing: Empirical evidence and policy recommendations.
http://www.criminologyprize.com/dynamaster/file_archive/100613/95b5df3d719242abdd
614a983b571d65/The%5fimportance%5fof%5fplace%5fin%5fpolicing.pdf
• Versteegh, P. , Van der Plas, T. & Nieuwstraten, H. (2010).The Best of Three Worlds.
Effectiever politiewerk door een probleemgerichte aanpak van hot crimes, hot spots, hot
shots en hot groups. Den Haag: Politie Haaglanden
https://www.politieacademie.nl/kennisenonderzoek/kennis/mediatheek/PDF/78206.pdf
• Weisburd, David et al. (2010). Is problem-oriented policing effective in reducing crime
and disorder?: Findings from a Campbell systematic review. Criminology and Public
Policy, vol. 9, no. 1, February, pp. 139-172.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-9133.2010.00617.x/pdf
• Bradford, Ben (2011). Police numbers and crime rates – a rapid evidence review.
https://www.justiceinspectorates.gov.uk/hmicfrs/media/police-numbers-and-crime-rates-
rapid-evidence-review-20110721.pdf
• Fischer, Peter et al. (2011).The Bystander-Effect: A Meta-Analytic Review on Bystander
Intervention in Dangerous and Non-Dangerous Emergencies. Psychological Bulletin, vol.
137, no. 4, pp. 517-534. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21534650
• Petrosino, Anthony, Sarah Guckenburg & Trevor Fronius (2011). ‘Policing schools’
strategies: a systematic search for experimental and quasi-experimental studies. Woburn,

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MASS, Learning Innovations at WestEd. https://www.wested.org/resources/policing-
schools-strategies-a-systematic-search-for-experimental-and-quasi-experimental-studies/
• Wilson, David B., David Weisburd & David McClure (2011). Use of DNA testing in
police investigative work for increasing offender identification, arrest, conviction and
case clearance. http://campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/126/
• Braga, Anthony A. & David L. Weisburd (2012). The effects of ‘’pulling levers’’ focused
deterrence strategies on crime. http://campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/96/
• Braga, Anthony A. & David L. Weisburd (2012). The effects of focussed deterrence
strategies on crime: A systematic review.
http://www.nnscommunities.org/Braga_and_Weisburd_campbell_CRIME_AND_DEL.p
df
• Braga, Anthony A. & and David Weisburd (2012). The effects of focused deterrence
strategies on crime: A systematic review and meta-analysis of the empirical evidence.
Journal of Research in Crime & Delinquency, vol. 49, no. 3, pp. 323–358.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/0022427811419368
• Braga, Anthony, Andrew Papachristos & David Hureau (2012). Hot spots policing effects
on crime. http://campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/24/
• Braga, Anthony, Andrew Papachristos & David Hureau (2012). The effects of hot spots
policing on crime: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Justice Quarterly,
pp. 1 -31. http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07418825.2012.673632
• Koper, Christopher & Evan Mayo-Wilson (2012). Police strategies to reduce illegal
possession and carrying of firearms: Effects on gun crime.
http://campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/58/
• Makarios, Matthew D. & Travis C. Pratt (2012). The effectiveness of policies and
programs that attempt to reduce firearm violence: A meta-analysis. Crime &
Delinquency, vol. 58, no. 2, pp. 222-244. http://cad.sagepub.com/content/58/2/222
• Meisner, Christian A. et al. (2012). Interview and interrogation methods and their effects
on true and false confessions. http://campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/147/
• Patterson, George T., Irene W. Chung & Philip G. Swan (2012). The effects of stress
management interventions among police officers and recruits.
http://campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/150/
• Telep, Cody W. & David Weisburd (2012). What is Known About the Effectiveness of
Police Practices in Reducing Crime and Disorder? Police Quarterly, Vol.15, no. 4, pp.
