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The wandering eye perceives more threats: Projection of attraction to alternative partners predicts anger and negative behavior in romantic relationships

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Abstract

The current study tested the predictions that (a) people project their own attraction to alternative romantic or sexual partners onto their romantic partners and (b) this projection shapes anger and negative behavior toward romantic partners. These predictions were supported in a dyadic daily experiences study of 96 heterosexual romantic couples. Participants’ self-reported attraction to alternative partners predicted perceptions of the partner’s interest independently of, and more strongly than, the partner’s own self-reported attraction, suggesting that participants projected their own extradyadic attraction onto their partners. Furthermore, this projection predicted perceivers’ own anger and negative behaviors directed at their partners more strongly than did the partner’s self-reported attraction. Results suggest that participants were angry and antagonistic when they thought their partners were interested in alternative partners, but that this suspicion was a projection of their own attraction to alternatives more than it was an accurate reflection of their partner’s attraction. Results suggest that projection of extradyadic attraction has an important influence on relationship quality and may exacerbate the negative relationship consequences of attraction to alternative partners.

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... It was expected that individuals would show less reactive jealousy if they had been unfaithful themselves, because they would view their partners´ infidelity as a reciprocal act which would generate more balance and equity in the relationship (e.g., Buunk, 1982). In contrast, classic psychoanalytic theorizing on projection suggests that individuals become jealous because they project their own inclination to be unfaithful on their partner (Baumgart, 1990;Freud, 1950), and recent studies by Neal and Lemay (2019), and Zandbergen and Brown (2015) provide some evidence for this theoretical notion. Therefore, precisely because one has been unfaithful oneself, one might be concerned that the partner might consider it reciprocal to also be unfaithful, which would result in anxious and possessive jealousy. ...
... As hypothesized, individuals who had been unfaithful themselves as well as individuals whose partner had been unfaithful showed more possessive jealousy, i.e., were more inclined to engage in attempts to prevent sexual contact of their partner with a third person (cf. Neal & Lemay, 2019;Zandbergen & Brown, 2015). ...
... Finally, our sample size was relatively small and consisted of relatively well-adjusted, highly educated individuals in Chile, and it is therefore important to examine the present issues in the same and other populations, including individuals suffering from clinical forms of jealousy. Nevertheless, the present results may be considered as a modest contribution to the small empirical literature (e.g., Neal & Lemay, 2019;Zandbergen & Brown, 2015) on jealousy as a projection of one´s own adulterous tendencies, showing that especially anxious jealousy may result from such projection. ...
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In a sample of 68 adult men and 70 adult women from Santiago, Chile, with a mean age of 29.40 years and a median age of 29, the effects of one's own infidelity and that of one's partner on different types of jealousy were examined. Of the respondents 47.1% had ever been unfaithful, and over half (56.5%) reported that their partner had been unfaithful. There were no effects of one's own infidelity and that of one's partner on reactive and anxious jealousy, but those who had been unfaithful, as well as those whose partner had been unfaithful, expressed the highest levels of possessive jealousy. These effects were not moderated by gender nor did age affect jealousy. Women were higher in all types of jealousy than men were.
... Researchers have argued that there are stable individual differences in attention to attractive alternatives, suggesting that it is trait-like in nature (Belu & O'Sullivan, 2019;Miller, 2008;Neal & Lemay, 2019). Those with a greater propensity toward diverting their attention to attractive alternatives may do so persistently over their lifetime, regardless of their committed relationship status (Miller, 2008;Neal & Lemay, 2019). ...
... Researchers have argued that there are stable individual differences in attention to attractive alternatives, suggesting that it is trait-like in nature (Belu & O'Sullivan, 2019;Miller, 2008;Neal & Lemay, 2019). Those with a greater propensity toward diverting their attention to attractive alternatives may do so persistently over their lifetime, regardless of their committed relationship status (Miller, 2008;Neal & Lemay, 2019). This propensity can interfere with the pursuit of romantic goals in one's primary relationship where exclusivity is expected and attention is expected to be reserved for one's partner (Brady et al., 2020;Koranyi & Rothermund, 2012;Miller, 1997). ...
