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ATELOPUS CARRIKERI (Guajira Stubfoot Toad) and ATELOPUS LAETISSIMUS (Santa Marta Harlequin Frog). INTERSPECIFIC AMPLEXUS.

September 2017

Authors:

José Luis Pérez-González

University of Magdalena

Nicolette Roach

Luis Alberto Rueda Solano

University of Magdalena

Adult Tropidurus hispidus preying on a moth, Rothschildia sp., in Catimbau National Park, Pernambuco, Brazil.

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Death-feigning posture in a female Gekko gecko.

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Surface water and Thamnophis rufipunctatus observations on the Blue River during 2016 surveys.

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Dorsal view of Sistrurus catenatus dicephalic neonate.

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+106

. Monthly stages in the ovarian cycle of 6 Emoia slevini females from the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands.

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Figures - uploaded by José Luis Pérez-González

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Content uploaded by José Luis Pérez-González

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Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

596596 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

CAUDATA — SALAMANDERS

AMBYSTOMA CALIFORNIENSE (California Tiger Salamander).

PREDATION. Although little appears to be reported on predation

of Ambystoma californiense, the larvae are known to succumb to

predatory attacks from Rana draytonii (California Red-legged

Frog; Baldwin and Stanford 1987. Herpetol. Rev. 18:33), Sterna

forsteri (Forster’s Tern), and Recuvirostra americana (American

Avocet; Allaback et al. 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:50). During sur-

veys for special-status species at stock ponds in the eastern San

Francisco Bay region (Contra Costa County, California, USA), we

encountered two native predators that are frequently sympatric

with A. californiense.

While conducting nighttime surveys on 90 ponds in the up-

per Kellogg Creek watershed we detected movement on the wet

edge of a pond (37.80140°N, 121.7163°W, WGS 84; elev. 210 m).

Upon close inspection we found a late-stage A. californiense lar-

va (approximately 10 cm total length) emerging from the aquatic

habitat. The larva had fully-formed gills and was also the color

and form of a life stage that suggested it should remain in the

pond for several more weeks (Alvarez and Foster 2016. Herp Na-

tion Magazine 19:28–30). When we attempted to collect the spec-

imen by hand for examination, we found an adult Actinemys pal-

lida (Western Pond Turtle) securely attached to the larva’s caudal

fin (distal portion of the tail) in a firm bite. We grasped the turtle

and lifted it along with the larval A. californiense, and within one

or two seconds the turtle released the salamander. After a brief

inspection, the turtle was released. The A. californiense larva had

sustained a significant laceration to the distal portion of the tail,

deep enough to penetrate the skin and into the musculature. As

a result, a portion of the tail was partially disconnected, with a

gap of approximately 1 cm wide on the dorsal ridge of the tail.

Despite this substantial injury, the animal moved as would be

expected for a non-injured salamander, walking and dragging

its tail. The wound, despite its severity, did not appear to be life-

threatening and the larva was released back into the edge of the

pond where within two or three seconds it moved into deeper

water and out of sight.

At another pond (37.79000°N, 121.71880°W, WGS 84; elev.

319 m), we encountered a Thamnophis atratus (Aquatic Garter-

snake) moving through the vegetation along the shoreline, pre-

sumably preying upon the larvae of extremely numerous Pseud-

acris sierra (Sierra Treefrog) and Anaxyrus boreas ( Western Toad).

Our attention was drawn to commotion in the adjacent upland,

where a second adult Aquatic Gartersnake (approximately 60

cm) was partially tucked into a hoof print from grazing cattle. On

closer inspection, the snake appeared to be bracing itself as it at-

tempted to subdue and swallow a late-stage A. californiense larva

(approximately 13 cm total length). The prey item was grasped

by the head and periodically shook its tail from side to side, pre-

sumably attempting to escape. We observed the interaction for

several minutes before the A. californiense larva was swallowed

beyond its mid-section. At that point we presumed that the larva

would be fully consumed, and resumed surveying the remainder

of the pond. Preston and Johnson (2012. J. Herpetol. 46:221–227)

investigated the feeding preferences of T. atratus at this site and

others, and found that this species primarily feeds upon P. sierra

and A. boreas. Among 60 snakes and 258 food items reported by

Preston and Johnson (op. cit.), A. californiense was unrecorded in

the diet of T. atratus.

Our observations indicate that A. pallida and T. atratus will

attempt to prey upon larval A. californiense in aquatic breeding

habitat. In addition, the predatory incident with A. pallida oc-

curred at night (approximately 2100 h); this may have increased

the turtle’s potentially successful predation attempt over a day-

time event, when salamander larvae can more rapidly perceive

and evade predators.

JEFF A. ALVAREZ, The Wildlife Project, P.O. Box 188888, Sacramento,

California 95818, USA (e-mail: je@thewildlifeproject.com); MARY A.

SHEA, P.O. Box 1632, Brentwood, California 94513, USA.