331-357. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1098611112447611
• Welsh, Brandon C., Anthony M. Braga & Meghan E. Hollis-Peel (2012). Can disciplined
passion” overcome the cynical view?: An empirical inquiry of evaluator influence on
police crime prevention program outcomes. Journal of Experimental Criminology, vol. 8,
pp. 415-431.
http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/396/art%253A10.1007%252Fs11292-012-9153-
0.pdf?auth66=1413974146_aa05cbe747f7691bc3785585a72c0721&ext=.pdf
• Karn, Jacqui (2013). Policing and crime reduction: The evidence and its implications for
practice. http://www.police-foundation.org.uk/uploads/catalogerfiles/policing-and-crime-
reduction/police-foundation-police-effectiveness-report.pdf
• Onrust, Simone & Lotte Voorham (2013). Vier politiestrategieën tegen veel voorkomende
Criminaliteit: Effectiviteit en werkzame mechanismen.
https://repository.tudelft.nl/view/wodc/uuid:3eca1ef8-fc8b-4a9a-8c42-1e0bfae8431a/
• Mazerolle, Lorraine et al. (2013). Legitimacy in policing: A systematic review.
http://campbellcollaboration.org/lib/project/141/
• Bergen G., Pitan A., Qu S., Shults R., Chattopadhyay S., Elder R., Sleet D., Coleman H.,
Compton R., Nichols J., Clymer J., Calvert W., and CPSTF (2014). Publicized Sobriety
Checkpoint Programmes: A Community Guide Systematic Review, American Journal of

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Preventive Medicine, vol. 46, no. 5, pp. 529-539.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0749379714000506
• Bowers, Kate, Lisa Tompson & Shane D. Johnson (2014). Implementing Information
Science in Policing: Mapping the Evidence Base. Policing, 30 December, pp. 1-14.
https://academic.oup.com/policing/article/8/4/339/1564336/Implementing-Information-
Science-in-Policing
• Braga, Anthony A. et al. (2014). The growth of randomized experiments in policing: The
vital few and the salience of mentoring. Journal of Experimental Criminology, vol. 10,
pp. 1-28. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs11292-013-9183-2#page-1
• Braga, A. A., Andrew V. Papachristos & David M. Hureau (2014). The effects of hot
spots policing on crime: An updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Justice
Quarterly, vol. 31, no. 4 pp., 633–663. http://www.worldcat.org/title/effects-of-hot-spots-
policing-on-crime-an-updated-systematic-review-and-meta-analysis/oclc/882935346
• Gill, Charlotte, David Weisburd, Cody W. Telep, Zoe Vitter, &Trevor Bennett (2014).
Community-oriented policing to reduce crime, disorder and fear and increase satisfaction
and legitimacy among citizens: A systematic review. Journal of Experimental
Criminology, vol. 10, pp. 399–428.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272011608_Community-
oriented_policing_to_reduce_crime_disorder_and_fear_and_increase_satisfaction_and_le
gitimacy_among_citizens_a_systematic_review
• Lytle, D. J. (2014). The effects of suspect characteristics: A meta-analysis. Journal of
Criminal Justice, vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 589–597.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235214000890
• Weisburd, David & Cody W. Telep (2014). Hot spots policing: What we know and what
we need to know. Journal of Contemporary Criminal Justice, Vol. 30, pp. 200–220.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1043986214525083
• Leshner, Alan I. et al. (2014). Priorities for research to reduce the threat of firearm-
related violence. http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=18319
• Braga, Anthony A. & David Weisburd (2015). Focused deterrence and the prevention of
violent gun injuries: Practice, theoretical principles, and scientific evidence. Annual
Review of Public Health, vol. 36, pp. 55–68.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25494051
• Braga, Anthony A., Brandon C. Welsh & Cory Schnell (2015). Can policing disorder
reduce crime? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Research in Crime and
Delinquency, vol. 52, pp. 567–588.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0022427815576576
• MacDowall, Almuth et al. (2015). Promoting ethical behaviour and preventing
wrongdoing in organisations A rapid evidence assessment.
http://pi.aic.gov.au/resources/promoting-ethical-behaviour-and-preventing-wrongdoing-
organisations-rapid-evidence
• Nordberg, A., Crawford, M., Praetorius, R., and Smith Hatcher, S. (2015). Exploring
minority youths’ police encounters: A qualitative interpretive meta-synthesis. Child and
Adolescent Social Work Journal, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 137–149.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10560-015-0415-3
• Ariel, Barak et al. (2016). Report: increases in police use of force in the presence of
body-worn cameras are driven by officer discretion: a protocol-based subgroup analysis
of ten randomized experiments. Journal of Quantitative Criminology, vol. 12, no. 3,
September, pp. 453-463.