Article
Over the course of an intimate relationship, individuals will frequently encounter potential alternative partners and may in fact develop romantic or sexual attraction to them. It is unclear when a more distal attraction to a potential alternative (a "crush") is associated with impaired relationship quality to one's primary relationship. A growing body of work indicates that crushes are common among those in established, ostensibly monogamous relationships. Yet such attractions likely constitute a starting point for establishing new relationships, including through infidelity. This study was designed to help clarify whether and how extradyadic attraction is linked to compromised relationship quality for a primary relationship, infidelity, and breakup. Participants were 542 adults (22-35 years) in exclusive intimate relationships of at least three months' duration who reported an attraction toward a potential alternative. They were recruited online from crowdsourcing websites and social media to complete two surveys, four months apart. Path analyses indicated that greater attraction intensity was linked to lower relationship quality in one's primary relationship. Overall, few participants became romantically or sexually involved with their crush over the course of the study. However, lower relationship quality was linked to desire to engage in infidelity and primary relationship breakup four months later. Findings are discussed in terms of implications for other researchers examining maintenance of intimate relationships, educators who teach about attraction processes, as well as counselors supporting couples in distress.
... It has been found that being attracted to alternatives predicts negative outcomes to relationships (Neal & Lemay, 2019) that may eventually lead to the dissolution of the relationship. Moreover, derogating our romantic alternatives includes seeing our alternatives as less attractive than they really are. ...
Chapter
Human beings have a fundamental need to belong (Baumeister and Leary, 1995), and thus we value social connections, including romantic relationships. Although most of the time we desire to stay with our romantic partner ‘forever’, the dissolution of romantic relationships still occurs for several reasons. Romantic relationships remain stable when romantic couple members are relationally satisfied and committed, but there are many instances in which that is not the case or does not become the case throughout time. As a result, it is important to understand predictors of relationship satisfaction and commitment and how romantic couples could maintain high levels of satisfaction and commitment. We discuss predictors such as approach motivation (Gable and Gosnell, 2013; Impett et al., 2005), communal motivation (Clark and Mills, 1979, 2011; Muise et al., 2012), and investment size (Rusbult et al., 1986). Next, we discuss individual differences that may serve as enduring vulnerabilities (Karney and Bradbury, 1995) in relationships, including personality traits (Altgelt et al., 2018), sociosexuality (French et al., 2019), and romantic attachment insecurity (Fraley et al., 2000). Afterwards, we discuss relationship maintenance strategies, as the absence of these strategies has been demonstrated to be detrimental to relationships. Examples of relationship maintenance strategies include endorsing specific relationship and sexuality beliefs (Knee et al., 2003; Maxwell et al., 2017) and engaging in self-expanding activities (Aron et al., 1995). We not only discuss predictors of relationship dissolution, but we additionally aim to examine how individuals can prevent the dissolution of their relationships in the future.
... Shields and Hanneke (1983) identified that women who committed infidelity during their prior relationship were more likely to experience sexual and physical abuse at the hands of their partner. Other researchers have also noted that suspicions and perceptions of extradyadic relations-having emotional or sexual relations with others outside of an exclusive mateship-are related to the perpetration of IPV (Neal & Lemay, 2019;Nemeth et al., 2012). For example, in their study of heterosexual couples, Nemeth et al. (2012) found that IPV was consistently triggered by infidelity. ...
Chapter
Infidelity is one of the greatest adaptive challenges of our reproductive lives. A partner’s infidelity can lead to their defection from the relationship and offspring, loss of important resources, and for men, cuckoldry. It is unsurprising, then, that humans have evolved adaptations meant to prevent, curtail, and punish a partner’s infidelity. Among the most devastating of these are the perpetration of intimate partner violence, homicide, uxoricide, and filicide. This chapter reviews theory and supporting evidence that aggression has evolved, in part, as an adaptive set of behavior meant to prevent and respond to infidelity. It begins by describing the particular reproductive challenges posed by infidelity for men and women. Next, it reviews the available evidence that violence and killing is an abhorrent, yet predictable response to real or suspected infidelity, with attention paid to sex differences in these acts. The putative adaptive functions of different types of aggression toward an intimate partner, a sexual rival, and toward offspring are discussed. It then highlights the important role of perceptual biases surrounding infidelity and negative affect, including jealousy and anxiety, in mediating aggressive responses to infidelity. Finally, adaptive explanations of individual differences, cultural contexts, and environmental factors in predicting violent responses to infidelity are discussed and future directions are offered in order to highlight the pressing need for continued research on the adaptive functions of violence occurring in the shadow of infidelity.
