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Open Agriculture. 2017; 2: 486–494
Mtonnes of crop residue was produced in 2014-15 in India
among which cereals were the largest producer of crop
residue followed by sugarcane. The energy potential from
paddy rice straw crop residue was estimated as 486,955
megawatt for 2014-15 and similarly for coarse cereals it
was 226,200megawatt.
Keywords: crop residue, economic value, environmental
sustainability, composites making, India
1 Introduction
Agriculture has a majorshare in the overall economy of
India. In different agro-ecological regions of India, a
wide range of crops are cultivated across the vast majority
of land with significant quantity of crop residue (non-
economical plant parts) that are left in the field after
harvest.After being usedin competitive alternatives such
as cattle feed, animal bedding, cooking fuel, organic
manure etc., nearly 234 million tonnes/year (i.e. 30%) of
gross residue generated in India is available as surplus.
This huge amount of crop residue has economic value.
Approximately 500-550 million tonnes (Mt) of crop
residue is generated on-farm and off-farm annually
from its production of 110 Mt of wheat, 122 Mt of rice, 71
Mt of maize, 26 Mt of millets, 141 Mt of sugarcane, 8 Mt
of fibre crops (jutemesta, cotton) and 28 Mt of pulses.
Multipurpose use of crop residue include, but are not
limited to, animal feeding, soil mulching, bio-manure,
thatching for rural homes and fuel for domestic and
industrial use.Despite the known of its benefits, growers
burn a significant portion of the crop residues on-farmso
thatthe succeeding crop can be sown on clear field.
Mechanized farming coupled with lack of low-skilled
farm labor and high associated cost further exacerbate
the problem of on-farm burning of crop residues. Irrigated
areas where multiple crops are grown annuallyand areas
adjoining to the national capital region and satellite
cities had experienced a surge in burning of rice, wheat,
cotton, maize, millet, sugarcane, jute, rapeseed-mustard
https://doi.org/10.1515/opag-2017-0053
received December 28, 2016; accepted july 24, 2017
Abstract: India is one of the key producers of food grain,
oilseed, sugarcane and other agricultural products.
Agricultural crops generate considerable amounts of
leftover residues, with increases in food production crop
residues also increasing. These leftover residues exhibit
not only resource loss but also a missed opportunity to
improve a farmer’s income. The use of crop residues in
various fields are being explored by researchers across
the world in areas such as textile composite non-woven
making processes, power generation, biogas production,
animal feed, compost and manures, etc. The increasing
trend in addition of bio-energy cogeneration plants,
increasing demand for animal feedstock and increasing
trend for organic agriculture indicates a competitive
opportunity forcrop residue in Agriculture. It is to be
noted that the use of this left over residue isoften not
mutually exclusive which makes measurement of its
economic value more difficult.For example, straw can be
used as animal bedding and thereafter as a crop fertilizer.
In view of this, the main aim of this paper envisaged to
know about how much crop residue is left unutilized and
how best they can be utilized for alternative purposes for
environmental stewardship and sustainability. In this
context, an attempt has been made to estimate the total
crop residue across the states and its economic value
though data available from various government sources
and a SWOT analysis performed for possible alternative
uses of residue in India. This paper also discusses the
successful case studies of India and global level of use
of crop residues in economic activities. Over all 516
Review Article
Saroj Devi, Charu Gupta, Shankar Lal Jat*, M.S. Parmar
Crop residue recycling for economic and
environmental sustainability: The case of India
*Corresponding author: Shankar Lal Jat, ICAR-Indian Institute of
Maize Research, IARI, Pusa Campus, New Delhi-110012, India,
E-mail: sliari@gmail.com
Saroj Devi, Charu Gupta, Department of Fabric & Apparel Science,
Institute of Home Economics, University ofDelhi, New Delhi-110016,
India
M.S. Parmar, PTTD and Chemical Quality evaluation Divisions, NITRA
Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India. New Delhi, India
Open Access. © Saroj Devi, etal., published by De Gruyter Open. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-
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Crop residue recycling for economic and environmental sustainability: The case of India 487
29 Mt, 13 Mt and 12 Mt, respectively (Table 1). Among cereal
crops, rice, wheat, maize and millets together contributed
70% of crop residue followed by fiber crop (13%).