• Lee, Yongjei, John Eck & Nicholas Corsaro (2016). Conclusions from the history of
research into the effects of police force size on crime—1968 through 2013: a historical

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systematic review. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007%2Fs11292-016-9269-
8.pdf
• Raby, C. & Jones, F. (2016). Identifying risks for male street gang affiliation: A
systematic review and narrative synthesis. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry & Psychology,
vol. 27, no. 5, pp. 601-644.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14789949.2016.1195005?journalCode=rjf
p20
• Atkinson, Colin, Simon Mackenzie & Niall Hamilton-Smith (2017). A systematic review
of the effectiveness of asset-focussed interventions against organized crime.
http://whatworks.college.police.uk/Research/Systematic_Review_Series/Documents/Org
anised_crime_SR.pdf
• Bullock, Karen et al. (2017). The police service, diversity and organizational outcomes:
A report of a systematic review.
http://whatworks.college.police.uk/Research/Systematic_Review_Series/Documents/Div
ersity_SR.pdf
• Fyfe, Nicholas R. (Ed.) (2017). Policing 2026 Evidence Review: Prepared by the Scottish
Institute for Policing Research.
http://www.sipr.ac.uk/downloads/Policing_2026_Evidence_Review.pdf
• Higginson, Angela, Elizabeth Eggins & Lorraine Mazzerole (2017). Police techniques for
investigating serious violent crime: A systematic review. Canberra: Australian Institute of
Criminology. http://www.aic.gov.au/media_library/publications/tandi_pdf/tandi539.pdf
• Hunter, Gillian, Tiggey May & Mike Hough (2017). An Evaluation of the ‘What Works
Centre for Crime Reduction’: Final report.
http://whatworks.college.police.uk/About/Documents/WWCEvaluation_Year_1.pdf
• Lindon, Giles & Stephen Roe (2017). Deaths in police custody: A review of the
international evidence. London: Home Office.
https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_
data/file/655710/Deaths_in_police_custody_A_review_of_the_international_evidence.pd
f
• Neyroud, Peter William (2017). Learning to Field Test in Policing: Using an analysis of
completed randomized controlled trials involving the police to develop a grounded theory
on the factors contributing to high levels of treatment integrity in Police Field
Experiments. Cambridge: University of Cambridge, Wolfson College. Dissertation
submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy.
https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/268177?show=full
• Telep, Cody W. & Logan J. Somers (2017). Examining police officer definitions of
evidence-based policing: are we speaking the same language? Policing and Society, An
International Journal of Research and Policy, 8 September, 18 pp.
http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10439463.2017.1373775
• Weisburd, David & Malay K. Majimundar (Eds.) (2017). Proactive Policing: Effects on
Crime and Communities. Washington, DC: National Academies of Sciences, Engineering,
Medicine. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/24928/proactive-policing-effects-on-crime-and-
communities
• Braga, Anthony A., David L. Weisburd & Brandon Turchan (2018). Focused Deterrence
Strategies and Crime Control: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of the
Empirical Evidence. Criminology & Public Policy, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 1-46.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1745-9133.12353/full
• Brown, Jennifer et al. (2018). Extending the remit of evidence-based policing.
International Journal of Police Science & Management, vol. 20, no. 1, pp. 38-51.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/1461355717750173

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• Colover, Sarah & Paul Quinton (2018). Neighbourhood policing: Impact and
implementation, summary finding from a rapid evidence assessment. Ryton-on-
Dunsmore: College of Policing. http://www.college.police.uk/What-we-
do/Support/Guidelines/Neighbourhood-
Policing/Documents/Neighbourhood_policing_impact_and_implementation.pdf
• Dowling, Christopher, Anthony Morgan, Chloe Boyd & Isabella Voce (2018). Policing
domestic violence: A review of the evidence. Canberra: Australian Institute of
Criminology. https://aic.gov.au/publications/rr/rr13
• Janssens, Kim M.E., Peter G. van der Velden, Ruben Taris & Marc J. P. M. van
Veldhoven (2018). Resilience Among Police Officers: a Critical Systematic Review of
Used Concepts, Measures, and Predictive Values of Resilience. Journal of Police and
Criminal Psychology, pp. 1-17. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11896-018-
9298-5
• Koshnood, Ardavan (2018). Firearm-related violence in Sweden: A systematic review.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, vol. 42, pp. 43-51.
https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178918301022
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine (2018). Getting to zero-
impaired driving fatalities: A comprehensive approach to a persistent problem.