... One possible explanation is that people project their self-control level onto their partner, which is related to trust. For example, Neal and Lemay (2019) found that partners who feel attracted to alternative others, which can be interpreted as a sign of low self-control, assume that their partner is attracted to others too. Perhaps, people who have low levels of self-control think that their partner has low levels of self-control too and is not trustworthy. ...
Article
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This research investigated the interplay between self-control, trust, and intrusive behaviors in heterosexual relationships. While past work mainly focused on actor self-control, we additionally considered the role of partner self-control in both men's and women's tendency to show intrusive behaviors. Specifically, we hypothesized that a lack of self-control in the partner elicits intrusive behaviors through low levels of trust in the partner. We collected data from 104 couples and 52 individuals (N = 260, M age = 35.11, SD age = 10.77) via a crowd-working platform. Analysis using an Actor Partner Interdependence Mediation Model with a bootstrapping method showed that trust mediated the association between partner self-control and intrusive behaviors. Additionally, actor self-control had a marginal indirect effect on intrusive behaviors through trust. The results were consistent across both genders. This research revealed that low levels of either actor or partner self-control are risk factors for privacy invasion in romantic relationships.
... On a practical level, romantic jealousy can be very destructive to relationships and even people's safety (Buunk & Bringle, 1987;Eliason, 2009;Neal & Lemay, 2019;Pines & Aronson, 1983). Understanding how jealousy can be triggered by SNS use offers clues about how to reduce it in clinical applications. ...
Article
The hyperperception model was used to derive hypotheses concerning the processes by which people experience romantic jealousy because of their observation of their romantic partners on Facebook. Issues concerning active versus passive observation, personally unknown versus known potential rivals, and relational uncertainty variables were considered. A survey of undergraduates and community members was conducted to test these hypotheses. The data were generally consistent with the hypotheses and the utility of the hyperperception model for understanding the effects of observing romantic partners’ interactions on Facebook.
... 23,24 How communicating with relationship alternatives affects the perpetrator is an understudied topic. 25 We attempt to extend this line of research by examining the effects of back-burner communication on the feelings of the admirer. ...
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Back burners are people with whom one communicates to potentially establish a future romantic or sexual relationship, and these relationships are common among college students. Using a sample of noncollege adults currently in committed relationships (N = 246) obtained via Amazon's MTurk, this study examines how a prior relationship role with a desired back burner (i.e., whether a back burner was an ex-partner or not) affects digital communication and sexual activity with back burners, and participants' negative affect. Sequential mediation analysis revealed that when the most-desired back burner was also an ex-partner (vs. not), participants digitally communicated more, increased communication was positively related to sexual activity with that back burner, and sexual activity was associated with negative affect in the participant. Even in the absence of sexual activity, both increased digital communication and simply having an ex-partner as one's most-desired back burner were associated with negative affect. Limitations and implications for staying in touch with ex-partners are discussed.
... Individuals in romantic relationships face daily temptations from attractive alternatives (Neal & Lemay, 2017). Studies on heterosexual individuals' long-term relationship maintenance found that being interested in desirable opposite-sex persons could lead to infidelity and even relationship dissolution (McNulty et al., 2018;Miller, 1997), which could cause negative psychological and health outcomes (e.g., Hall & Fincham, 2009;Wardlow, 2007). ...
Article
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Studies about heterosexual individuals’ long-term relationship maintenance have indicated that committed individuals possess evolved psychological mechanisms that help protect their ongoing romantic relationships against threats from attractive others during early stage attentional processing when mating-related motivation is activated. In this study, two experiments tested the relationship maintenance mechanism among committed female college students in the Chinese cultural context under different love priming conditions. Committed Chinese women displayed inattention to attractive alternatives in positive love-scenario priming (Study 1: 114 female undergraduates, age range = 18–26 years), subliminal semantic love priming (Study 2: 110 female undergraduates, age range = 18–25 years), and baseline conditions (Studies 1 and 2). Those with high levels of chronic jealousy showed significantly increased attention to and difficulty disengaging attention from attractive rivals when subliminally primed with love. This provides further evidence, from an Eastern cultural context, for the existence of attentional biases toward attractive alternatives and rivals in early stage attentional processes for relationship maintenance. This research also illustrates the important role of romantic love in maintaining long-term romantic relationships.
