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Assessing Fractional Cover in the Alpine Treeline Ecotone Using the WSL Monoplotting Tool and Airborne Lidar

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Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing
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As forest cover in mountain areas impacts headwater properties like habitat extent and downstream water resources, it is important to assess and understand the changes that occur across forest transition zones like the alpine treeline ecotone (ATE). Such changes occur slowly and manifest at decadal to century time scales; however, the present benchmark spatial resolution for land cover analysis from oblique repeat photographs, 100 m, is insufficient to analyze anticipated changes in ATE over a century-scale. In this research note, fractional cover classification of the ATE is achieved through oblique photography analysis with the WSL Monoplotting Tool. Seven oblique photographs of the West Castle Watershed (Alberta, Canada), collected by the Mountain Legacy Project, were gridded to a 20-m resolution and assigned canopy cover classes by manual interpretation. Four canopy cover classes (i.e., no cover, low vegetation, partial canopy, full canopy) were compared to lidar-derived fractional cover. The extraction of canopy cover information from oblique photography at a resolution of 20 m introduces the ability to assess and quantify changes in the ATE using century-scale oblique photographic records. 2017
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Assessing Fractional Cover in the Alpine Treeline
Ecotone Using the WSL Monoplotting Tool and
Airborne Lidar
David R. McCaffrey & Chris Hopkinson
To cite this article: David R. McCaffrey & Chris Hopkinson (2017) Assessing Fractional Cover
in the Alpine Treeline Ecotone Using the WSL Monoplotting Tool and Airborne Lidar, Canadian
Journal of Remote Sensing, 43:5, 504-512, DOI: 10.1080/07038992.2017.1384309
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/07038992.2017.1384309
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Oct 2017.
Published online: 09 Oct 2017.
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CANADIAN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING
, VOL. , NO. , –
https://doi.org/./..
Assessing Fractional Cover in the Alpine Treeline Ecotone Using the WSL
Monoplotting Tool and Airborne Lidar
David R. McCarey and Chris Hopkinson
Department of Geography, University of Lethbridge, Alberta Water & Environmental Science Building,  University Drive, Lethbridge, AB TK
M, Canada
ARTICLE HISTORY
Received  January 
Accepted  September 
ABSTRACT
As forest cover in mountain areas impacts headwater properties like habitat extent and downstream
water resources, it is important to assess and understand the changes that occur across forest
transition zones like the alpine treeline ecotone (ATE). Such changes occur slowly and manifest at
decadal to century time scales; however, the present benchmark spatial resolution for land cover
analysis from oblique repeat photographs, 100 m, is insucient to analyze anticipated changes in ATE
over a century-scale. In this research note, fractional cover classication of the ATE is achieved through
oblique photography analysis with the WSL Monoplotting Tool. Seven oblique photographs of the
West Castle Watershed (Alberta, Canada), collected by the Mountain Legacy Project, were gridded
to a 20-m resolution and assigned canopy cover classes by manual interpretation. Four canopy cover
classes (i.e., no cover, low vegetation, partial canopy, full canopy) were compared to lidar-derived
fractional cover. The extraction of canopy cover information from oblique photography at a resolution
of 20 m introduces the ability to assess and quantify changes in the ATE using century-scale oblique
photographic records.
RÉSUMÉ
La couverture forestière dans les régions montagneuses a un impact sur les propriétés des têtes
de bassin versant, telles que l’étendue des habitats et les ressources hydriques en aval. Il est donc
important d’évaluer et de comprendre les changements qui surviennent dans les zones de transition
forestières telles que l’écotone forestier alpin (EFA). Ces changements se produisent lentement et se
manifestent sur une échelle de temps décennale ou centennale. Cependant, le point de référence
actuelle en matière de résolution spatiale pour l’analyse de couverture terrestre avec photographies
obliques à répétition, 100 m, est insusant pour mesurer les changements anticipés dans les EFA à
l’échelle centennale. Cet article présente une classication de couverture terrestre fractionnaire pro-
duite par l’analyse de photographies obliques avec le WLS Monoplotting Tool. Sept photographies
obliques du bassin versant West Castle (Alberta, Canada), acquises par le Mountain Legacy Project,
ont été maillées à une résolution de 20 m et assignées à une classe de couverture forestière suivant
une interprétation manuelle. Quatre classes de couverture forestière (aucune couverture, végétation
basse, canopée partielle, pleine canopée) ont été comparées à une classication fractionnaire dérivée
du lidar. L’extraction d’informationsur la couverture forestière de photographies obliques à une résolu-
tion de 20 m rend l’évaluation et la quantication des changements dans les EFA à l’échelle centennale
possible.
