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The benefits and implementation of performance transparency: The why and how of letting your customers ‘see through’ your business
Abstract
While some organizations swear by the benefits of transparency and are eager to learn and implement transparency practices, many managers are still reluctant or even afraid to use them. Our research reveals that only a few innovative companies have taken steps to leverage a potentially useful form of transparency: the provision of accessible and objective information to customers (e.g., sharing unbiased benchmark data, publishing unfiltered customer comments, or providing candid product reviews that may praise but also criticize the company's products). Our study also shows that many companies remain wary and view greater calls for transparency as a challenge to be managed rather than an opportunity to be traded upon. This is partly due to limited research into the performance benefits of giving customers access to objective information, and lack of practical guidelines on how to actually implement it. This article addresses these shortcomings. First, we investigate whether performance transparency leads to customer outcomes that can be profitable for an organization and, second, we analyze the characteristics of successful transparency initiatives in a wide range of industries. Our research shows that customers exhibit more trust and are willing to pay a premium to deal with transparent businesses. Also, it uncovers seven effective strategies to leverage transparency. This article provides convincing empirical evidence for the benefits of performance transparency and the ways in which management may implement it successfully.
... Transparency is defined as the open flow of information amongst stakeholders to decrease information asymmetry (Holzner & Holzner, 2006). When service systems are disrupted, transparency contributes to greater perceived organizational credibility, policy predictability, perceived employee effort, service quality, and positive behavioural intentions (Merlo et al., 2018). For instance, during SMDs tourism firms should be open about the potential risks and problems related to compensations. ...
... Signalling theory suggests that transparency is a strong signal of a firm's goodwill (Merlo et al., 2018). However, during service disruptions, there are concerns that transparency can raise uncertainty and have legal consequences (Seeger, 2006). ...
... Information should be carefully balanced in terms of quality and quantity to facilitate an effective risk assessment (Bethune et al., 2022). Customers should feel empowered and share responsibility in the VCC process by establishing an appropriate level of expectations, building trustworthy relationships, and decreasing an overestimation of costs in comparison to benefits (Merlo et al., 2018). The use of simple language and targeted personalized messages based on the actors' level of risk and efficiency are necessary for effective risk assessment, resulting in an increased willingness to exchange (Liu-Lastres et al., 2019). ...
... Store information transparency is a marketing tactic that aims to improve customer experience with a retailer (Liu et al., 2015) and provide customers with accurate and honest information about a retailer offering such as products, services, promotions, and prices. The sharing of information is active and intentional, and all information is accessible and objective (Merlo et al., 2018). ...
... The willingness of a retailer to share objective information about its offerings or make all relating information accessible signals to the customers that the retailer has nothing to hide (Hennig-Thurau et al., 2010). Information transparency can simplify a customer's decision-making process (Merlo et al., 2018), leads to favorable customer outcomes (Liu et al., 2015), and fosters the customer-retailer relationship (Waddock, 2004). Store information transparency signals a retailer's goodwill, providing customers with benefits and reducing their anxiety and risk perception (Gwinner et al., 1998;Liu et al., 2015). ...
... This explains why customers will exert more effort to maintain a relationship with a retailer in the Vietnamese retail industry that shares their cultural norms. Store information transparency is critical to customer satisfaction (Merlo et al., 2018). When customers have more knowledge about a retailer's offering, they can form a more reasonable expectation because customer satisfaction is the result of what the customer hopes for and expects from an appealing product and/or service or exchange relationship (Ndubisi & Nataraajan, 2018). ...
Understanding the factors that contribute to store brand equity in the Vietnamese retailing industry is important. This study expands the “stimuli” components in the stimuli–organism-response (S-O-R) framework by considering the role of store information transparency and examining its contribution to store brand equity as an indirect “response” through relationship quality (trust, commitment, and satisfaction) and as the “organism” in the Vietnamese retailing setting. Quantitative research was conducted with a sample of 465 retail customers collected by the Ho Chi Minh City Statistical Office, Vietnam. Structural equation modeling was used to test the research hypotheses, and the results confirmed access convenience, store information transparency, and preferential treatment as the stimuli while relationship quality was the organism and store brand equity was the response. In a developing country such as Vietnam, store information transparency is important. Specifically, the dedication-constraint mechanisms based on social exchange theory together with the cultural norms of Vietnam’s Confucian culture create a locked-in effect for the customer in the relationship with a retailer and resulted in high store brand equity. These findings offer insight into brand management literature and provide theoretical and managerial implications to increase the value of store brand equity in the Vietnamese retail industry.
... Based on that approach, the organizational perspective was developed as it includes the degree of visibility and accessibility of information provided by a company (Wilkin 2009). Such actions cover the intentional sharing of information that is usually not shared (Merlo et al. 2018). To make this process effective, information accessibility and clarity is required (Mittal 1999) aimed at lowering the level of uncertainty experienced by the various stakeholders (Ziamou and Ratneshwar 2002). ...
... As a result, transparency is treated as a challenge to be managed within different areas-starting from the specific mindset, where revealing sensitive strategic information is included in the communication process where the key stakeholders are involved (Merlo et al. 2018). Therefore, as the conceptualization of transparency is perceived as the internal or external visibility of information about an organization's strategy (Chesbrough and Appleyard 2007), our transparency dimension includes two core constructs-information content and communication process, which are further explored. ...
Recent trends in strategic management and the strategy-as-practice stream of research have led to a proliferation of studies on open strategy. However, there is a general lack of research focused on valid and reliable measures of open strategy. In this paper, we developed and validated the open strategy scale to measure open strategy constructs derived from two dimensions—transparency and inclusion. We used the mixed methods composed in the multi-phase model of scale development. As a result, we have proposed a multi-item scale to measure the strategy openness. Our results demonstrate the validity and reliability of the scale proposed. The main implication of this research is that the scale may serve as both—an integrated tool for assessment of the overall level of open strategy development and an instrument for more detailed analysis of constructs to reveal the room for improvement or investigate the effect brought by managerial decisions.
... These studies add internal validity to our results and thus complement the findings from our secondary data analysis. Research (Merlo et al., 2018) has already established that performance transparency has two important elements that can be measured: information accessibility and information objectivity. Liu et al.'s (2015) nine item performance transparency scale is more comprehensive, but a shorter, four item scale, achieves equal validity and reliability. ...