The estimate presented in Table 1 is computed from
multiple sources with a certaindegree ofunaccounted
uncertainty. EURACHEM (2000) proposed a formula
to compute the uncertainty of the estimate using the
Eurachem guide. Under this uncertainty computation
method, data areassumed to be normally distributed,
firstly identify the major uncertainty sources such as
residue to crop ratio (RCR), dry matter fraction (DMF) and
production average (PA). Then, standard uncertainty (u)
of each uncertainty sources is computed. If dispersion
of input variables of crop residue is recorded as range
and standard deviation (sd) then ‘u’ is considered as
mean of range and sd as it is, respectively. The standard
uncertainty (u) of input variable of crop residue from Table
1 is presented in Table 2.The final combined uncertainty
(Ufc) for each crop is calculated by summing standard
uncertainty sources (Uc). The estimate ± Ufc for each crop
is presented in Table 3.
The trend in crop residue generation in India shows
uplift with a CAGR of 2.53% annually (Figure 1). Rice,
wheat and maize are major food grain crops in India
that contribute a large portion of the total crop residue
production. Biomass residue sources and quantity of rice,
wheat and maize are given in Table 4 respectively.
3 Problem Identification and
Methodology
Typically, surplus residue is burnt in-situ from March to
May. On farm burning of crop residue becomes a source
of greenhouse gases (CO2, CO, CH4, N2O, SO2), aerosols,
particulate matters, smoke, volatile organic compound
and radioactive gases; thereby they exacerbate global
and regional atmosphere chemistry (Crutzen and Andreae
1990).The present paper mainly focuses on the status of
crop residue in India as well as recycling of crop residue
for economic and environmental sustainability. The
study will be helpful to view the global warming problem
associated with residue burning.
4 Utilization and on-farm burning
of crop residues in India
Across India, crop residue is being utilized differently
depending on the region and its socio-economic status,
type of cultivated crop, number of crops per year, etc.
and groundnut residue. In recent years, across India the
demands of crop residue for cattle feed and industrial
purpose haveincreased due to excessive in-situburning of
it. Thus, it is imperative to set up appropriate policiesthat
promote multiple use of crop residues in the context of
conservation agriculture and to prevent their on-farm
burning.In this review paper we were interested in
highlighting the (i) annual crop residue production and
on-farm burning and its impact on environment, (ii) scope
and challenges of using crop residue for conservation
agriculture, (iii) management plan of crop residue at local
and regional level, and (iv)identifying research and policy
of crop residue management for productive, profitable
and sustainable agriculture.
Every year, agriculture alonegenerates 140 billion
tons of biomass,which is equivalent toapproximately 50
billion tons of oil. The energy generated from agricultural
biomass waste can substantially displace fossil fuel, reduce
emissions of greenhouse gases and provide renewable
energy to about 1.6 billion people in developing countries,
which still lack access to electricity. Similarly, the partially
green crop residue which has a narrow carbon:nitrogen
ratio (30:1), which facilitate composting,can serve as an
alternate to high energy derived fertilizer and provide a
viable option for eco-friendly organic farming (Dia 2005;
Weindorf et al. 2008; Dia et al. 2009).As raw materials,
biomass wastes are anattractive potential for large-scale
industries and at a community-level. Findings from
previous studies have suggested that theligno-cellulose
byproducts including corn stover, rice and wheat straw,
sorghum stalks and leaves, pineapple and banana
leaves, can be used to extract natural cellulose fibers
with properties suitable for textile, composite and other
industrial applications (Sinha 1974; Sinha and Ghosh 1977;
Doraiswamy and Chellamani 1993; Reddy and Yang 2005).
2 Crop residue generation in India
After crop harvesting, the left over plant material
including leaves, stalk and roots is known as crop residue.
It is estimated that India generates around 500 Mt of
crop residue annually (GOI, 2016) with wide regional
variability. The uneven distribution and use of crop
residue depends on the crops grown, cropping intensity
and productivity across the nation.The highest crop
residue estimate was recorded for Uttar Pradesh (60 Mt).
Other high crop residue producing regions were Punjab
(51 Mt) and Maharashtra (46 Mt) (Table 1). Cereals, fibers,
oilseeds, pulses and sugarcane contributed the majority
of crop residue with production estimates of 352 Mt, 66 Mt,
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488 S. Devi, et al.