AMBYSTOMA CALIFORNIENSE (California Tiger Salaman-

der). TERRESTRIAL ECOLOGY. Although recent research has

begun to determine the extensive amount of terrestrial habitat

that Ambystoma californiense requires relative to breeding loca-

tions, little information is available regarding upland site fidel-

ity following breeding migrations (Trenham et al. 2005. Ecol.

Appl. 15:1158–1168; Searcy et al. 2011 in Alexander and Schlis-

ing [eds.], Research and Recovery in Vernal Pool Landscape, pp.

73–78. Chico State University, California; Orloff 2011. Herpetol.

Conserv. Biol. 6:266–276). During the winter of 2008–2009, while

conducting a mark-recapture study, we observed aspects of up-

land habitat use by A. californiense.

On 2 November 2008, we captured an adult A. californiense in

a pitfall trap 580 m from the only breeding location on the Buena

Vista Unit of the Ellicott Slough National Wildlife Refuge in Santa

Cruz County, California, USA (36.93530°N, 121.82640°W, WGS84,

elev. 132 m). The individual was captured within a narrow, 4 m-

wide strip of nonnative grass and landscaped plants between an

isolated single-family residence and a small, 0.21-ha drift fence

enclosure (Fig. 1). The male A. californiense was reproductive and

detected early in the season outside the enclosure during only

the second significant rainfall event of the year (> 2 mm). These

data, combined with the constrained capture location, indicated

that it over-summered within a few meters of the original cap-

ture site. The individual was released 37 m away on the opposite

side of the enclosure at an oak woodland/nonnative grassland

ecotone in the presumed direction of travel towards the breeding

pond. Much of the remainder of the property, including the land

between the release location and breeding pond, was considered

atypical for the species, as it consisted of dense coastal scrub,

closed-canopy coast live-oak woodland, closed-cone coniferous

forest, maritime chaparral, and non-native Acacia forest with

limited grassland or other open habitat.

NATURAL HISTORY NOTESNATURAL HISTORY NOTES

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 597

On 6 February 2009, we captured the same A. californiense,

identified by a photograph of the dorsal spot pattern and a single

toe-clip, emigrating from the breeding pond where we were con-

ducting a mark-recapture population study of both A. californi-

ense and A. macrodactylum croceum (36.93050°N, 121.82650°W,

WGS84; elev. 89 m; Fig. 1). On 23 February 2009, the individual

was captured again in a pitfall trap at the upland enclosure with-

in 5 m of its initial release location.

Reproductive A. californiense will emerge from over-sum-

mering retreats early in the rainy season and may spend several

weeks or months to reach breeding sites. Ninety-six days elapsed

between the time this individual was trapped at the upland

site in November and when it was captured emerging from the

breeding pond. It subsequently exhibited upland site fidelity by

returning to its original upland location 17 d later. The round-

trip breeding migration for this individual required 113 d.

Upland habitats used by A. californiense are typically open,

including annual grassland and oak savannah, although chapar-

ral is used in Monterey County, California (Wang et al. 2009. Mol.

Ecol. 18:1356–1374). Our data show that A. californiense are able

to migrate at least 550 m through dense coastal scrub and closed-

cone coniferous forest during its breeding migration. Conserva-

tion planners must ensure that no barriers to terrestrial move-

ments are introduced that might inhibit breeding migrations or

post-metamorphic dispersal to specific upland areas where A.

californiense spends the majority of its life cycle. This observa-

tion supports the contention that focused studies are required

to estimate density in occupied uplands and identify movement

corridors (Searcy et al. 2008. Conserv. Biol. 22:997–1005), espe-

cially where A. californiense persists within a mosaic of vegetation

communities or in habitat patches fragmented by human uses.

This work was conducted under the authority of a United

States Fish and Wildlife Service Endangered Species Recovery

Permit, as well as California Department of Fish and Wildlife sci-

entific collecting permits and associated Memorandums of Un-

derstanding. We are grateful to Ellicott Slough National Wildlife

Refuge Manager Diane Kodama for reviewing this manuscript,

and Rachel Tertes, Meg Marriott, and Patrick Kearns of the Unit-

ed States Fish and Wildlife Service for acquiring funding and as-

sistance with drift fence installation.

MARK L. ALLABACK (e-mail: markallaback@sbcglobal.net), DAVID

M. LAABS, Biosearch Associates, P.O. Box 1220, Santa Cruz, California

95061, USA; CHAD STEINER, 221 Baldwin Street, Santa Cruz, California

95060, USA.