... Given today's proliferation of information technology and social media, customers increasingly demand transparency from firms not only in their CSR initiatives but also beyond such endeavors. Performance transparency captures the extent to which stakeholders can "see through" a company's offerings and obtain information that is not usually shared by it (Merlo et al., 2018). This type of transparency is distinct from the sustainability-reporting transparency present in the bulk of previous studies investigating the transparency-CSR interaction. ...
Customers today are increasingly demanding transparency from firms. This article discusses the concept of performance transparency and explores when and why transparency plays a key role for a firm’s CSR effectiveness. In doing so, it addresses consumer skepticism as the logic of the transparency-CSR interaction and presents empirical evidence of the effect. It also discusses key principles for managing performance transparency effectively. Companies should monitor and track performance transparency regularly, initiate consistent transparency practices along with CSR activities, pay attention to the types of information made available, and adapt the transparency practices to the involvement level.
... We chose to analyse consumer reviews on Trustpilot, a platform widely acknowledged for its comprehensive nature and reliability in providing consumer feedback across various industries (Littlechild 2020). Trustpilot's transparent review process, where both positive and negative consumer experiences are shared publicly, offers a balanced perspective on customer satisfaction and company performance (Merlo et al. 2018). ...
The fashion industry is a significant contributor to global environmental degradation, driving up carbon emissions and resource consumption. Many fashion consumers feel guilt associated with contributing to this damage. While garment repair and alteration services (GRAS) offer a pathway to mitigate these impacts by extending the lifespan of clothing, consumer engagement with these services remains low. This study investigates the state of commercial GRAS in the UK, identifying barriers to consumer participation and their potential role in fostering sustainable behaviour. Through a comprehensive typology of UK GRAS providers and a thematic analysis of customer reviews, we reveal obstacles such as limited repair skills, unclear service information, and gaps in consumer trust. Our findings suggest that bridging these informational and service quality gaps could promote greater use of GRAS, aligning the fashion industry more closely with circular economy principles. In addition, we highlight the potential for GRAS to enhance well‐being by developing consumer's emotional attachment to clothing and positive feelings. These findings underscore the dual benefits of GRAS for environmental sustainability and consumer well‐being, suggesting broader applications for GRAS in shaping more sustainable consumption patterns. Please refer to the Supporting Information section to find this article's community and social impact statement.
... (ChatGPT-4o, accessed July 8, 2024). Given that people deeply appreciate when they receive transparent and helpful information that they can trust [53][54][55][56][57][58][59] and anxiety continues to play a critical role in the context of new technologies [60][61][62][63], we encourage additional research to explore how ChatGPT may share critical information in an engaging and educational way that inspires and enables users [64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75] to help reduce angst in the future. A critical area for future research is to examine the potential long-term psychological effects of LLM usage. ...
Background
In recent years, the adoption of large language model (LLM) applications, such as ChatGPT, has seen a significant surge, particularly among students. These artificial intelligence–driven tools offer unprecedented access to information and conversational assistance, which is reshaping the way students engage with academic content and manage the learning process. Despite the growing prevalence of LLMs and reliance on these technologies, there remains a notable gap in qualitative in-depth research examining the emotional and psychological effects of LLMs on users’ mental well-being.
Objective
In order to address these emerging and critical issues, this study explores the role of LLM-based offerings, such as ChatGPT, in students’ lives, namely, how postgraduate students use such offerings and how they make students feel, and examines the impact on students’ well-being.
Methods
To address the aims of this study, we employed an exploratory approach, using in-depth, semistructured, qualitative, face-to-face interviews with 23 users (13 female and 10 male users; mean age 23 years, SD 1.55 years) of ChatGPT-4o, who were also university students at the time (inclusion criteria). Interviewees were invited to reflect upon how they use ChatGPT, how it makes them feel, and how it may influence their lives.
Results
The current findings from the exploratory qualitative interviews showed that users appreciate the functional support (8/23, 35%), escapism (8/23, 35%), and fantasy fulfillment (7/23, 30%) they receive from LLM-based offerings, such as ChatGPT, but at the same time, such usage is seen as a “double-edged sword,” with respondents indicating anxiety (8/23, 35%), dependence (11/23, 48%), concerns about deskilling (12/23, 52%), and angst or pessimism about the future (11/23, 48%).
Conclusions
This study employed exploratory in-depth interviews to examine how the usage of LLM-based offerings, such as ChatGPT, makes users feel and assess the effects of using LLM-based offerings on mental well-being. The findings of this study show that students used ChatGPT to make their lives easier and felt a sense of cognitive escapism and even fantasy fulfillment, but this came at the cost of feeling anxious and pessimistic about the future.
... In addition, real testimonials from consumers who have used Notpla products could be shared to strengthen trust and credibility and to overcome potential concerns (Merlo et al., 2018). ...
This book deals with current food trends. These case studies were compiled and presented by Master's students at Trier University of Applied Sciences in the Department of Food Technology
... In the social assessment of value chain actors, negative score was obtained for a single performance indicator of "corruption." The authors have the following propositions for further improving the social impacts for value chain actors: (Merlo et al. 2018). The vendors need to be honest about hidden costs (such as transportation costs and material handling costs) and any other service charges. ...
PurposeThe purpose of this study is to understand the social impacts on various stakeholders — consumers, workers, value chain actors, local community, and society — who are directly or indirectly impacted by the construction of land transportation infrastructure. The study further extends to determine the scale of change in these social impacts with the incorporation of circular economy (CE) in the sector.Methods
The study is based on the UNEP-SETAC methodology for social life cycle assessment (S-LCA). Separate questionnaires are designed for each of the stakeholder categories — ensuring assessment for every social impact category. Social impact scores (SICs) are determined for every social impact category for the existing business-as-usual (BaU) scenario for every stakeholder category. Furthermore, to determine the change in social impacts in a circular economy scenario, experts are interviewed to understand and account for the change. The change in social impacts is mapped using a “Potential Circular Impact” formula devised by the authors. Finally, the results are compared based on the scale of social impacts in the BaU and CE scenarios.ResultsIt is observed that in the BaU scenario, the value chain actors have the highest social scores, implying that value chain actors fare well in the selected social impact categories. Furthermore, the consumers have the least social well-being, followed by the local community. In the case of a transition to CE, it is observed that the highest social benefits will be available for consumers, whereas the workers will be least benefited. The results also present the scale of change with the adoption of circular economy with respect to every social impact category, as well as corresponding performance indicators.Conclusion
The study presents a general trend of the potential social trade-offs of implementation of CE in the construction sector. The results can aid construction management and policy makers to design and implement strategies for the welfare of various stakeholders. The research is also of value for accounting social impacts of transitioning to CE.