Table 1:Total crop residue generation (tonnes) in different states of India during 2014-15
State/ UT Rice Wheat Coarse
Cereal
Pulse Oilseed Sugarcane Cotton Jute &
Mesta
Total
Andhra Pradesh+
Telangana . . . . . . . . .
Assam . . . . . . . . .
Bihar . . . . . . . . .
Chhattisgarh . . . . . . . . .
Gujarat . . . . . . . . .
Haryana . . . . . . . . .
Himachal Pradesh . . . . . . . . .
Jammu & Kashmir . . . . . . . . .
Jharkhand . . . . . . . . .
Karnataka . . . . . . . . .
Kerala . . . . . . . . .
Madhya Pradesh . . . . . . . . .
Maharashtra . . . . . . . . .
Orissa . . . . . . . . .
Punjab . . . . . . . . .
Rajasthan . . . . . . . . .
Tamilnadu . . . . . . . . .
Uttar Pradesh . . . . . . . . .
Uttarakhand . . . . . . . . .
West Bengal . . . . . . . . .
Others . . . . . . . . .
All-India . . . . . . . . .
Harvest index .-.*
(Hay, )
.-.
(McLare, )
.-. .-. .-. .
(Thangavelu, )
. . -
Dry Matter Fraction . . . . . . . . -
*20% of grain is also a non- economic part contributing to crop residue
Source: Compiled by author.Data provided by Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation (MOSPI, 2013-14).
Table 2: Standard uncertainties (u) in the various conversion factors (that are major contributors to uncertainties) for different crop residue
types
Parameter Paddy Wheat CoarseCereal Pulse Oilseed Sugarcane Cotton Other Fibres
RCR . . . . . . . .
DMF . . . . . . . .
PA . . . . . . . .
Source: Calculatedby author data provided by Ministry of Statistics and Program Implementation (MOSPI, 2013-14).
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Crop residue recycling for economic and environmental sustainability: The case of India 489
Table 3: Yearly average crop residue generation in India with combined uncertainty 2010-14
Crop Crop reside generation± deviation (Mt)
Rice .± .
Wheat .±.
Coarse Cereal .±.
Pulse .±.
Oilseed .±.
Sugarcane .±.
Cotton .±.
Other Fibres(Jute &Mesta) .±.
Total yearly avg. .±.
Source: Self-created table from data provided byMOSPI, 2013-14.
Fig. 1: The trend of crop residue generation in India. (Source: Compiled by author from data provided by Ministry of Statistics and Program
Implementation (MOSPI, 2013-14))
Table 4: Biomass residue sources and quantity of rice, wheat and maize
S. No. Crop Residue Name Residue Quantity Major Producer States
. Rice Straw & Husk . Every ton of paddy produces .–. Mt of straw and . – . Mt of husk. West Bengal,
Uttar Pradesh
and Andhra
Pradesh
. India generates around Mt of rice straw and Mt of rice husk,
respectively.
. Wheat Straw . Every ton produces . to . t of straw. Uttar
Pradesh, Punjab
& Haryana
. India generates about Mt of wheat straw.
. Maize Stover, Cob &
Silk
. Every ton of maize produces . Mt of stover, .-. Mt of husk, silk, etc. Karnataka,
Maharashtra,
Rajasthan, Uttar
Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Bihar
. India generates over Mt of stover, Mt of cob and Mt of husk,
respectively.
Source:http://www.erewise.com/current-affairs/biomass-resources-inindia_art52cbbb9bcd5df.html#.Vd9atPmqqko
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490 S. Devi, et al.
residues from multiple sources are presented in Table 5.
Interestingly, the magnitude may not be the same but the
pattern of distribution of crop residue estimates across
states is consistent.
For example, in southern India rice stubble is used for
domestic fuel or in boilers for parboiling rice whereas in
northern India a large amount is burnt on-farm. Similarly,
sugarcane leftovers are used for either feeding cattle
or burnt on-farm for ratoon crop. Likewise, groundnut
residues are burnt in brick and lime kilns. Cotton, pulses,
oils seed crops, chilies, coconut shells, rapeseed and
mustard stalks, sunflower and jute residues are used as
domestic fuel (Pathak et al. 2010). Usually growers uses
crop residues for fodder, fuel, cattle sheds, packaging, etc
or sell to landless households or middle men for further
selling.