Introduction
Alpine treeline ecotone (ATE), the transition zone
between alpine tundra and closed canopy, is character-
ized by distinct patterns in forest structure; decreases
in mature tree height, stand density, and fractional
cover correlate with increases in elevation (Körner 2012;
Tranquill i ni 1979). Environmental factors inuencing
these forest structure patterns are varied (Case and Dun-
can 2014; Holtmeier and Broll 2005; Weiss et al. 2015),
and understanding the degree to which multi-scale inter-
actions between anthropogenic, orographic, and climatic
CONTACT David R. McCaffrey david.mccaffrey@uleth.ca
factors aect shifts in ATE has relied on observation
methods, such as repeated plot measurements (Weiss
et al. 2015), dendrochronology (Liang et al. 2014), remote
sensing (Coops et al. 2013),andhistoricrecords(e.g.,
oblique photography; Hagedorn et al. 2014).
ATE observation methods are limited in the temporal
and spatial extents at which they can resolve change
(Danby 2011). For example, forest structure parameters
that characterize ATE, such as fractional cover, can be
observed at a high spatial resolution (1m)usingair-
borne lidar, but few extended lidar records presently exist
Copyright © CA SI
Downloaded by [David McCaffrey] at 09:22 01 November 2017
CANADIAN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 505
for periods longer than 20 years. Conversely, oblique
photograph records of ATE exist for periods exceeding
100 years (e.g., Trant et al. 2015), but quantitative analysis
of century-scale land cover change using oblique pho-
tographs has been restricted to low spatial resolutions
(100 m; Stockdale et al. 2015). In the Rocky Mountains,
where advance of ATE species, such as subalpine r (Abies
lasiocarpa), has been observed at 0.28 m yr1–0.62 m
yr1(Bekker 2005; Luckman and Kavanagh 2000), the
abilitytodetectshiftsinATEusingrepeatobliquepho-
tography will depend on increasing the spatial resolution
of analysis above 100 m; for example, if ATE has advanced
on the order of 50 m in a century, in order to detect
change using a century scale photographic record, the
spatial resolution of analysis must be higher than 100 m.
This research note introduces a methodology that
assesses fractional cover in oblique photography, which
increases both the temporal period and spatial scale
of ATE observation when applied to historic repeat
photographs. Using a technique pioneered by Stockdale
et al. (2015), land cover in an oblique photograph can be
rasterized, enabling direct comparison between repeat
photographs. The present research is, in part, a replica-
tion of Stockdale et al. (2015), but distinguishes itself by
adding analysis, which is critical for the application of
the method to observations of ATE: (i)wedemonstrate
that the rasterization method can be executed at a spatial
scaleof20m;(ii) we intentionally selected oblique pho-
tographs with overlapping view elds to test correspon-
dence between images; (iii) we improve upon a general
linear model of spatial error in a manner which allows
selection of the image with lowest error in cases of multi-
pleobservation;and(iv) we validate manual classication
of canopy fractional cover from oblique photographs
against fractional cover measured by airborne lidar.
Quantitative area analysis of oblique photographs
Prior limitations of quantitative oblique photogra-
phy analysis have been overcome with the advent of
software like the WSL Monoplotting Tool (WSL-MT;
note: WSL is the German acronym for “Eidgenössische
Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft,
the Swiss Federal Institute for Forest, Snow and Land-
scape Research), which produces georeferenced vector
data from oblique photographs using tie points between
oblique and aerial photographs, and high resolution
topographic data (Bozzini et al. 2012). Previous analyses
of oblique photographs to assess areas of change in the
ATE were mostly qualitative, relying on descriptions
of land cover change and estimations of spatial extent
(Butler and DeChano 2001;KlasnerandFagre2002;
Kullman and Öberg 2009;MoiseevandShiyatov2003;
Roush et al. 2007). Stockdale et al. (2015)introduced
a method of quantifying land cover change using the
WSL-MT and repeat photography from the Mountain
Legacy Project (MLP), a collection of over 120,000 his-
toricsurveyimagesoftheCanadianRockyMountains
(1888–1958; Trant et al. 2015). The study compared esti-
mated coordinates of tie points used in WSL-MT camera
calibration with the coordinates of points that had been
projected from oblique to orthogonal perspective using
the software; the mean error between points (error vec-
tor length) was 14.7 m, while mean displacement error
(i.e., dierence between the centroid of the set of all test
points in a given image) was 2.9 m (Stockdale et al. 2015).