... For example, if past customers are dissatisfied with a particular product and are advising future customers to avoid that product on specific grounds, such reviews deserve a place on the website for the sake of transparency. Further, such transparency can turn their attitude toward reviews favourable and increase trust in the platform, thus enhancing their subsequent behavioural intentions (Merlo, Eisingerich, Auh, & Levstek, 2018). Moreover, the new customers can judge for themselves whether to trust an overly positive or overly negative review. ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to understand the detailed mechanism through which consumer citizenship behavior gets affected by corporate social responsibility through perceived employee behavior and consumer company identification.
Design/methodology/approach
The study subjects data from cross-sectional survey of 405 retail store consumers to structural equation modeling.
Findings
The results indicate that consumer company identification plays a very crucial role as it mediates the effect of corporate social responsibility and employee behavior on consumer citizenship behavior. In addition, the results also indicate that corporate social responsibility perceptions lead to positive employee behavior.
Originality/value
The study contributes to the literature on consumer citizenship behavior by identifying and filling up two major gaps in the retail outlets' context: (1) the limited empirical investigation of antecedents of consumer citizenship behavior up to third-level (i.e. antecedent of antecedent of antecedent) (2) the lack of clarity on the exact mechanism through which perceived corporate social responsibility influences consumer citizenship behavior, and the role of consumer company identification as a mediator in this relationship.
... In addition, there are shifts in the perception and importance of cyber-bullying and brands are confronted with loud calls to adapt their platforms to facilitate safer online spaces (Bhagwat et al., 2020;Lee, 2021). Brands will be expected to stand up for what they feel is right to be viewed as authentic and transparent (Foscht et al., 2018;Liu et al., 2015Liu et al., , 2022Merlo et al., 2018), both for their values and their talent. Brand heroes may play a positive role in such efforts by ensuring online and offline brand conversations do not become toxic and brands are viewed as more transparent. ...
Purpose
Prior work underscores the important role of customer advocacy for brands. The purpose of this study is to explore the critical role customers can play as brand heroes. The authors developed and validated a measurement scale composed of properties that are derived from distinct brand hero motivational mechanisms.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors conducted one exploratory pilot, using semi-structured interviews, with industry and academic experts, and employed three main studies across varying brands and market settings.
Findings
This study explores and empirically demonstrates how the brand hero scale (BHS) is related to, yet distinct from, existing scales of opinion leaders, market mavens, attachment and customer advocacy. The six-item BHS demonstrates convergent, discriminant, nomological and predictive validity across several different brand contexts.
Research limitations/implications
This research extends the extant body of work by identifying and defining brand heroes, developing and validating a parsimonious BHS, and demonstrating how its predictive validity extends both to a range of key advocacy and loyalty customer behaviors.
Practical implications
The study provides provocative insights for marketing researchers and brand managers and ascertains the important role heroes may play for brands in terms of strong customer advocacy and loyalty behaviors.
Originality/value
Building on the theory of meaning, this study shows that identifying and working with brand heroes is of great managerial importance and offers critical avenues for future research.
... For example, if past customers are dissatisfied with a particular product and are advising future customers to avoid that product on specific grounds, such reviews deserve a place on the website for the sake of transparency. Further, such transparency can turn their attitude toward reviews favourable and increase trust in the platform, thus enhancing their subsequent behavioural intentions (Merlo, Eisingerich, Auh, & Levstek, 2018). Moreover, the new customers can judge for themselves whether to trust an overly positive or overly negative review. ...
This study aims to evaluate the role of gratifications sought from online reviews and perceptions about reviewers in affecting the behavioural intentions (continuance and purchase intentions) in the B2C fashion e-commerce context, using a combination of uses and gratification and source credibility theories. Using a cross-sectional survey of 529 customers, the data was subjected to structural equation modelling. The findings imply that consumers will intend to continue reading reviews as a referral medium and intend to purchase due to the positive effect of seeking advice, convenience, and information from reviews upon attitude toward reviews. However, the risk of receiving product dissimilar to those showcased on e-commerce websites can negatively moderate the association of continuance and purchase intentions with their antecedents. Thus, this study contributes to the existing theoretical knowledge and offers practical insights for managers by focusing on lesser-studied factors that enhance continuance intention to read reviews and purchase intention in fashion e-commerce.
... The findings reveal that the majority of the students agree that universities encourage them to complain when they have problems. Merlo et al., (2018) argue that one of the powerful strategies is for firms to encourage customers to register complaints. Thus, this will enable the firm to understand customer needs and find ways of addressing them. ...
The higher education sector has evolved over the past decade due to the ever-changing needs of students who are its primary customers. As a result, most students have to deal with unmet expectations which subsequently lead to service failure. Even though service failure cannot be eliminated, higher education institutions are expected to provide an effective complaints management system to resolve student problems and service failure incidents. This study analyzed service failure and complaints management in higher education institutions. A quantitative, descriptive, and cross-sectional study was undertaken using 430 full-time students across three public universities in South Africa. The findings of this study showed that students encounter various forms of service failures in institutions of higher learning with the majority experiencing service failures in respect of funding and academic registration. Also, most of the students were generally satisfied with the complaints management system. Thus, this study can help institutional managers to understand service failure incidents confronting the sector. Furthermore, the study provides an opportunity for institutional managers to assess the effectiveness of the complaints management system and make improvements to ensure a better student experience
... After this considerable reduction of 'data asymmetry', customers came to appreciate that blockchain technology enables the desired checks and balances required to create an equal footing for customers and suppliers (Interviews 1,4,5,7,8,11,12). While many service providers fear the effects of giving customers unlimited and transparent access to their data (Merlo, Eisingerich, Auh, & Levstek, 2018), our analysis of Nexo Energy indicates that such customer emancipation does not alienate customers from their supplier (Interviews 2,3,4,7,8,9). Far from it, the result was a feeling of empowerment that strengthens the bond between customer and service provider (Interviews 1,2,4,5,6,7,10,11). ...