Washington, DC: National Academies Press. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/24951/getting-
to-zero-alcohol-impaired-driving-fatalities-a-comprehensive-approach
• Sanchez-Ramirez, D.C. &, Voaklander, D. (2018). The impact of policies regulating
alcohol trading hours and days on specific alcohol-related harms: A systematic review
Injury Prevention, vol. 24, no. 1, pp. 94-100.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/28647704
• Savona, Ernesto, Francesco Calderoni, Elisa Superchi, Tommaso Comunale, Gian Maria
Campedelli, Martina Marchesi, & Alexander Kamprad (2018). Systematic review of the
social, psychological and economic factors relating to criminalisation and recruitment to
organized crime. https://www.projectproton.eu/wp-
content/uploads/2018/01/D1.1_Report-on-factors-relating-to-OC_rev.pdf
• Schucan Bird, Karen, Carol Vigurs & Katie Quy (2018). Police pre-arrest diversion of
people with mental health issues: A systematic review of the impacts of crime and mental
health. Ryton-on-Dunsmore: College of Policing.
http://whatworks.college.police.uk/Research/Systematic_Review_Series/Documents/Men
talHealth_SR.pdf
• Vigurs, Carol & Katie Quy (2018). Police responses to people with mental health needs:
A systematic map of the literature. Ryton-on-Dunsmore: College of Policing.
http://whatworks.college.police.uk/Research/Systematic_Review_Series/Documents/Men
tal_Health_systematic_map.pdf
• Wilson, David B., Iain Brennan & Ajima Olaghere (June 2018). Police-initiated
diversion for youth to prevent future delinquent behavior: A systematic review.
https://campbellcollaboration.org/library/police-initiated-diversion-to-prevent-future-
delinquent-behaviour.html
• Birch, Philip & Erin Cox (2019). Immediate responses by service providers after a
violent critical incident: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, vol. 46,
pp. 8-14.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/330395830_Immediate_responses_by_service_
providers_after_a_violent_critical_incident_A_systematic_review
• Braga, Anthony A., Brandon Turchan, Andrew V. Papachristos & David M. Hureau
(September 2019). Hot spots policing of small geographic areas effects on

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crime. Campbell Systematic Reviews, vol. 15, no. 3, September, pp. 1-
88. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cl2.1046
• Braga, Anthony A., Rod K. Brunson, & Kevin M. Drakulich (July 2019). Place, and
Effective Policing. Annual Review of Sociology, vol. 45, pp. 535-555.
https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-soc-073018-022541
• Braga, Anthony A., Brandon C. Welsh & Cory Schnell (2019). Disorder policing to
reduce crime: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, vol. 15, no. 3,
September, pp. 1-38. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cl2.1050
• Braga, Anthony M., David Weisburd & Brandon Turchan (September 2019). Focused
deterrence strategies effects on crime: A systematic review. Campbell Systematic
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• Frualdo, Nick (2019). A systematic review of factors leading to recruitment into
organized crime. Milano: UNIVERSITÀ CATTOLICA DEL SACRO CUORE, Facoltà
di Scienze Politiche e Sociali Corso di Laurea in Politiche Pubbliche.
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eading_to_recruitment_into_organized_crime
• Klerks, Peter & Jaap de Waard (mei 2019). Kennisinventarisatie extreem geweld en
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em_geweld_en_criminele_vuurwapenhandel
• Lum, Cynthia M. , Megan Stoltz, Christopher S. Koper & J. Amber Scherer (2019).
Research on body-worn cameras: What we know, what we need to know. Criminology &
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2020-2022
• Belur, Jyoti, Winifred Agnew-Pauley, Brendan McGinley & Lisa Tompson (April 2020).