The high spatial resolution of airborne lidar makes it a
promising candidate for validation of oblique photograph
analysis, but at the time of writing, only a single study is
known to have validated land cover data generated from
the WSL-MT using vegetation measurements from air-
borne lidar (Kolecka et al. 2015). In that study, lidar-
derived estimates of vegetation height and canopy cover
were compared to areas of forest succession mapped from
oblique photographs, with an overall accuracy of 95%.
Methods
Oblique photographs
Research was conducted over the West Castle Watershed
(WCW), Alberta, Canada. WCW is located in the head-
waters of the Oldman River on the eastern slopes of the
Rocky Mountains, with an area of 103 km2(watershed
dened as upstream of the University of Lethbridge West
Castle Field Station, located at 49.35°N, 114.41°W),
and an elevation range of 1400–2600 m above sea
level. Aside from a small ski resort and village near the
downstreamendofWCW(2.9%ofthewatershedarea),
and trail network in the valley bottoms, the forested
slopes demonstrate minimal anthropogenic disturbance,
andhavenotbeensubjecttomountainpinebeetle
infestation. Consequently, the WCW is an ideal study
area for assessing recent natural shifts in the treeline
ecotone in this part of the Canadian Rockies. Seven high-
resolution oblique photographs of WCW were selected
fromasetof46providedbytheMLP,whichmaximized
the spatial coverage of the valley while also providing
areasofoverlapforclassicationerroranalysis.All
photographs were collected in August 2006, and geoloca-
tions for photograph origins were provided by the MLP
(Table 1 ).
Rasterized canopy cover data were generated from
oblique photographs using WSL-MT, following the
Downloaded by [David McCaffrey] at 09:22 01 November 2017
506 D. R. McCAFFREY AND C. HOPKINSON
Tab le . Oblique photograph summary.
Photograph Number Elevation (m) Latitude Longitude Photograph Date
, °. °. July , 
, °. °. July , 
, °. °. July , 
, °. °. July , 
, °. °. July , 
, °. °. July , 
, °. °. July , 
method of Stockdale et al. (2015): (i) co-registered aerial
imagery (1.5 m, SPOT 6, acquired July 31, 2014, © 2014
CNES, licensed by BlackBridge Geomatics; purchased by
Planet Labs Inc., 2015) and topographic data (1 m DEM,
lidar collection described below) were used to calibrate
camera parameters for each of the 7 images; (ii)foreach
image, an iterative process of control point selection was
used to reduce 21 potential control points to 6 control
points with the least angle error—discarded control point
became ‘test points’ used in error analysis; (iii)thecamera
parameters were exported to ArcGIS 10.3 (Esri 2014),
where the 1 m DEM was used to create a viewshed for
the image (Figure 1b); (iv) a 20-m shnet (i.e., 400 m2
grid cells) was overlaid and clipped to the viewshed,
with any grid cells having less than 75% coverage (i.e.,
<300 m2)beingomitted(Figure 1c); (v)theWo r l d to
Pixel function of the WSL software was used to project
shnet grid cells from UTM coordinates to pixel coor-
dinates, so that the 20 m ×20 m grid cells were draped
over the oblique image (Figure 1d). Once in an oblique
projection, grid cells were manually assigned into 1 of 4
canopy cover classes based on observed canopy openness
and texture (Figure 1e). The 4 canopy cover classes were:
(i)No Cover—grid cells devoid of vegetation; (ii)Low
Veget a t i on—grid cells appear vegetated, but context and
texture suggest shrubs or krummholz, not upright trees
>2m;(iii)Partial Canopy—trees are present, but ground
is visible in >50% of the grid cell; (iv)Full Canopy—trees
cover >50% of a grid cell. Finally, classied oblique
images were converted back to orthogonal view for
comparative analysis (Figure 1f).