Global initiatives on climate protection and national sustainability policies are accelerating the replacement of fossil fuels with renewable energy sources. Many electricity suppliers are engaged in efforts to monetize this transition with ‘green’ services and products, such as Green Electricity Tariffs. These promise customers that their supply includes a specific share of green electricity, yet since electricity suppliers often fail to deliver on those promises, many customers have lost trust in their suppliers. Further information asymmetries may not only exacerbate this loss of trust, but also spark distrust and lead to an overall feeling of ambivalence. Eventually, ambivalent customers may feel inclined to switch suppliers. To prevent this domino effect, electricity suppliers must eliminate ambivalence by increasing customer trust and reducing customer distrust. Here, we discuss how these challenges can be met with a customer loyalty program built on blockchain technology. We developed the program following a Design Science Research approach that facilitated refinement in four iteration and evaluation cycles. Our results indicate that the developed customer loyalty program restores trust, reduces distrust, and resolves customer ambivalence by providing four features: improved customer agency, sufficient and verifiable information, appropriate levels of usability, and unobstructed data access.
... Second, products are mostly non-high-tech, thus enabling customers to provide feasible improvement ideas in their complaints as opposed to more advanced products (Füller, Jawecki, & Mühlbacher, 2007). Third, research has shown that some firms in these industries do leverage customer complaints as a source of information for NPD (Christiansen et al., 2016;Merlo, Eisingerich, Auh, & Levstek, 2018). Despite their high levels of external validity (Berkowitz & Donnerstein, 1982), field experiments are rarely applied in CCM research. ...
Companies often view customer complaints as a nuisance, but such complaints can be of high value to firms. Building on signaling theory and the attention-based view of the firm, this study examines organizational response behavior to customer complaint messages that differ in their value signaled to the firm. In a field experiment, we manipulate whether a complaint message contains ideas for product improvement (versus does not), and whether a long-term customer-firm relationship is indicated (versus first-time relationship). Our results show that companies are less likely to respond to complaints that convey improvement ideas and that are voiced by long-term customers. Companies also exhibit longer response times to complaints that signal improvement ideas. Further, the findings reveal that lower response rates to customer complaints are associated with lower levels of customer satisfaction. This research contributes to the literature on customer complaint management and customer integration by providing implications for managers seeking to utilize complaints as a valuable source of ideas for new product development.
... Sabemos que hay ventajas en los negocios transparentes (Merlo, 2018), ventajas que no se están aprovechando completamente, es por eso mismo que las tecnologías son un paso necesario, para poder sacar al máximo la transparencia y las ventajas que hay, y para eso se requiere un avance en las mismas. ...
La sustentabilidad y la responsabilidad social, han alimentado un comportamiento ético y de valoressociales en las organizaciones económicas, promoviendo el ejercicio de un desarrollo comprometido, sustentable y competitivo. Esta hipótesis conceptual, debe ser estudiada desde distintas aristas, entre ellas a las herramientas de la gobernanza, que permiten planear y tomara decisiones de gestión en las organizaciones. En este trabajo, a partir de un modelo de estudio compuesto por cuatro variables: riesgo, compromiso, conocimiento contable y enfoque ecológico se revisa la percepción y reconocimiento de aspectos socio ambientales en la operación, para implementar un sistema contable socio ambiental de forma proactiva.El marco de estudio fue la teoría institucional, como una forma de entender los cambios culturales en las organizaciones, el estudio se aplicó entre profesionistas contables del estado de Sonora y Sinaloa, México, aplicando un análisis descriptivo y de correlación. Los resultados eliminaron a la variable de conocimiento contable de la génesis del sistema contable socio ambiental, confirmando a las variables de riesgo, compromiso y enfoque ecológico como claves para el sistema.
... For instance, transparency is becoming a more important topic that should be fostered by businesses. As such, according to a study carried out by Merlo et al. (2018), the results show that customers are willing to pay a premium price when they exhibit more trust and are faced with a transparent business. In the case of small and medium scale wineries, excellent owner-customer rapport, and face-to-face friendship enhance the relationship between stakeholders. ...
Today's linear economic model is increasingly problematic. Creating a closed-loop model in production and consumption is a preferred alternative to address environmental and social damages associated with the linear economy. This paper proposes the Ecocanvas as a single tool backed by a methodology for enabling businesses to coherently formulate unique circular value propositions based on a lifecycle perspective. The tool is valuable for rethinking and personalizing sustainability and circular economy by more practically tackling the three dimensions of sustainable development while being adaptable to the organization's context. To a better understanding of the Ecocanvas value, this paper describes the tool's key features and elements through a detailed analysis of small to medium scale winery business models. We contribute to the debate on sustainability and business model literature while providing a practical tool for industry and policymakers transitioning towards a circular model. In addition, this paper contributes to the circular economy body of literature through the development and application of the Ecocanvas that focuses on a holistic approach. As a practical contribution, this study develops and provides a structured, well-researched, and tested tool supported by a methodology that can be used by many stakeholders. Further research could explore the practicality of the Ecocanvas methodology through case studies in different sectors of activities and contexts.
... Communication is the process that delivers ideas, information and attitudes to a diversified and sizable people by means of a medium developed for that purpose (Huang, Liang & Tsai, 2018). Communicating with customers enable the key elements of its service offering (Merlo, Eisingerich, Auh & Levstek, 2018). Leafy vegetable suppliers/ sellers who communicate with their customers normally attempt to persuade the customers' behaviour and consistently remind their customers about the key elements of its service offering. ...
https://jbrmr.com/cdn/article_file/2019-07-02-11-22-20-AM.pdf
Background
Despite extensive research into technology users’ privacy concerns, a critical gap remains in understanding why individuals adopt different standards for data protection across contexts. The rise of advanced technologies such as the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), augmented reality (AR), and big data has created rapidly evolving and complex privacy landscapes. However, privacy is often treated as a static construct, failing to reflect the fluid, context-dependent nature of user concerns. This oversimplification has led to fragmented research, inconsistent findings, and limited capacity to address the nuanced challenges posed by these technologies. Understanding these dynamics is especially crucial in fields such as digital health and informatics, where sensitive data and user trust are central to adoption and ethical innovation.