A Systematic Review of Police Recruit Training Programmes. Policing: A Journal of
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• Braga, Anthony A & David Weisburd (November 2020). Does Hot Spots Policing Have
Meaningful Impacts on Crime? Findings from An Alternative Approach to Estimating
Effect Sizes from Place-Based Program Evaluations. Journal of Quantitative
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09481-7
• Carthy, Sarah L, Colm B. Doody, Katie Cox, Denis O´Hora & Kiran M. Sarma
(September 2020). Counter‐narratives for the prevention of violent radicalisation: A

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systematic review of targeted interventions. Campbell Systematic Reviews, vol. 16, no. 3,
September, pp. 1-37. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cl2.1106
• Cordner, Gary (May 2020). Evidence based policing in 45 small bytes. Washington, DC:
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review. Campbell Systematic Reviews, vol. 16, no. 3, September, 40
pp. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cl2.1112

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• Mazerolle, Lorraine, Elizabeth Eggins, Adrian Cherney, Lorelei Hine, Angela Higginson
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• Payne, Jason, Matthew Manning, Christopher Fleming & Hien-Thuc Pham (October
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pp. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi606
• Sherman, Lawrence W. (2020). Evidence-Based Policing and Fatal Police Shootings:
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10. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0047235220302543
• Bright, David & Simone Deegan (March 2021). The organisational structure, social
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pp. https://www.aic.gov.au/publications/tandi/tandi621
• Cartwright, Ashley & Jason Roach (October 2021). A price paid?: A review of the
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• Critchfield, Emily, Andy Myhill & Anika Ludwig (November 2021). Recognising and
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• Critchfield, Emily, Hannah Kennedy & Andy Myhill (November 2021). Recognising
and responding to vulnerability-related risks, Evidence review part two: Frontline
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responding-vulnerability-related-risks-Evidence-review-part-2.pdf
• Dau, Philipp M., Christophe Vandeviver, Maite Dewinter, Frank Witlox & Tom Vander
Beken (November 2021). Policing Directions: A Systematic Review on the Effectiveness
of Police Presence. European Journal on Criminal Policy and Research, 12 November pp.
1-35. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10610-021-09500-8

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• Enang, Iniobong, Jennifer Murray, Nadine Dougall, Elizabeth Aston, Andrew Wooff,
Inga Heyman & Graeme Grandison (May 2021). Vulnerability assessment across the
frontline of law enforcement and public health: A systematic review. Policing and
Society, An International Journal of Research and Policy, 31 May, pp. 1-
18. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10439463.2021.1927025
• Higgins, Andy (August 2021). Police in place: Why the police need to reconnect locally.
London: The Police Foundation, 10 pp. https://www.police-foundation.org.uk/2017/wp-
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• Magny, Obed & Natalie Todak (July 2021). Emotional intelligence in policing: A state-
of-the-art review. Policing: An International Journal, 7 July, pp. 1-
13. https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/PIJPSM-01-2021-
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• Maskaly John, Sanja Kutnjak Ivkovic & Peter Neyroud (June 2021). Policing the
COVID-19 Pandemic: Exploratory Study of the Types of Organizational Changes and
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20. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/10575677211012807
• Mazerolle, Lorraine, Adrian Cherney, Elizabeth Eggins, Lorelei Hine & Angela
Higginson (May 2021). Multiagency programs with police as a partner for reducing
radicalisation to violence Multiagency programs with police as a partner for reducing
radicalisation to violence. Campbell Systematic Reviews, vol. 17, no. 2, June, pp. 1-
88. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cl2.1162
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2021 (August
2021). Policing to Promote the Rule of Law and Protect the Population: An Evidence-
based Approach. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 96
pp. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/26217/policing-to-promote-the-rule-of-law-and-protect-
the-population
• Steden, Ronald van, Rosanne Anholt & Rein Koetsier (februari 2021). De kracht van
gebiedsgebonden politiewerk: Een internationale literatuurstudie. Den Haag: Politie
Nederland. https://nscr.nl/app/uploads/2021/03/VanSteden-Anholt-Koetsier-2021-De-
kracht-van-GGP.pdf
• Yesberg, Julia Anne & ben Bradford (July 2021). Policing and collective efficacy: A
rapid evidence assessment. International Journal of Police Science & Management, vol.
23, no. 4, July, pp. 417-
430. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/14613557211026938
• Belur, Jyoti, Helen Glasspoole-Bird, Clare Bentall & Julian Laufs (May 2022). What do
we know about blended learning to inform police education? A rapid evidence
assessment. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal, 16 May, pp. 1-
22. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15614263.2022.2073230
• Blesse, Sebastian & André Diegman (March 2022). The place-based effects of police
stations on crime: Evidence from station closures. Journal of Public Economics, vol. 207,
March, pp. 1-19. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S004727272200007X
• Browne, K.D., K. Green, S. Jareno-Ripoll & E. Paddock (August 2022). Knife crime
offender characteristics and interventions: A systematic review. Aggression and Violent
Behavior, 1 August, pp
49. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178922000556
• Calderoni, Francesco, Tommaso Comunale, Gian Maria Campedelli, Martina Marchesi,
Deborah Manzi & Niccolò Frualdo (March 2022). Organized crime groups: A systematic
review of individual-level risk factors related to recruitment. Campbell Systematic
Reviews, vol. 18, no. 1, March, pp. 1-
87. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/cl2.1218

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• Dalton, Charlotte T., Sophie Barrett, Miranda A. H. Horvath & Kari Davies (June 2022).