Visual estimates of canopy cover were completed by
a single trained interpreter. While it is well known that
manual photograph interpretation is subject to error
introduced by misregistration and interpreter bias, which
precludes single interpreter analysis, recent studies of
fractional cover assessment from aerial imagery have
established a multi-interpreter agreement using a second
interpreter, working on a subset (5%–10%) of the data
(Nowak and Greeneld 2012;Ucaretal.2016). We ran-
domly selected 5% of the observed grid cells, and used
a second interpreter to classify canopy cover using the
same 4-class criteria.
Error analysis
Error vector length and displacement errors were cal-
culated for each of the 7 photographs in the 2006 MLP
dataset, using the discarded test points from the camera
calibrations. Error vector length is the 3-D distance
between each test point and its projected counterpart,
and displacement error is the 3-D distance between the
centroid of the set of test points and the set of projected
points. Additionally, landscape level measurements of
error vector length and displacement were calculated
using all available test points (n=64), without stratifying
by image.
Using the Alberta Vegetation Inventory (Alberta
Environment and Parks 2012), vector data for known
areas of disturbance (e.g., former cut blocks, oil well pads,
roads, ski resort, and a small burn area) were aggregated
into a single layer, and any grid cells intersecting with this
disturbance layer were omitted. Grid cells that extended
above ridgelines or the horizon were omitted from analy-
sis, leaving a nal observation area of 38.5 km2, or 37.7%
of WCW.
To understand factors that contribute to error vector
length, Stockdale et al. (2015) modeled vector error
length as a function of distance from the camera origin,
and angle of viewing incidence. Angle of viewing inci-
dence is dened as the angle between a ray connecting
the camera origin to the control point, and a 10-m line
segment xed to the ground along the sight line of the
ray, with the control point as a midpoint. A general linear
model was executed in SPSS 24 (IBM 2016), using the
formula:
Error Vector Length (m)
=Intercept +βI+βD+βA,[1]
where Iis image number (used as a random factor),
Dis distance to camera, Ais the angle of viewing
incidence, and βis the model coecient for each
parameter.
Additionally, an ‘observation-parameter routine’ was
constructed, which calculates the distance to the camera
and viewing incidence for any set of points on the DEM,
in ArcGIS 10.3 (ESRI 2014), allowing the modeled error
Downloaded by [David McCaffrey] at 09:22 01 November 2017
CANADIAN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 507
Figure . The oblique photograph to raster workflow, as described by Stockdale et al. (): (a) an oblique image of Mount Haig, in the
West Castle Watershed, copyright Mountain Legacy Project (); (b) orthogonal view shed of oblique Mount Haig image, using camera
calibration from WSL Monoplotting Tool; (c) a -m fishnet applied to the Mount Haig view shed; (d) fish net grid projected back to
oblique view using WSL World to Pixel function; (e) oblique image with canopy cover classification; and (f) orthogonal image with canopy
cover classification.
vector length to be applied at any observation grid cell in
the watershed.
MLP photographs with overlapping extents were
intentionally selected to test correspondence between
separate observations. Of the total observed area,
10.5 km2(27.2%) had multiple observations, which
enabled an assessment of the manual classication con-
sistency from dierent vantage points (Figure 2a,Ta b le 2).
Accuracy of canopy cover classications was assessed by
determining whether the minimum and maximum clas-
sication values for each grid cell agreed or disagreed. In
cases of disagreement between observations, the canopy
cover classication from the image with the lowest error
vector length, as modeled by the observation-parameter
routine, were selected.
Airborne lidar
An airborne lidar survey of WCW was own on Octo-
ber 18, 2014 with a Leica ALS70 and a minimal point
spacingof3pts/m
2at nominal altitude (1,300 m above
the mean ground surface elevation). Lidar point cloud
Downloaded by [David McCaffrey] at 09:22 01 November 2017
508 D. R. McCAFFREY AND C. HOPKINSON
Figure . Multiple observations: (a) observation areas were viewed by either , , or  different oblique images and (b) areas with multiple
observation either agreed in all  or  observations, or disagreed.
processing and fractional cover analysis followed the
canopy-to-total returns method described in Hopkinson
and Chasmer (2009).Datawereclassiedintogroundand
non-ground using Ter ra s can (Terrasolid, Finland) and a
1-m DEM was interpolated from the ground-classied
points and aggregated using mean values to match the
20-m canopy cover classication grid cells. Fractional
cover was calculated using the LAStools suite (Isenburg
2013); data were height normalized, and lascanopy was
applied with a height threshold of 2.0 m and a step of
20 m, again matching canopy cover classication grid
(Figure 3d).