Objective
This study synthesized existing research on privacy behaviors in emerging technologies, focusing on IoT, AI, AR, and big data. Its primary objectives were to identify the psychological antecedents, outcomes, and theoretical frameworks explaining privacy behavior, and to assess whether insights from traditional online privacy literature, such as e-commerce and social networking, apply to these advanced technologies. It also advocates a context-dependent approach to understanding privacy.
Methods
A systematic review of 179 studies synthesized psychological antecedents, outcomes, and theoretical frameworks related to privacy behaviors in emerging technologies. Following established guidelines and using leading research databases such as ScienceDirect (Elsevier), SAGE, and EBSCO, studies were screened for relevance to privacy behaviors, focus on emerging technologies, and empirical grounding. Methodological details were analyzed to assess the applicability of traditional privacy findings from e-commerce and social networking to today’s advanced technologies.
Results
The systematic review revealed key gaps in the privacy literature on emerging technologies, such as IoT, AI, AR, and big data. Contextual factors, such as data sensitivity, recipient transparency, and transmission principles, were often overlooked, despite their critical role in shaping privacy concerns and behaviors. The findings also showed that theories developed for traditional technologies often fall short in addressing the complexities of modern contexts. By synthesizing psychological antecedents, behavioral outcomes, and theoretical frameworks, this study underscores the need for a context-contingent approach to privacy research.
Conclusions
This study advances understanding of user privacy by emphasizing the critical role of context in data sharing, particularly amid ubiquitous and emerging health technologies. The findings challenge static views of privacy and highlight the need for tailored frameworks that reflect dynamic, context-dependent behaviors. Practical implications include guiding health care providers, policy makers, and technology developers toward context-sensitive strategies that build trust, enhance data protection, and support ethical digital health innovation.
Trial Registration
PROSPERO CRD420251037954; https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/view/CRD420251037954
The purpose of this chapter is to explain the marketing power of social media in branding and brand marketing. The chapter argues that through social media’s power to connect people, consumers enjoy greater contact with not only their reference groups and role models but also the latter’s choice of products and brands. Naturally, this translates into marketing potential especially in the domain of brand marketing, as considerable information on reference groups and their brands is generated and mediated through social media. To illustrate, popular social media sites such as YouTube, WhatsApp, Facebook, and Instagram are used by over 3.6 billion users, globally. Social media facilitates unique networking and communication capabilities, which affords consumers the power to control the flow of information. For instance, consumers can now ‘follow’ their idols, role models, or reference groups more easily through social media. In turn, the social media phenomenon creates numerous marketing opportunities for retailers. Social media allows marketers to understand the decision-making processes of consumers by studying their brand preference as well as the brand communities they belong to and how they interact within those communities. More than ever, social media has enabled people to connect with their role models and reference groups in ways that they have not been able to in the past. Furthermore, the power of artificial intelligence enhances marketers’ power to more directly target consumers’ interactions and preferences on reference groups’ brands. With this information, retailers enhance their ability to more effectively design advertising and marketing communication.
Purpose
Fashion brands, including fast and luxury segments, receive harsh criticism for engaging in unethical practices such as poor working conditions and environmental damage. As a result, fashion supply chains are pressured by stakeholders to publicly disclose internal supply chain performance information and to show a high level of supply chain transparency. This paper compares supply chain transparency in fast and luxury fashion in Europe.
Design/methodology/approach
By applying the maturity curve of fashion supply chain transparency, developed by Muratore and Marques (2022), the websites of 20 fast and 20 luxury fashion brands were analysed and classified as Opaque, Translucent or Transparent.
Findings
Despite its reputation, fast fashion demonstrated higher levels of transparency than luxury fashion. Luxury fashion only performed better in terms of the accessibility of sustainability information. Luxury brands avoided disclosing key transparency information, suggesting that they may be operating in contradiction to that which is inferred on their websites.
Originality/value
The findings of the study shed light on the sustainability credentials of the fashion industry, which has the potential to influence the purchase intentions of consumers, particularly millennials and Generation Z. Implications for practice are developed to highlight how fashion can improve its supply chain transparency.
Consumers’ concern with the industry’s impact on the environment has been increasing, so they increasingly seek to adjust their buying and consumption behaviour to the need to preserve and conserve natural resources. Although the existing literature on green marketing is increasingly common, the relationships between its critical concepts still need to be more conclusive. This research focused on one of the main consumption trends: green consumption. Given consumers’ growing preference for sustainable business practices, an exploratory structural path analysis was developed to understand the primary benefits consumers value the most and how they are relevant for brands to create consumer-brand relationships. For this, this research tried to clarify the relationship between a product's functional and emotional benefits (utilities and warm glow), the green transparency perceived through the information provided by companies and brands, the connection between brands and consumers, brand loyalty, and green brand equity. Results suggest that the perceived green value (GPV) increases when utilitarian environmental benefits and warm glow benefits of products and corporate green increase. The greater the green perceived value, the greater the connection created between consumers and brands and, consequently, the greater the brand loyalty. Loyalty is one of the paths leading to the generation of green brand equity. Therefore, companies must understand the importance of green perceived value to achieve high consumer involvement levels.KeywordsGreen marketingGreen perceived valueSelf-brand connectionBrand loyaltyGreen brand equity
The major goal of green technology is to lessen the greenhouse effect and control global warming. Hence, the main idea is to come up with new inventions that do not deplete natural resources. The research, here, is attempted to examine the factors influencing consumers to purchase hybrid cars like environmentally friendlier automobiles that are gaining more popularity. Hybrid car is a vehicle that uses at least two or more power supply as to make the vehicle move. The combination of an internal combustion engine and electric motors is one of the uniqueness owned by hybrid cars. This study discusses various theoretical models and proposes a conceptual model based on those theories, especially on UTAUT2 (Extended Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology) which adapted and identified seven independent variables (performance expectancy, social influence, environmental concern, price value, hedonic motivation, facilitating conditions, and health benefit) and one dependent variable (behavioral intention to purchase) from the related literatures. Though there is huge importance or advantages of hybrid cars, there have been many people in Bangladesh till now who are not currently buying/using hybrid cars. This study is significant and rationale in environmental, marketers, and economic perspective. The expected outcome of this study will enhance new understanding on the profile of Bangladeshi consumers in purchasing hybrid cars as well as marketers, and policymakers can take opportunity to take decisions by utilizing the findings of this study.KeywordsHybrid carUTAUT2Conceptual modelBangladesh
For over two decades, managers have been encouraged to leverage archetypal meaning to strengthen their brands. Prior research has studied archetypes as universal patterns present in the collective unconscious that trigger an instinctive response in customers, and has argued that brands should evoke one archetype at a time. However, recent evidence seems to suggest that the single archetype view proposed in previous work may have lost its relevance in the marketplace. This study responds to calls for further research into brand archetypes by analyzing more than 2,400 brands and the archetypes they evoke in their marketing communications. The current findings provide support for the continuing relevance and importance of brand archetypes in marketing, showing that brands do connect with customers by evoking specific archetypes consistently. Critically, however, the study demonstrates that strong brands tend to leverage multiple archetypes at the same time, rather than just one. We explore key implications of our findings for theory and management. Avenues for future research and actionable guidelines for managers wishing to leverage archetypal meaning to build strong brands are discussed.