A Systematic Literature Review of Specialist Policing of Rape and Serious Sexual
Offences. International Criminology, 23 June, pp. 1-
23. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s43576-022-00062-1fradical
• Dau, Philipp M., Frank Witlox, Tom Vander Beken & Christophe Vandeviver (August
2022). How Concentrated Are Police on Crime? a Spatiotemporal Analysis of the
Concentration of Police Presence and Crime. Cambridge Journal of Evidence-Based
Policing, 5 August, pp. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41887-022-00079-6
• Guittet, Emmanual-Pierre, Niovi Vavoula, Anastassia Tsoukalad & Monika Baylis (May
2022). Democratic oversight of the police. Brussels: European Parliament, Policy
Department for Citizens’ Rights and Constitutional Affairs, 71
pp. https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2022/703590/IPOL_STU(202
2)703590_EN.pdf
• Jiao, Allan T. (July 2022). Policing gun crimes: A comprehensive review of strategies
and effectiveness. The Police Journal: Theory, Practice and Principles, 6 July, pp. 1-
17. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10.1177/0032258X221113454
• Krishnan, Nishant, Lisa M. B. Steene, Michael Lewis, David Marshall & Jane L. Ireland
(July 2022). A Systematic Review of Risk Factors Implicated in the Suicide of Police
Officers. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 26 July, pp. 1-
13. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11896-022-09539-1
• Moreton, Karen, Jenny Kodz, Helen Fitzhugh, Jitka Smith & Ella White (April 2022).
Effective supervision: Rapid evidence assessment. London: College of Policing, 123 pp.
https://assets.college.police.uk/s3fs-public/2022-04/Effective-supervision-rapid-
evidence-assessment.pdf
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (May 2022). Policies and
Practices to Minimize Police Use of Force Internationally. Washington, DC: The
National Academies Press, 68
pp. https://nap.nationalacademies.org/catalog/26582/policies-and-practices-to-minimize-
police-use-of-force-internationally
• National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine (February 2022). Police
Training to Promote the Rule of Law and Protect the Population. Washington, DC: The
National Academies Press, 87 pp. https://www.nap.edu/catalog/26467/police-training-to-
promote-the-rule-of-law-and-protect-the-population
• Piza, Eric L. & Brandon C. Welsh (May 2022). Evidence-Based Policing Is Here to Stay:
Innovative Research, Meaningful Practice, and Global Reach. Cambridge Journal of
Evidence Based Policing, 24 May, pp. 1-
12. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s41887-022-00074-x
• Rabbing, Lillis, Brita Bjørkelo, Knut Inge Fostervold, Hilde Strømme & Bjørn Lau
(February 2022). A Scoping Review of Stress Measurements and Psychometry in Police
Research. Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology, 23 February, pp. 1-
26. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11896-022-09498-7
• Ruitenberg, Teun van & Stijn de Ruiter (October 2022). The adoption of a crime harm
index: A scoping literature review. Police Practice and Research: An International
Journal, 8 October, pp. 1-23.
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/15614263.2022.2125873
• Sheppard, Keller G. & Brandon C. Welsh (April 2022). Can police use of less-than-lethal
weapons reduce harm during violent police-citizen encounters? A systematic review and
directions for future research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 30 April, pp. 1-
10. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1359178922000295

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• Simmons, Sarah M., Jeff K. Caird, Frances Sterzer & Mark Asbridge (July 2022). The
effects of cannabis and alcohol on driving performance and driver behaviour: A
systematic review and meta-analysis. Addiction, vol. 117, no. 7, July, pp. 1843-1856.