Fractional cover, as a metric, treats canopy cover as
acontinuousvariable(i.e.,apercentage).Tocompare
the agreement between factional cover and manually
classied canopy cover, which has discrete, ordinal
classes, we needed to discretize the measurements of
fractional cover into 4 classes. No logical break points
existed a priori, so we used 3 common, unsupervised
discretization methods: equal frequency, equal range,
and k-means. We tested agreement between 4-class
manual interpretation and ordinal, binned classes of
fractional cover using Cohens K, weighted linearly
(Cohen 1968).
Tab le . Agreement of multiple observations.
Number of Observations Area (km) Percent of Observed Area
..
. .
..
Multiple Observations
Agree . .
Disagree . .
As the results may have been inuenced by expected
areas of homogenous full canopy cover at lower elevations
and no cover at higher elevations, each analysis was run
twice; once on all observed areas, and once restricted
to elevations between 1800 m–2300 m, where ATE is
expectedtocausemorevariabilityincanopycover.
Results
Overall correspondence between the primary interpreter
and the secondary interpreter was 88.4%, and weighted
Cohen’s K showed substantial agreement between inter-
pretations (K =0.79, p<0.001). When elevations were
restricted to the more variable ATE region, correspon-
dence dropped to 74.1%, with weighted K again showing
substantial agreement (K =0.73, p<0.001).
Mean error vector length between test points ranged
from 2.0 m to 63.8 m per image, with a mean of 23.9 m
among the 7 images (Tab l e 3). Displacement ranged
from 0.8 m to 39.5 m, with a mean of 14.4 among the 7
images. In the landscape level analysis of 64 aggregated
points, mean error vector length was 21.7 m and mean
displacement was 7.0 m.
A general linear model of error vector length was
used,with2adjustmentstothedatasetof64testpoints:
(i) 2 outlier points were identied and removed—these
outliers had error vector length values of 177.7 m and
192.1 m (the next highest value was 78.0 m), and occurred
in dierent images (photos 6 and 3, respectively); (ii)a
Shapiro-Wilk test demonstrated the data were not nor-
mally distributed (W=541, p<0.001)—the truncated
sample of 62 values responded to a common log trans-
formation, and a repeat of the Shaprio-Wilk test failed to
reject normality (W=9.65, p=0.076). We proceeded
Downloaded by [David McCaffrey] at 09:22 01 November 2017
CANADIAN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 509
Figure . West Castle Watershed area of interest: (a) minimum error vector length, as modeled by the GLM; (b) number of photograph
with lowest modeled error, used for canopy cover classification; (c) four classes of manual canopy cover classification; and (d) lidar-derived
fractional cover.
Tab le . Error analysis for WSL-MT camera calibration, error vector length, and modeled error.
Photo
No. of
Registration
Points
Mean Angle
Error (°)
No. of Test
Points
Mean Error Vector
Length (±SE)
Mean
Displacement
Error (m)
Mean Distance From Camera
(m) (range)
Mean Angle of Viewing
Incidence (°)(range)
. . (.) . ,. (,.–,.) . (.–.)
.  . (.) . ,. (,.–,.) . (.–.)
. . (.) . ,. (,.–,.) . (.–.)
. . (.) . ,. (,.–,.) . (.–.)
. . (.) . ,. (,.–,.) . (.–.)
. . (.) . ,. (,.–,.) . (.–.)
.  . (.) . ,. (,.–,.) . (.–.)
Mean . . . (.) . ,. .
Landscape  . (.) .
 . (.) .
Model Error Vector Length , . (<.) .–.
Downloaded by [David McCaffrey] at 09:22 01 November 2017
510 D. R. McCAFFREY AND C. HOPKINSON
Figure . Lidar-derived fractional cover values were discretized into four ordinal groups using three methods (i.e., equal frequency, equal
range, and k-means); the boxplot depicts the IQR for each of these three groups (in blue shades) and compares their fractional cover
distributions against those generated from manual classifications (in red).