In numerous countries around the world, it is popular for companies to offer company tours as part of their marketing communication strategies. Extant research has investigated such tours in business‐to‐business settings or considered them a kind of tourism. To date, limited empirical evidence has shed light on whether and how company tours, as a novel customer education tool, influence individual customers' pro‐brand behaviors. With two field experiments, one covering the service context and the other involving consumer goods, we found that a company tour is able to quickly enhance customers' positive word‐of‐mouth (WOM) and purchase intentions for a brand. Critically, the mechanism for such effects is that a company tour shapes customers' cognitive and affective processes by enhancing their knowledge and enjoyment levels. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the positive effects on customer pro‐brand behaviors can be amplified for customers with a lower level of brand familiarity. This study theorizes and empirically demonstrates how brands can better leverage the power of company tours to educate and affect individual customers in brand‐marketing communications.
Purpose
Customers often want to learn about a product/service, and companies can benefit from such a learning desire. While prior research has shed light on firm-beneficial outcomes of customer learning and explored the motivational factors of business partners’ learning behavior, less is known about the critical antecedents of individual customers’ learning behavior. This study aims to explore the key drivers of individual customers’ learning desires and identified customers with a stronger learning desire.
Design/methodology/approach
This research used both a lab experiment (Study 1, N = 148) and surveys (Study 2, N = 553; Study 3, N = 703) across different participant populations and product contexts.
Findings
This study indicated that both involvement and knowledge-sharing intention drove customer learning desire. Customer expertise further strengthened these main effects. Moreover, a stronger learning desire led to greater customer satisfaction.
Research limitations/implications
This study identified key factors involved in customer learning desire and its potential benefits for companies. Additional research to investigate customer learning in specific environments and forms and regarding specific brands is warranted.
Practical implications
This study emphasizes the importance of supporting customer learning and encourages businesses to manage customer learning proactively. It also provides suggestions for effective learning support for targeted customer groups.
Originality/value
This study contributes to the customer learning literature by exploring key influencing factors of individual customers’ learning desires, based on self-determination theory. It also identified the role of customer expertise in shaping customers’ learning processes. Moreover, this study examined customer learning as a novel way to enhance customer satisfaction.
This research theorizes and empirically examines whether and how educating customers—a brand's efforts to enhance customers' product-related knowledge—affects customer word of mouth (WOM). In two lab experiments across service and retailing contexts, we find that educating customers enhances customers' positive WOM for a brand. Customer satisfaction and perceived expertise mediate this effect. Critically, the positive impact on WOM is stronger for customers who have less prior knowledge regarding the educational topic and are more amenable to knowledge sharing. The current findings add to the literature on customer education and WOM and offer managerial insights for improving brands' WOM campaigns.
Numerous studies argue that corporate social responsibility (CSR) helps companies build strong and positive relationships with consumers. However, it is not well understood, why certain companies are more effective in their CSR activities than others. Some studies have attributed this difference to the country setting, but results are inconclusive. Building on signaling theory, this study explores corporate transparency as a boundary condition of the effects of CSR activities on the consumer-brand relationship. Using two experiments and one large survey across three countries, we find that a lack of corporate transparency undermines CSR efforts of firms. Importantly, we argue that the environment of countries differs in terms of transparency, which is then reflected in different levels of corporate transparency. These different levels of corporate transparency by country can explain the discrepancies of CSR effectiveness. Finally, we root the diminishing effect of CSR in case of low corporate transparency in an increase in consumer skepticism.
En este trabajo se analiza la transparencia, así como se observan las herramientas de las tecnologías de lainformación que han estado mejorando la eficiencia de la transparencia en múltiples campos. Debemos aclarar, que la transparencia no es algo nuevo, lo que, si es novedoso, es como se ha adaptado dentro de múltiples campos profesionales, usualmente pensamos en la transparencia como algo único del gobierno y su rendición de cuentas, pero la transparencia es algo mucho más adaptable. A través de este trabajo se mostrarán múltiples ejemplos de las tecnologías de la información que convierten a la transparencia en una herramienta para la mejora continua, para ofrecer sugerencias dentro de los múltiples ámbitos profesionales, demostrando los beneficios que han traído en otras áreas.
Numerous studies argue that corporate social responsibility (CSR) helps companies build strong and positive relationships with consumers. However, it is not well understood why certain companies are more effective in their CSR activities than others. Some studies have attributed this difference to the country setting, but results are inconclusive. Building on signaling theory, this study explores corporate transparency as a boundary condition of the effects of CSR activities on the consumer–brand relationship. Three experiments and one large survey across three countries examine how a lack of corporate transparency undermines firms’ CSR efforts. Importantly, the authors theorize that the environment of countries differs in terms of transparency, which is then reflected in different levels of corporate transparency. Different country levels of transparency help explain the discrepancies of CSR effectiveness for increasing brand attachment and building consumer behavior. Finally, the authors tie the diminishing effect of CSR in the case of low corporate transparency to an increase in consumer skepticism.