Across India, cereals are the highest contributor of
surplus residues which areoften in-situ burnt. Other high
surplus residue producing crops are fiber, oilseed, pulses
and sugarcane (Figure 2). Estimates of total vs. surplus
crop residue are associated with varying prediction
intervals or certain degrees of uncertainty. Within each
states of India, estimates of total, surplus and burnt
Table 5: State-wise generation and remaining surplus of crop residues in India
State
Mt yr-
Crop residue generation
(MNRE, )
Crop residue surplus
(MNRE, )
Crop residues burnt(IPCC
coefficients)
Crop residues burnt(Pathak
et al., )
Andhra Pradesh . . . .
Arunachal Pradesh . . . .
Assam . . . .
Bihar . . . .
Chhattisgarh . . . .
Goa . . . .
Gujarat . . . .
Haryana . . . .
Himachal Pradesh . . . .
Jammu and Kashmir . . . .
Jharkhand . . . .
Karnataka . . . .
Kerala . . . .
Madhya Pradesh . . . .
Maharashtra . . . .
Manipur . . . .
Meghalaya . . . .
Mizoram . . . .
Nagaland . . . .
Odisha . . . .
Punjab . . . .
Rajasthan . . . .
Sikkim . . . .
Tamil Nadu . . . .
Tripura . . . .
Uttarakhand . . . .
Uttar Pradesh . . . .
West Bengal . . . .
India . . . .
Source: self-generated table using data fromMOSPI (2013-14), MNRE (2009) and Pathak et al. (2010).
Fig. 2: The share of unutilized residues in total residues generated by
different crops in India (Source: self-generated using data from MNRE,
2009)
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Crop residue recycling for economic and environmental sustainability: The case of India 491
6 Alternative Uses of Crop Stubble
Globally, rice is the most consumed food. Thus, rice is
grown in large areas and generates a huge amount of
residue in the form of straw. In Asia, a large amount of
rice straw undergoes field burning. Kim and Dale (2004)
reported that 668 t of rice residue has the potential to
generate 708.7 litres of bioethanol. Therefore, the burning
of rice straw results invirtually completeloss of potential
energy from bio-ethanol. With increased fuel prices,
frequency of weather fluctuation (or debate on climate
change), air pollution and greenhouses gases, there is
considerable interest among researchers for alternative
uses of field-based residues for energy applications
(Kumar et al. 2015).
Across India, the disposal pattern of rice residue
depends on the market value of it. The different methods
adopted for end-use of rice straw reported various studies
were summarized in Table 7. It is evident that over 3/4 of
rice straw is burnt in-situ. Growers usually either partially
or fully burn the crop residue. Full burning is mainly
practiced in IGP where the time between planting and
harvesting of succeeding and preceding crop, respectively,
is not enough to dispose of the left over residue from
preceding crop. In both burning practices, pollution has a
severe impact on the environment including reduced soil
quality, enhanced soil erosion, and increased air pollutant
and greenhouse gases (Kumar et al. 2015).
With the increased incidence of burning of crop
residue, central authorities have been initiating and
have been promoting approach to alleviate the problem.
These approachesinclude the use of crop (particularly
cereals)residue as fodder, bio-thermal power plants and
mushroom cultivation, as bedding material for cattle,
production of bio-oil, paper production, bio-gas and
incorporation of rice residue in soil, energy technologies
and thermal combustion (Kumar et al. 2015). Among
different strategies, only combustion technology is
currently being commercialized whereas the other
technologies are at different stages of development.
7 Model for management of crop
residues
The management of crop residue depends on multiple
factors and, thus, a region or need-based crop
residuemanagement plan should be developed.While
developing amanagement plan, it is important to
5 Quantification of economic value
of crop residue
It is important to understand the economic use of crop
residue to alleviate the problem of in-situ burning of it.