... This finding suggests that crushes may not have the same negative associations with particular individual characteristics and relationship quality as found in the attention to alternatives literature. Researchers have theorised that attention to alternatives is trait-like in nature due to its stability over time and its association with other stable characteristics (e.g., avoidant attachment, unrestrictive sociosexual orientation; McNulty et al., 2018;Miller, 2008;Neal & Lemay, 2017). Although crushes are related, we argue that they are more state-like in nature and may occur as a result of a constellation of various factors, including opportunity, repeated interactions, and mood. ...
Article
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Potential alternative partners can threaten the stability of established relationships, yet a romantic or sexual attraction to someone with whom you are not currently involved (i.e., a ‘crush’) appears common for those in relationships (Mullinax, Barnhart, Mark, & Herbenick, 2016). This study assessed prevalence of such crushes, individual and relationship predictors, and links to infidelity. Adults ( N = 247, aged 25–45, 43.3% women) in romantic relationships completed surveys assessing individual characteristics (attention to alternatives, sociosexual orientation, attachment avoidance), relationship quality (satisfaction, commitment, intimacy), and infidelity. The degree of attention to alternatives predicted whether one had a crush on another while in a romantic relationship. Crushes were fairly common and seemed to have had few negative implications for those in established relationships. These findings will be of use to therapists addressing couples’ attraction to others.
... Further, committed individuals are equipped with a set of relationship maintenance strategies aimed to keep themselves interested in the current relationship. Given the frequent temptations of extradyadic relationships people face in everyday life (Neal and Lemay 2017), one way committed individuals can stay with their current partner with unwavering conviction has to do with the way they handle the presence of appealing alternatives. For example, committed individuals are inclined to remain disinterested by paying less attention to the alternatives (Maner et al. 2008;Miller 1997), perceiving them to be less attractive (Simpson et al. 1990), processing information about the alternatives in a selective way (Gagné et al. 2008;Visserman and Karremans 2014), and avoiding engaging in positive interactions with them (Karremans and Verwijmeren 2008;Linardatos and Lydon 2011). ...
Article
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Previous studies have shown that individuals who are committed to their relationship are less interested in romantic alternatives. This research examined whether the negative association between commitment and interest in alternative partners depends on the level of partner’s commitment. In Study 1, married individuals (N = 289) completed questionnaires assessing their commitment, perceptions of their partner’s commitment, and two indicators of interest in alternatives. We found that committed individuals’ tendency to remain inattentive to alternatives and to report fewer infidelity experiences was significantly weaker among individuals who perceived their partner to be low (vs. high) in commitment. In Study 2, we recruited both members of married couples (N = 156) and replicated the moderating effect of partner commitment using the partner’s self-reports. Our findings suggest that how committed the partner is, or is perceived to be, can play an important role in committed individuals’ faithfulness, highlighting the dyadic processes of relationship maintenance.
... Additionally, a systematic review by Leary, Twenge, and Quinlivan (2006) suggested that people become angry and aggressive following perceived rejection. Similarly, when feeling less valued by close relationship partners, such as perceiving partners to be interested in potential alternatives (Neal & Lemay, 2017;Phillips, 2010) or being less supportive and responsive (Lemay & Neal, 2013), people tend to experience more negative emotions, including anger. These studies suggest that people's perceptions of being treated badly by their partners can elicit reciprocal anger. ...
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SUGGESTED THAT THEORIES OF PROJECTION DIFFER WITH REGARD TO 2 POINTS: (1) WHETHER THE S PROJECTS HIS OWN TRAIT OR A DIFFERENT TRAIT, AND (2) WHETHER THE S IS AWARE OR UNAWARE OF POSSESSING THE TRAIT WHICH RESULTS IN THE PROJECTION. THE 4 POSSIBLE COMBINATIONS RESULTING FROM THESE THEORETICAL DIFFERENCES ARE PLOTTED IN A 2 * 2 TABLE, PROVIDING A SYSTEM IN WHICH THE VARIOUS TYPES OF PROJECTION CAN BE COMPARED. A REVIEW OF THE RESEARCH ON EACH TYPE REVEALS EVIDENCE FOR THE PROJECTION OF S'S OWN TRAIT OR THE COMPLEMENT OF THIS TRAIT IF S IS AWARE THAT HE POSSESSES THE TRAIT. THERE IS NO EVIDENCE FOR ANY TYPE OF PROJECTION RESULTING FROM A TRAIT OF WHICH THE S IS UNAWARE. THIS FINDING CALLS INTO QUESTION THE EXISTENCE AND INTERPRETIVE USE OF CLASSICAL PROJECTION. (2 P. REF.)