Ship recycling refers to the process of dismantling vessels with the purpose of extracting and recovering materials for reuse, particularly the steel. The aim of this paper is to map the supply chain of ship recycling. This exploratory and qualitative research provides a glimpse on how regulations influence the supply chain management through inter-organizational arrangements. It considers the trade-offs and combinations of financial and sustainable values that, in many ways, determine these inter-organizational arrangements. Preliminary findings show that there are conflicts of interest with the ship recycling stakeholders. Although compliance of regulations should foster better transparency in the supply chain, these regulations have not yet fully embraced social aspects, such as the fact that domestic demand and supply for steel, as well as many jobs, are dependent on this industry. On the contrary, the initiatives to regulate ship recycling might induce negative effects. This paper suggests that transaction costs analysis and the principal agency theory are two complementary theories for analyzing inter-organizational relationships in the supply chain of ship recycling.
Employees sometimes engage in uncivil behavior in the workplace. We ask (1) How commonly do customers witness an employee behaving uncivilly? (2) What negative effects does customers’ witnessing of an employee’s uncivil behavior have on customers and firms? (3) Why do these effects occur? The results of three studies suggest that it is not uncommon for customers to witness an employee behaving in an uncivil manner. It occurs in many industries. Moreover, witnessing such behavior makes customers angry and creates desires to get back at the uncivil perpetrator and the firm. These effects occur even when a manager’s uncivil comment is aimed at correcting a subordinate’s job-related offense and even when it is delivered offstage, outside of the customer servicescape. Finally, we demonstrate that these effects are driven by customers’ concerns about deontic injustice from incivility (reaction to a wrongful misconduct that violates fairness standards). These results contribute to the literature on workplace incivility and customer reactions to service encounters as well as the burgeoning literature on customer anger and revenge. We suggest that organizations invest in training programs focusing on employee civility. Managers should receive training in coaching to mitigate against the detrimental effects of incivility.
As a means of enhancing consumer understanding of nutritional information, the Nutrition Labeling and Education Act of 1990
requires the provision of percentage daily values (%DVs) on food labels. Findings from existing research, however, vary in
their support for the assumption that including %DVs will assist consumers in their efforts to comprehend nutritional information.
To shed further light on this issue, the present study examines the moderating role of consumer knowledge about how to use
%DVs in evaluating a product’s healthiness. The results indicate that the usefulness of providing %DVs on a nutritional label
depends strongly on this form of knowledge. Implications for public policy and directions for future research efforts are
presented.
The authors show that investments in enhancing cus- tomers' service knowledge strengthen customer trust in an organization and thus can act as an important service dif- ferentiator. Customer education initiatives, however, also affect the impact of perceived service quality on customer trust. Successful marketers should be aware of the dynamic relationships between customer education, exper- tise, and service quality in managing customers' attitudes toward firms. Using data collected from customers of a global financial services firm, this study modeled the mul- tifaceted impact of customer education initiatives on the relationship between service quality and trust. The find- ings suggest that customer education affects the relative importance of technical and functional service quality for building customer trust in a firm. Research implications point to new business opportunities for service differentia- tion and relationship marketing.
Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely acknowledged, yet widely used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.
Recent years have witnessed the rise of new media channels such as Facebook, YouTube, Google, and Twitter, which enable customers to take a more active role as market players and reach (and be reached by) almost everyone anywhere and anytime. These new media threaten long established business models and corporate strategies, but also provide ample opportunities for growth through new adaptive strategies. This paper introduces a new ‘‘pinball’’ framework of new media’s impact on relationships with customers and identifies key new media phenomena which companies should take into account when managing their relationships with customers in the new media universe. For each phenomenon, we identify challenges for researchers and managers which relate to (a) the understanding of consumer behavior, (b) the use of new media to successfully manage customer interactions, and (c) the effective measurement of customers’ activities and outcomes.
Is the increase in away‐from‐home food consumption partially responsible for the rising prevalence of overweight consumers? Some believe that this may be the case since restaurants are not required to make easily accessible nutrition information available at the point of purchase. A field study, experiment, and consumer food diaries were used to explore how nutrition information disclosure on menus may influence consumers’ product evaluations and consumption behaviors. In the context of away‐from‐home food consumption, we find that product claims and consumer motivation moderate the effects of nutrition information provision. Consumer health and welfare implications of our findings are discussed.
This paper introduces the notion of relationship transparency. It delineates this new concept from the interaction model of business relationships. We define relationship transparency as an individual's subjective perception of being informed about the relevant actions and properties of the other party in the interaction. Empirical data gathered in a cross-sectional survey among purchasing managers in Germany provide evidence that relationship transparency contributes to the overall success of a business relationship. According to our conceptual model and structural equation estimates, transparency delivers value to the customer, increases customer satisfaction and ultimately leads to favorable behavioral intentions.
Building trust at each phase of the acceptance process -- The keys to building web-site trust -- Virtual advisors as effective trust builders -- Truck town's trusted advisors -- The buyer's need for information or advice -- Selecting high pressure or complete trust -- Resisting, following or leading the trust-building trend -- Trust as the currency of the web
An important challenge for firms commercializing technology-based new products is to reduce consumers' perceptions of performance uncertainty. We build on prior research in consumer decision making and acceptance of high-technology products and focus on the role of information in influencing perceptions of performance uncertainty of new product interfaces. In contrast to prior literature, we show here that more information is not always better in reducing performance uncertainty. We argue that the effects of more (vs. less) information on the performance uncertainty of a new interface and consumer adoption intentions of the new product are moderated by the degree of newness of the particular functionality (i.e., set of potential benefits) that is delivered by the new product. We report two experiments that investigate this problem and show that more information helps to reduce performance uncertainty only when the product provides a preexisting functionality. However, high levels of information about the new interface actually intensify performance uncertainty when the product delivers a new functionality. We conclude with a discussion of the theoretical and managerial implications of the findings.
Executives in the financial services industry, which faces intense scrutiny, should learn from the experiences of the oil, gas and mining industry. Copyright © 2009 Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation. All rights reserved.
Calls for increased transparency and reduced information asymmetry between service firms and their customers are getting louder in the marketplace. Yet, it remains unclear what exactly constitutes transparency in the eyes of customers and how, if at all, service firms benefit from it. This research contributes to extant knowledge by articulating the key properties of service firms’ performance transparency and by developing and validating a parsimonious scale to measure it. We show that through a reduction in customer uncertainty, the provision of accessible and objective information about a firm’s service offering is positively associated with customers’ intention to purchase and willingness to pay a price premium for its service. Furthermore, we find that the positive effect of performance transparency is influenced by customers’ perceptions of a firm’s ability to deliver on its service promise. An important managerial implication of the current research is that performance transparency benefits customers by lowering uncertainty, and hence service firms should proactively consider it as a critical measure that helps differentiate their services from competitive offerings, even when customer perceptions of a service firm’s ability are low.