Contrastingly, across India, the majority of crop residue
is not being burned. For example, rice generated residue
is in the form of straw and husk. In southern and northern
India the major portion of rice straw is being used for
cattle feed and roof thatching, and burnt on-farm,
respectively (Meshram 2002). Conversely, husk is
mostly subjected to on-farm burning across the country,
especially after the introduction of modern combine
harvesters. Wheat is the second most consumed crop
after rice. The large amount of wheat straws (residue)
goes into cattle feeding, domestic fuel, paperboard
making and oil extraction (TIFAC 1991). However, in areas
of Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP) such as Punjab, Haryana,
Uttarnchal and Uttar Pradesh - where intense cropping
system is adopted - the straw is burnt as it is the easiest
and most economical option to get rid of it in the short
period available between two crops. Unlike wheat, corn
straw and millet stalks are relatively hard, and therefore
used less for fodder. However, it is either left in the field
as compost or used for cattle feed (TIFAC 1991;Meshram
2002). Similarly, mustard stalks are widely burnt or used
for domestic fuel.Sugarcane is a relatively long duration
crop and its residue is disposed ofquicklyto catchup for
the sowing of the follow-up crop. Sugarcane residue
includes trash, tops and bagasse. Trash is used as fuel
for jaggery extraction, cattle feed or burnt on-site (Tyagi
1989;Meshram 2002). Likewise, peanut stems and shells
are used for domestic and industrial fuel, respectively
(Tyagi 1989; TIFAC 1991; Meshram 2002).
On a global basis, burning of crop residue
represents nearly 2020 Mt (approx. 25% of total biomass
produced) (Crutzen and Andreae 1990;Andreae and
Merlet2001;Chang and Song2010).The four states viz.
Uttar Pradesh, Maharastra, Madhya Pradesh and Punjab
constitute 47% of total burnt crop residue as per IPCC
coefficient (Table 6). This huge amount of burnt crop
residue is virtually a loss of opportunity to itspotential
use for different purposes such as composite making and
bio-energy generation. In developing nations, clean and
affordable energy production can be enhanced from the
deployment of advanced biomass cooking stoves. It is
projected that growth in use of biofuel for transportation
will rise from 2% at presentto 27% in 2050 (IEA Roadmap
Biofuels for Transport 2011).
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492 S. Devi, et al.
Table 6: Burning of crop residue (tonnes)
State/ UT
Rice Wheat Sugarcane Cotton Total for all Crops
IPCC Jain et al. IPCC Jain et al. IPCC Jain et al. IPCC Jain et al. IPCC Jain et al.
Andhra Pradesh +
Telangana
. . . . . . . . . .
Assam . . . . . . . . . .
Bihar . . . . . . . . . .
Chhattisgarh . . . . . . . . . .
Gujarat . . . . . . . . . .
Haryana . . . . . . . . . .
Himachal Pradesh . . . . . . . . . .
Jammu & Kashmir . . . . . . . . . .
Jharkhand . . . . . . . . . .
Karnataka . . . . . . . . . .
Kerala . . . . . . . . . .
Madhya Pradesh . . . . . . . . . .
Maharashtra . . . . . . . . . .
Orissa . . . . . . . . . .
Punjab . . . . . . . . . .
Rajasthan . . . . . . . . . .
Tamilnadu . . . . . . . . . .
Uttar Pradesh . . . . . . . . . .
Uttarakhand . . . . . . . . . .
West Bengal . . . . . . . . . .
Others . . . . . . . . . .
All-India . . . . . . . . . .
Source: Compiled by author by IPCC and Jain et al. (2014) methodology.
Table 7: End use of paddy straw
S. No Author Disposal pattern
Badarinath and Chand Kiran () – % area is machine harvested
¾ or % of straw is burnt
Venkataramanet al. () – % straw burnt (IGP)
Sidhu and Beri () % of paddy burnt and % of wheat burnt, fodder ( % of rice and % of wheat),
rope making ( % of rice and % of wheat), incorporated in soil ( % of rice and less than
% of wheat), miscellaneous ( % each of rice and wheat)
Sarkar et al. () % combine harvested and % burnt
Average % of paddy is burnt
Source: Data retrieved from Badarinath and Chand Kiran (2006), Venkataraman et al. (2006), Sidhu and Beri (2005) and Sarkar et al. (1999).
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Crop residue recycling for economic and environmental sustainability: The case of India 493
of it is not being economically exploited and treated as
waste. Widespread attention to this agricultural waste
management has clearly been limited to date.Given,
1. The exclusion of agricultural residue as an economic
product in the case ofIndia,
2. Lack of interest and energy on the part of farmer and
small industrial stakeholder,and
3. The economic difficulties in farming (and
relatedindustries).