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Given the multifaceted association between infidelity and relationship dissolution, it is crucial that researchers and clinicians not only explore the first-order effects of different variables on the likelihood of relationship termination, but also consider how such factors may interact to cause dissolution or reconciliation. In accordance with this important but admittedly lofty vision of contextualizing the decision to terminate a relationship following infidelity, in this chapter we explore the predictors of relationship dissolution following infidelity, as well as evidence of interdependence among these predictors. In this regard, we consider event-related factors, such as the type of infidelity and degree of involvement; cognitive factors, such as attributions and attitudes regarding extradyadic involvement and the other spouses' awareness of the infidelity; and individual or partner characteristics and relationship variables. After exploring the various determinants of relationship dissolution following infidelity, we consider the impact of extradyadic behavior on postmarital adjustment. In the penultimate section of the chapter, we examine the role of couple therapy and forgiveness in the aftermath of infidelity. Finally, we explore future directions for clinical work and research. However, we begin with a brief review of the infidelity literature to lay the foundation for later sections of the chapter. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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We tested the prediction derived from the evolutionary view of jealousy that men preferentially recall cues to sexual infidelity, whereas women preferentially recall cues to emotional infidelity. This preferential recall was predicted to be more pronounced in a personally more threatening than in a personally less threatening context condition. In the personally less threatening context condition, the participants listened to a story about an anonymous couple spending an evening together; in the personally more threatening context condition, the same story referred to one's own romantic relationship. Integrated in this story were five ambiguous cues each to sexual and emotional infidelity. As predicted, in a surprise recall test, men preferentially recalled cues to sexual infidelity, whereas women preferentially recalled cues to emotional infidelity. This preferential recall was significant for both men and women only in the personally more threatening context condition.
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This study investigated the effects of an individual's marital type (Traditional, Independent, Separate) on marital satisfaction and jealousy. Three significant findings emerged. First, Traditionals were found to be more satisfied with their marriages than Independents or Separates. Second, marital satisfaction was found to be negatively correlated with cognitive jealousy (r= ‐.64), behavioral jealousy (r = ‐.43) and emotional jealousy (r = ‐.31). Finally, Independents reported significantly more cognitive jealousy than Traditionals. Implications for the study of communication within intimate relationships are discussed.
Book
www.intensivelongitudinal.com : A complete, practical guide to planning and executing an intensive longitudinal study, this book provides the tools for understanding within-subject social, psychological, and physiological processes in everyday contexts. Intensive longitudinal studies involve many repeated measurements taken on individuals, dyads, or groups, and include diary and experience sampling studies. A range of engaging, worked-through research examples with datasets are featured. Coverage includes how to: select the best intensive longitudinal design for a particular research question, model within-subject change processes for continuous and categorical outcomes, distinguish within-subject from between-subjects effects, assess the reliability of within-subject changes, assure sufficient statistical power, and more. Several end-of-chapter write-ups illustrate effective ways to present study findings for publication. Datasets and output in SPSS, SAS, Mplus, HLM, MLwiN, and R for the examples are available on the companion website (www.intensivelongitudinal.com).
Chapter
Presents an analysis of prorelationship behavior that rests on the principles and constructs of interdependence theory. The authors suggest that prorelationship behavior comes about as a consequence of a phenomenon termed "transformation of motivation." They then advance a dual-process model of interdependence in close relationships, proposing that 2 key variables—commitment and trust—play central roles in shaping motivation and behavior in ongoing relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Examines thinking and research relevant to the self-expansion model of motivation and cognition in close relationships. It begins with an explanation of the key elements of the model, followed by a comment on the utility of a model of this kind in terms of the role of metaphor in science. The chapter then considers 2 key processes suggested by the model, discussing the theoretical foundation and research relevant to each. These 2 processes are, first, that relationship satisfaction is increased through the association of the relationship with self-expansion and, second, that the relationship means cognitively that each partner has included the other in his or her self. Implications of the model for 3 other relationship-relevant issues (selectivity in attraction, motivations for unrequited love, and the effects on the self of falling in love) are considered. Concludes with a brief consideration of other relationship-relevant ramifications of the model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Because it is universally relevant, and because it is formed in infancy, giving it a strong preconscious quality, attachment was chosen for a study of Allport's (1924) construct of social projection. Individuals in 301 dating couples rated themselves and their partners on each of four continuous attachment dimensions (i.e., security, dismissiveness, preoccupation, fearfulness). The individual's own rating on a particular dimension significantly predicted the individual's perception of how the partner rated on the dimension, after controlling for the partner's self-rating on the dimension. Thus people perceived their partners to be more similar to themselves than they really were, demonstrating social projection. In general, the higher the degree of emotional intimacy was, the more social projection was demonstrated.