• Struyf, Pia (September 2022). To Report or Not to Report? A Systematic Review of Sex
Workers’ Willingness to Report Violence and Victimization to Police. Trauma, Violence,
& Abuse, 26 September, pp. 1-
134. https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/15248380221122819
• Waard, Jaap de (mei 2022). Georganiseerde Misdaad Kennisparels 2020-2022: Een
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pp. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359236763_Politiekennisparels_2020-
2022_Een_overzicht_van_op_evidentie_gebaseerd_politiewerk

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Effective criminal justice interventions
In 1974, Robert Martinson wrote 'Nothing Works' in a classic contribution to Public Interest. He
meant that nothing works as regards preventing reoffending and reducing recidivism. This sombre
conclusion determined criminal justice intervention policy for many years. In the past ten years,
however, the notion of rehabilitation has been revived. The knowledge domain of effective
interventions and measures aimed at preventing reoffending and reducing recidivism has expanded
substantially in recent years. A container of various interventions now exists: from training in social
skills to discipline camps, group coaching and controlling one's feelings.
An analysis of all the available meta evaluations paints the following picture. Some criminal justice
interventions have negative effects. This means more reoffending. This seems to occur in
conjunction with what are known as 'scared straight programmes' and boot camps / discipline
camps. Some interventions also produce better than average results, with sometimes a 60%
improvement as regards reoffending. Effective interventions include child raising support, cognitive
behavioural therapy, employment guidance and mentoring programmes.
If you take everything into account it appears that, on average, there is a 12% improvement in the
case of the assisted group in comparison to the non-assisted group. Therefore, on average, criminal
justice interventions prevent one in eight cases of reoffending. This is a small, but certainly not
negligible effect. The key question is why is there so much variation in reoffending between all the
different interventions (from a 40% deterioration to a 60% improvement).
Key characteristics of effective criminal justice interventions
The available knowledge reveals that a number of characteristics can be identified which determine
the level of effectiveness (read: reduction in reoffending) of criminal justice interventions. The
effect declines as the intervention gets more removed from the concrete behaviour and the
conditions in which that behaviour occurs. Of course, delinquent behaviour is personal.
Nevertheless, the behaviour is often reinforced by the social context, which is often conducive to
crime. If that social context is ignored, it will be more likely that the intended effects will not be

32
achieved. The effectiveness of interventions is determined to a considerable degree by the way in
which they acquire form in (difficult) practical situations. Important factors are then the duration of
the intervention, the quality and enthusiasm of the practitioner and the effectiveness of the
implementation. Lastly, effective criminal justice interventions cost money. Only high-quality and
intensive approaches produce results. A considerable personal effort also has to be made during the
execution of the intervention.
Published synthesis studies relating to criminal justice interventions
2002 - 2007
• Kirchmayer, Ursula, Marina Davoli, Annette D. Verster, Laura Amato, Arica Ferri, and
Carlo A. Perucci (2002). A systematic review on the efficacy of naltrexone maintenance
treatment in opioid dependence. Addiction, vol. 97, pp. 1241–1249.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1046/j.1360-0443.2002.00217.x/abstract
• Mytton, Julie A. et al. (2002). School-based violence prevention programs: Systematic
review of secondary prevention trials. Archives of Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine,
vol. 156, pp. 752–762. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/12144364
• Pearson, Frank S., Douglas S. Lipton, Charles M. Cleland, & Dorline S. Yee (2002).The
effects of behavioral/cognitive-behavioral programs on recidivism. Crime &
Delinquency, Vol. 48, pp. 476–496.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/001112870204800306
• Adams, K. (2003). 'The Effectiveness of Juvenile Curfews at Crime Prevention', The
ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, vol. 587, pp. 136-
159. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0002716202250944
• Farrington, David P. & Brandon C. Welsh (2003). Family-based prevention of offending:
A meta-analysis. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Criminology, 36: 127–151.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1375/acri.36.2.127
• Dowden, Craig, Daniel Antonowicz, & D. A. Andrews.( 2003). The effectiveness of
relapse prevention with offenders: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Offender
Therapy and Comparative Criminology, vol. 47, pp. 516–528.
http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0306624X03253018
• Lösel, F. & A. Beelmann (2003). 'Effects of Child Skills Training in Preventing
Antisocial Behavior: A Systematic Review of Randomized Evaluations', Annals AAAPS,
vol. 587, pp. 84-109. http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0002716202250793
• Chappell, Cathryn A. (2004). Post-secondary correctional education and recidivism: A
meta-analysis of research conducted 1990-1999. Journal of Correctional Education, vol.