Tab le . Agreement between manual classifications and discretized fractional cover.
All ATE
Discretization
Method
Accuracy
(%)
Weighted
K
Standard
Error
Lower
% C.I.
Upper
% C.I. P Value
Accuracy
(%)
Weighted
K
Standard
Error
Lower
% C.I.
Upper
% C.I. P Value
Equal frequency . . . . . <. . . . . . <.
Equal range . . . . . <. . . . . . <.
K-means . . . . . <. . . . . . <.
Manual breaks . . . . . <. . . . . . <.
with the general linear model, which yielded the following
equation:
log Error Vector Length (m)
=0.992 +βI+0.000077D+0.009A.[2]
All factors were signicant at α=0.05, except for
distance to camera (D;f=1.278, p=0.263). The
observation-parameter routine was used to measure the
distance to camera and angle of viewing incidence for
each grid cell in the analysis produced a surface map
of the modeled error vector length (Figure 3a). Mean
error vector length for the model was 14.6 m, and ranged
between0.9mand75.7m(Ta b le 3); these values were
comparabletothemeanandrangeofthedatasetusedto
develop the model.
Theanalysisofmultipleobservationsshowedthat
no area in the watershed was observed in more than 3
dierent images (Figure 2a). Comparison of multiple
observation areas showed that 78.4% of the grid cells
agreed between observations, while at least 1 classi-
cation value disagreed in 21.6% of cases (Figure 2b,
Table 2 ). Agreement between manual cover classica-
tions and fractional cover classes was generally consistent
across discretization methods (Figure 4); 4-class accu-
racy ranged from 43.3%–47.0%, and weighted K values
showing moderate agreement (K =0.42–0.43, p<0.001;
Table 4 ). In the ATE, 4-class accuracy was only slightly
reduced from the full watershed analysis, ranging from
39.4%–46.0%, with weighted K values showing fair
agreement (K =0.35–0.36, p<0.001; Tab le 4).
Discussion and conclusion
The analyses indicated that fractional cover across the
ATE can be discriminated from oblique imagery at a res-
olutionof20m.Meanerrorvectorlengthandmeandis-
placement error were both substantially higher than error
values calculated in Stockdale et al. (2015); our study cal-
culated a mean error vector length of 23.9 m and a land-
scape level displacement error of 7.0 m, while Stockdale
et al. (2015)found14.4mand2.9merrors,respectively.
Followingtheremovalof2outliers,meanerrorvector
length and displacement error were more comparable to
the previous study, at 16.5 m and 5.9 m. Several possi-
bilities exist for the larger error observed in the present
study. Stockdale had a larger sample size of test points
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CANADIAN JOURNAL OF REMOTE SENSING 511
(n=121), which resulted from fewer omissions in test
point projection from WSL-MT. It should be noted that
these omissions may reect higher error vector lengths
than those seen in processed test points, thus making
actual error vector length in the present study higher than
what is reported. Another potential cause of the discrep-
ancy between error estimates is that aerial imagery used
for control point selection in the previous study was at a
resolution of 0.5 m, 3 ×greater resolution than the 1.5 m
SPOT 6 data used in the present study. Higher resolution
aerial imagery could have improved control point place-
ment, reduced angle error, and contributed to a lower
mean error vector length. Regardless of the discrepancy,
in the present study mean error vector length was com-
parable to canopy cover grid cell resolution and mean
displacement error remained substantially below this res-
olution, demonstrating that fractional cover can be ras-
terized from oblique photographs at a resolution of 20 m.
This spatial resolution is an important threshold to reach
for the application of the method to ATE observations, as
it corresponds to the area of most forest mensuration plots
(400 m2), and permits cataloguing of changes in the ATE
given the expected rate of advance over the century scale
observation period permitted by repeat photography.
Comparison of grid cells with multiple observations
showed that canopy cover classication disagreed in
21.6% of cases. Disagreement cases were resolved using
modeled error vector length, which produced values
comparable to those in the observed error vector length;
observed mean error vector length for the 62 test points
used for model development was 16.5 m, with a range
of 1.9 m–78.0 m, while modeled values had a mean
of 14.6 m and a range of 0.9 m–75.7 m (Table 3 ). The
previous study found that image number (I), distance
to camera (D), and angle of viewing incidence (A)all
contributed signicantly to the model (i.e., p<0.05), but
inourmodelthefactorofdistancetocamera(D)was
not signicant. These results demonstrate that models
of error vector length can be useful in resolving cases of
disagreement in oblique photograph classication, and
thatangleofviewingincidencecanbeconsideredthe
primary factor aecting displacement error.