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There can be important reproductive benefits to maintaining a long-term romantic relationship. As a result, humans may possess evolved psychological mechanisms designed to help them maintain their commitment to a long-term mate, particularly when faced with attractive alternative relationship partners. The current study identifies a relationship maintenance process that involves being inattentive to alternative relationship partners. Experimentally eliciting thoughts and feelings of romantic love—an emotion thought to have evolved for the purpose of relationship maintenance—reduced attention to alternative partners at an early, automatic stage of visual perception. Consistent with evolutionary models of mate selection, this reduction in attention was observed only for opposite sex targets displaying high levels of physical attractiveness. This research illustrates the utility of integrating evolutionary models of mating with theory and method from cognitive science.
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Most research on jealousy has focused on the correlation between one psychological factor and jealousy. In contrast, the current work examined how the link between relationship commitment and jealousy depends on the interplay of two situational factors: attractiveness of relationship alternatives and receiving threatening information about the self and the romantic relationship. In two studies, participants completed measures of relationship commitment for their current relationship and then received feedback that manipulated their perceptions of relationship alternatives (Study 1) or their perceptions of relationship compatibility (Study 2). Participants' jealousy was assessed by their responses to a mildly threatening relationship situation (Studies 1 and 2) and on a jealousy scale (Study 2). Study 1 showed that those in more committed relationships experienced greater jealousy when they were induced to consider having unattractive relationship alternatives. Study 2 showed that those with greater relationship commitment reported more jealousy when they received negative information about their relationship compatibility. Implications for how threat plays a causal role in experiencing jealousy are discussed.
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Sexual jealousy functions to defend paternity confidence and is therefore expected to be a ubiquitous aspect of male psychology. Several lines of evidence confirm this expectation.Cross-cultural and historical reviews of adultery law reveal remarkable conceptual consistency: unauthorized sexual contact with a married woman is a crime and the victim is the husband.We find male sexual jealousy to be the leading substantive issue in social conflict homicides in Detroit. A cross-cultural review of homicide indicates the ubiquity of this motive.Social psychological studies of “normal” jealousy and psychiatric studies of “morbid” jealousy both suggest that male and female jealousy are qualitatively different in ways consistent with theoretical predictions.Coercive constraint of female sexuality by the use or threat of male violence appears to be cross-culturally universal. Several authors have suggested that there are societies in which women's sexual liberty is restricted only by incest prohibitions, but the ethnographies explicity contradict this claim.
Article
False consensus refers to an egocentric bias that occurs when people estimate consensus for their own behaviors. Specifically, the false consensus hypothesis holds that people who engage in a given behavior will estimate that behavior to be more common than it is estimated to be by people who engage in alternative behaviors. A meta-analysis was conducted upon 115 tests of this hypothesis. The combined effects of the tests of the false consensus hypothesis were highly statistically significant and of moderate magnitude. Further, the 115 tests of false consensus appear to be relatively heterogeneous in terms of significance levels and effect sizes. Correlational analyses and focused comparisons indicate that the false consensus effect does not appear to be influenced by the generality of the reference population, nor by the difference between alternative choices in actual consensus. However, the significance and magnitude of the false consensus effect was significantly predicted by the number of behavioral choices/estimates subjects had to make, and the sequence of measurement of choices and estimates. These patterns of results are interpreted as being inconsistent with the self-presentational, motivational explanation for the false consensus effect.
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This paper explores a judgmental heuristic in which a person evaluates the frequency of classes or the probability of events by availability, i.e., by the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. In general, availability is correlated with ecological frequency, but it is also affected by other factors. Consequently, the reliance on the availability heuristic leads to systematic biases. Such biases are demonstrated in the judged frequency of classes of words, of combinatorial outcomes, and of repeated events. The phenomenon of illusory correlation is explained as an availability bias. The effects of the availability of incidents and scenarios on subjective probability are discussed.
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