Imposing a ban on burning of crop residue may not
be fruitful unless growers are enlightened with the
negative effects of it on human, animal and soil health,
crop biodiversity,the mirco- and macro-environment,
etc. To disseminate the knowledge of usefulness of crop
residue, extension education is encouraged among
growers and producers. Extension activities include
talks, speeches, visuals, presentations, publication, etc.
For example, a documentary on the environment and
emphasize and imperative to consider the facts regarding
the quantity of crop residues being produced, seasonal
availability, priority of competing uses, availability
of technologiesanditsshort-andlong-term impacts,
and availability of infrastructure and equipment for
management of crop residues.
A proposed model plan thatmay be used as a guideline
for managing crop residues at local and regional scales is
presented in Table 8.
8 Conclusion
Crop residues are of great economic value as livestock
feed, fuel and industrial raw material. However,
management challengesof the crop residues are varied
across the region and its socio-economic needs.
The estimated amount incorporated with standard
uncertainties provides a completeview about the amount
of crop residue generation every year. A large amount
Table 8: Model plan for managing crop residues at local and regional scales
Query Response Crop residues management options
. Can crop residues be used for
conservation agriculture?
If the answer is
No, move to query
Yes Retain it on soilsurface
Use drill for sowing with residues (e.g. HappySeeder)
Follow conservation agriculture for all crops in rotation
. Can it be used as fodder?
If the answer is
No, move to query
Yes Leave stubbles infield
Enrich fodderwithsupplements
(e.g. urea and molasses)
Use manure in conservation agriculture
. Can it be used for composting? Yes Leave stubbles infield
Adopt modern composting technique (e.g. IARI model)
Use compost in conservation agriculture
. Can it be used for biogas generation?
If the answer is
No, move to query
Yes Leave stubbles infield
Adopt communitybiogas
plant (e.g. KVIC design modified by IARI)
Use slurry in conservation agriculture
. Can it be used for bio-fuel generation? If
the answer is No, move to query
Yes Leave stubbles infield
Install bio-fuel plant
Use liquid slurry in conservationagriculture
. Can it be used for electricity generation?
If the answer is No, move to query
Yes Leave stubbles infield
Install biomass-energy plant (e.g. KPTL model)
Use ash in conservation agriculture
. Can it be used for gasification?
If the answer is No, move to query
Yes Leave stubbles infield
Install biomass gasifier (e.g. CIAEmodel)
Use ash in conservation agriculture
. Can it be used for biochar making? Yes Leave stubbles infield
Install biochar klin (e.g. IARImodel)
Use biochar in conservation agriculture
Source: Andrea and Merlet (2001) and A strategy suggested by authors using their own evaluation while reading available literature on uses
of crop residues.
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494 S. Devi, et al.
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with high-resolution Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectro-
radiometer (MODIS) active-fire and land cover data. Global
Biogeochemical Cycles, 2006,20(2), 1–12
Weindorf D.C., Sarkar R., Dia M., Wang H., Chang Q., Haggard
B., McWhirt A., Wooten A., Correlation of X-ray fluorescence
spectrometry and inductively coupled plasma atomic emission
spectroscopy for elemental determination in composted
products. Compost Sci. Utilization, 2008, 16(2), 79-82,http://
dx.doi.org/10.1080/1065657X.2008.10702361
climate change with special emphasis on how burning
crop residue adversely impactsonclimate change can be
used. Educatingthe farmers about the pecuniary and non-
pecuniary benefits of not burning the agricultural residues
could include,alternatives to burning agricultural residue
like collection and transportation of agricultural residues,
gasification as a fuel for the boilers, converting into
briquettes, designing of suitable harvester, compostingin-
situ, and straw mulching while using disc ploughs, disc
harrows, rotavators, zero tillage and happy seeders.
The prospect for crop residue utilization in
nonconventional ways is limited. However, the drive to
change isincreasing rapidly due to different industries
using crop residue as raw materials are increasing, as
indicated by figures earlier. But the potential of individual
industriesare yet to be prioritized and need impetus. The
Government’s initiative to generate energy out of theseby-
products has acted as a catalyst. This further instills the
idea of economic benefit among different stakeholders.
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