Manual classications of fractional cover from the
oblique photographs were, in part, validated using lidar-
derived fractional cover. Fractional cover distributions
from manual classications had increasing median val-
ues with each ordinal class, in both the full watershed
and ATE restricted analyses. While accuracy between
the discretized fractional cover classes and the manual
classes was generally low, peaking at 47.0%, it is worth
considering this may have resulted from the fact that the
discretization methods used were theoretical, and did
not necessarily reect real-world bins of fractional cover.
For example, if we arrange lidar-derived fractional cover
values in order, and partition them into bins with equal
frequency ratios as those seen in the manual classica-
tions, we reach accuracy upwards of 64.7% (see Table 4 ,
Manual breaks). While this method is not a defensible
validation, as it assumes that the manual classications
aretruth,itdoesdemonstratethattheresultsofthis
analysis rely on partition points that are in some ways
arbitrary.
With an abundance of repeat oblique photography
in the Canadian Rocky Mountains (Trant et al. 2015),
future research, which combines quantitative analysis of
oblique photography with lidar-derived forest structure
data, can increase the spatial resolution and temporal
extent of ATE monitoring. This is important as we con-
tinue to explore the impacts of climatic change, natural
and anthropogenic disturbances on forested mountain
ecosystems, and downstream water resources.
Acknowledgments
Wewouldliketothanktheeditorandanonymousreviewersfor
their helpful comments. We also wish to thank Dr. Eric Higgs
andDr.MarySanseverinooftheMountainLegacyProject
for providing oblique photographs, and Dr. Claudio Bozzini
for instruction on the WSL monoplotting tool. Additionally,
we gratefully acknowledge Josh Montgomery for acting as the
second photograph interpreter.
Funding
ThisresearchwasmadepossiblebygrantsfromAlbertaInno-
vates, Environment and Energy Solutions, Water Innovation
Program (Grant #E323726), NSERC Discovery (Grant #2017-
04362), and the Canadian Foundation for Innovation (Grant
#32436).
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Downloaded by [David McCaffrey] at 09:22 01 November 2017
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... We found that, as compared to the results from the orthophotos, classification of oblique photos overestimated closed canopy forest; 13% of the landscape that was called "CF" in the oblique images was called WD in the ortho view. Another source of disagreement was due to increased displacement of some grid cells as the angle of viewing becomes more oblique (Stockdale et al. 2015;McCaffrey and Hopkinson 2017). This resulted in different locations on the landscape being compared because, while the grid cell might be located on a patch of trees in the oblique image, this same grid cell might be placed in the adjacent clearing in an ortho image. ...
... Higher elevation areas experienced significant conversion of meadows and grasslands to forest, and this is consistent with other studies showing treeline advancement throughout the Rocky Mountains in the twentieth century (Luckman and Kavanagh 2000, Klasner and Fagre 2002, Shaw 2009, Elliott 2011, McCaffrey and Hopkinson 2017. We also saw much of the lowest elevation areas (agricultural zone) transitioned to earlier seral stages. ...
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Alpine treelines mark the low-temperature limit of tree growth and occur in mountains world-wide. Presenting a companion to his book Alpine Plant Life, Christian Körner provides a global synthesis of the treeline phenomenon from sub-arctic to equatorial latitudes and a functional explanation based on the biology of trees. The comprehensive text approaches the subject in a multi-disciplinary way by exploring forest patterns at the edge of tree life, tree morphology, anatomy, climatology and, based on this, modelling treeline position, describing reproduction and population processes, development, phenology, evolutionary aspects, as well as summarizing evidence on the physiology of carbon, water and nutrient relations, and stress physiology. It closes with an account on treelines in the past (palaeo-ecology) and a section on global change effects on treelines, now and in the future. With more than 100 illustrations, many of them in colour, the book shows alpine treelines from around the globe and offers a wealth of scientific information in the form of diagrams and tables.
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