55, pp 148–169. http://www.antoniocasella.eu/nume/Chappel_2004.pdf
• Curtis, Nicola M., Kevin R. Ronan, & Charles M. Borduin (2004). Multisystemic
treatment: A meta-analysis of outcome studies. Journal of Family Psychology, vol. 18,
pp. 411-419. http://www.bvs.is/files/file281.pdf
• Petrosino, Anthony et al. (2004). ‘Scared straight’ and other juvenile awareness
programmes for preventing juvenile delinquency.
http://www.campbellcollaboration.org/doc-pdf/ssrpm.pdf
• Ditter, Susan M., et al. (2005). Effectiveness of designated driver programs for reducing
alcohol-impaired driving: A systematic review. American Journal of Preventive
Medicine, vol. 28, pp. 280–287.
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.444.2389&rep=rep1&type=pdf
• Feder, Lynette & David B. Wilson (2005). A meta-analytic review of court-mandated
batterer intervention programs: Can courts affect abusers’ behavior? Journal of

33
Experimental Criminology, vol. 1, pp. 239–262.
http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.620.6256&rep=rep1&type=pdf
• Holloway, Kathy, Trevor Bennett & David P. Farrington (2005). The effectiveness of
criminal justice and treatment programmes in reducing drug related crime: A systematic
review. http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds/pdfs05/rdsolr2605.pdf
• Karoly, L.N., M.R. Kilburn & J.S. Cannon (2005). Early childhood interventions: proven
results, future promise. http://www.rand.org/pubs/monographs/2005/RAND_MG341.pdf
• Klein Haarhuis C.M. et al. (2005). Kennis voor beleid: Een synthese van 58
(evaluatie)onderzoeken op het gebied van de rechtshandhaving.
http://www.wodc.nl/onderzoeksdatabase/kennis-voor-beleid-een-synthese-van-58-
onderzoeken-op-het-gebied-van-rechtshandhaving.aspx
• Landenberger, Nana A. & Mark W. Lipsey (2005). The positive effects of cognitive–
behavioral programs for offenders: A meta-analysis of factors associated with effective
treatment. Journal of Experimental Criminology, vol. 1, pp. 451–476.
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In conclusion
On the basis of the above, there is reason for moderate optimism about what works as regards
tackling crime and reducing reoffending. A key characteristic of effective policy is that it is specific
and concentrated: selection and focus are the most important features. A policy that is too general
and based heavily on a 'probable idea' is not effective. The effectiveness of all manner of
interventions is determined to a considerable degree by the way in which they acquire form in
(difficult) practical situations. Dealing with people correctly and the proper personal treatment of
perpetrators and (potential) victims seem to be crucial for the success of interventions. Taking
measures which limit the opportunity structure (situational crime prevention) to commit crimes
appears to be more effective than using an exclusive perpetrator-oriented approach. Lastly, there is
a lot of evidence that situational crime prevention is effective. However, the large-scale national
application of these effective measures seems to be difficult to get off the ground. Within the
various intervention domains there is still room for improvement. This can be achieved by, for
example, learning lessons from the evidence that criminological science has generated in recent
years.
Putting knowledge into practice
I hope to have shown that there exists an overwhelming ’evidence of knowledge’ and ’recipes’ in
our criminal justice system for evidence based criminal justice policies. Or even better:
prescriptions that help to avoid policies that are probably not cost-effective. I have further pointed
the key aspects of evidence based criminal justice policies in the fields of situational crime
prevention, policing and criminal justice interventions. It would seem logical that I would be
optimistic about the efforts to give a firmer scientific basis for the criminal justice policy.
However, it is clear that in order to succeed you have ‘to swim upriver’. Only with a lot of effort
the gap between the scientific and policy arena can be breached. This asks a lot from the scientific
community, that is not seldom not well understood when presenting technical exposés in not very
accessible publications. Continuing efforts are necessary to bring the scientific findings in the
public debate. On the other side some see an advance of managers in the field of criminal policy

65
and the administration of services, with no connection to or interest in the content of that policy.
This would lead to widening the gap with the scientific community. But even managers are
geared to the ‘delivering of results’, which can provide for the connection with an evidence based
thinking. In this I (Jaap de Waard) will continue to play a role, as ‘knowledge activist’ to apply
evidence based knowledge into criminal justice policies. Sometimes you succeed in this task and
sometimes you do not.