Although noncomplaining dissatisfied consumers represent a vast majority of the dissatisfied consumers, they have not yet received adequate attention from marketing researchers. To understand the paradoxical combination of dissatisfaction and absence of complaint, the authors use the Lazarus cognitive-emotive model of coping with situational challenge. They added a moderator, the Seeking Redress Propensity (SRP) to this model and then developed a theoretical model and a set of hypotheses. A sample of consumers who had experienced a negative incident with the bank were administered a questionnaire by telephone. The sample was designed in such a way that half of them had complained and half had not. It was found that SRP is a significant moderator. In addition, SRP is shown to be strongly related to the likelihood of complaining. Lazarus’s model is basically supported, mostly for the customers scoring higher on SRP. Theoretical and managerial implications are proposed.
Service advertisers often are confronted with the problem of how best to communicate the intangible qualities of a service to their target audiences. In this conceptual article, the author describes what intangibility means, discusses how it influences the service advertising task, and derives propositions to handle that task. The article (a) identifies five conceptual properties of intangibility, (b) describes the advertising challenge of each, (c) suggests approaches to meet each challenge, and (d) elucidates the power of transformational advertising in embedding intangible service performance into a consumer’s life experiences. The author argues that in services, intangibility can contribute to value rather than detract from it and that it is well within the advertising’s special talent to communicate intangibility. The author advances propositions to guide copy and creative strategy for service advertising managers.
Salespeople involved in the marketing of complex services often perform the role of "relationship manager." It is, in part, the quality of the relationship between the salesperson and the customer that determines the probability of continued interchange between those parties in the future. A relationship quality model is advanced and tested that examines the nature, consequences, and antecedents of relationship quality, as perceived by the customer. The findings suggest that future sales opportunities depend mostly on relationship quality (i. e., trust and satisfaction), whereas the ability to convert those opportunities into sales hinges more on conventional source characteristics of similarity and expertise. Relational selling behaviors such as cooperative intentions, mutual disclosure, and intensive followup contact generally produce a strong buyer-seller bond.
Recent developments in marketing thought and practice highlight the opportunities that co-production of services provide for creating customer value. The authors propose a model of co-production with which they investigate the links between co-production and customer loyalty and the factors likely to increase the level of co-production in a financial services context, with support from an investigation in the medical services context. Further, the authors consider the relationships of customer expertise, customer–advisor communication, customer affective commitment, and interactional justice with the level of co-production. On the basis of testing with a sample of 1,197 customers of a large multinational financial services organization and 100 patients of medical services, the model is partially supported. Therefore, the authors suggest that co-production may have an important role as a basis for competition in the financial services industry.
This study introduces the concept of flow signals-patterns of a firm's attributes over time - and contrasts them with point signals discussed in the literature to date. Three properties of flow signals are delineated: displacement, propensity, and reversals. The authors illustrate these properties using a start-up's research-and-devetopment (R&D) spending and voluntary disclosure flows. The authors argue that the flow signal properties affect prospective customers' perceptions of a start-up's current and future product quality, thus influencing their purchase likelihood and, ultimately, the start-up's growth in sales. The findings, obtained from panel data comprised of U.S. venture-backed firms that went public in 2001-2005, suggest that sales growth is positively affected by displacement and propensity of both R&D spending and voluntary disclosures and negatively affected by R&D spending reversals. Furthermore, these effects are stronger for the relatively younger start-ups.
This paper examines how product and consumer characteristics moderate the influence of online consumer reviews on product sales using data from the video game industry. The findings indicate that online reviews are more influential for less popular games and games whose players have greater Internet experience. The paper shows differential impact of consumer reviews across products in the same product category, and suggests that firms' online marketing strategies should be contingent on product and consumer characteristics. The authors discuss the implications of these results in light of the increased share of niche products in recent years.
Effective service recovery is vital to maintaining customer and employee satisfaction and loyalty, which contribute significantly to a company's revenues and profitability Yet most customers are dissatisfied with the way companies resolve their complaints, and most companies do not take advantage of the learning opportunities afforded by service failures. The authors provide a research-based approach for helping managers develop a comprehensive service recovery system. To encourage dissatisfied customers to complain, leading firms set performance standards, often through the use of guarantees; communicate the importance of recovery to employees; train customers in how to complain; and use technological support offered through customer call centers and the internet. in resolving problems, companies need to focus on providing fair outcomes, procedures, and interactions, Successful companies develop hiring criteria and training programs that take into account employees' service-recovery role, develop guidelines for service recovery, are easily accessible to customers, and use the information in customer databases to solve problems. Firms promote organizational learning by documenting and classifying complaints; useful methods include creating internal complaint forms, accessing complaints made to front-line employees, and categorizing customers who complain. Finally, companies need to generate additional information on service quality, disseminate it to those responsible for implementing improvements, and identify those process improvements that will have the greatest impact on profitability. Customer conflicts are inevitable. A powerful service-recovery strategy can turn these conflicts into opportunities to improve performance and raise profitability.
How should a retailer think about the decision to carry, price, and promote products that overlap with another store when such overlap is predicted to intensify price competition and drive down product prices? The existing research suggests that retailers should look to carry an ever-increasing percentage of unique or non-overlapping products [J. Marketing 61 (1997) 38; Marketing Sci. 19 (2000) 83], thereby eliminating the ability to compare prices across stores.We challenge this recommendation, arguing that overlapping products allow one type of retailer—the higher end retailer—to signal the fairness of its prices and foster a more favorable price image than might otherwise exist. In a laboratory study, we show that, for higher end stores, the existence of overlapping products can significantly increase perceptions of pricing fairness and subsequent store choice, even when those overlapping products are no cheaper in the focal store than in a competing store.
A complaint is a gift: Using customer feedback as a strategic tool
- J Barlow
- C Møller
Barlow, J., & Møller, C. (1996). A complaint is a gift: Using
customer feedback as a strategic tool. Oakland, CA: Berrett-Koehler.
More clarity not limits, for consumers
- J B Stewart
Stewart, J. B. (2009). More clarity not limits, for consumers. The
Wall Street Journal, 253(146), D1-D2.