ECHINOTRITON MAXIQUADRATUS (Mountain Spiny Croco-

dile Newt). MORPHOLOGY. Spiny Crocodile newts of the genus

Echinotriton are very secretive and their ecology and natural his-

tory are poorly known (Hernandez 2016. Crocodile Newts: The

Primitive Salamandridae from Asia: the Genera Echinotriton and

Tylototriton. Edition Chimaira, Frankfurt, Germany, 415 pp.). The

recent description of a new species, Echinotriton maxiquadra-

tus, likewise encompasses a remarkably restricted geographic

range in the mountains of South-eastern China. It is possible

that the populations of these species are declining due to habitat

disturbance (Hou et al. 2013. Zootaxa 3895: 89–102). However,

despite the increasing attention on conservation of E. maxiqua-

dratus, nothing is known about its larval stage and morphology.

Such information is crucial to protect breeding habitats for this

endangered species.

On 11, 12, and 13 July 2015, seven larvae were discovered

in three small ponds of a subtropical perhumid evergreen

Fig. 1. Initial and recapture locations of adult male Ambystoma

californiense relative to the breeding pond, Buena Vista Unit, Ellicott

National Wildlife Refuge, Santa Cruz County, California, USA.

Fig. 1. Echinotriton maxiquadratus larvae and their habitat in south-

western China. Upper left: old larva of 43 mm; Upper right: hatching

larva of 16 mm; Lower: Small pond covered with dense vegetation

were larvae were found.

PHOTOS BY AXEL HERNANDEZ

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

598 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

broad-leaved forest of a mountain range in Southwestern China

between Zhejiang, Fujian, Jiangxi and Guangdong provinces at

1240 and 1320 m elev. Coordinates are not provided for conser-

vation purposes, following the suggestions of Hou et al. (2013, op.

cit.). The air temperature was 19.6°C at night and 26.6°C during

the daytime, that of the water 21.2°C (with larvae), and humidity

79%. The average depth of water was 6–10 cm. pH recorded at the

spawning site was between 7.3–7.6. All of these ponds were veg-

etated by Sphagnum moss and grasses, and populated by seven

larvae of 1.6 to 4.8 cm in total length, which implied they were ca.

4–6 weeks old when assuming a growth rate similar to E. chin-

haiensis (Hernandez 2016, op. cit.). The hatching larvae measure

16 mm in total length, are yellowish to orange in color and turn

pale grey with darker black coloration on the dorsum with age.

Gills are present and show a reddish coloration. Larvae also have

small white spots disposed irregularly on the dorsal part and gills.

Brown to dark spots are also present on the tail and disappear

with age (Fig. 1). The larvae were assigned to E. maxiquadratus

based on genetic testing (Hernandez et al., in press). Moreover,

I also found two adults by night depositing eggs near the ponds

at the studied sites. These observations suggest that larval mor-

phology of E. maxiquadratus is quite similar to its congeners but

differs by the bright yellowish coloration of hatching larvae and

by having more small irregular white spots on the dorsum.

AXEL HERNANDEZ, Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty

of Sciences and Technics, University Pasquale Paoli of Corsica, France; e-

mail: hernandez.axel.1989@gmail.com.

EURYCEA AQUATICA (Brown-backed Salamander). NESTING.

On 8 March 2016, we flipped a large rock to reveal two separate

Eurycea aquatica nests numbering 67 and 80 eggs in a spring-fed

stream in Knox County, Tennessee, USA (35.93830°N, 83.84720°W;

WGS 84). Under a second smaller rock that was directly adjacent

and under the first, we found a third nest numbering 89 eggs. We

determined the sex of attending adults by the presence of mental

glands in males. With these three nests, we found a total of one

adult female and one adult male E. aquatica. Nearby, we flipped

another large rock and the several smaller rocks underneath it.

In total, these rocks revealed six nests and five adult female E.

aquatica, as well as two dead and decomposing gravid females.

In all cases, determining exactly which adults were with which

nests was impossible due to the flow of the stream and disrup-

tion caused by lifting the rocks. We photographed and counted

eggs from two of these nests, and they numbered 154 and 80, re-

spectively.

Proposed communal nesting has been previously reported

for other populations of the Eurycea bislineata species complex,

including some in New York (Bishop 1941. New York State Mus.

Bull. 324:1–365), Virginia (Wood 1953. Chicago Acad. Sci., Nat.

Hist. Misc. 122:1–7), Ohio (Baumann and Huels 1982. J. Herpe-

tol. 16:818–823), Illinois (Jakubanis et al. 2008. Northeast. Nat.

15:131–140), Ontario (LeGros 2011. Can. Field-Nat. 125:363–365),

and Connecticut (Ferguson et al. 2014. JNAH 2014:87–92), al-

though some of these reports fail to distinguish between nests

laid under the same object but separated by a small distance and

those truly intermixed.

The taxonomy of the E. bislineata species complex is con-

tentious, and our taxonomic assignment of this population to E.

aquatica reflects the best application of the available taxonomy

to evolutionary relationships suggested by genomic data (Pier-

son et al., unpubl. data). Graham et al. (2010. IRCF Reptiles &

Amphibians 17:168–172) report on the nesting behavior of E.

aquatica, demonstrating both male and female attendance of

clutches, with a mean clutch size of 65.93 (range 31–138). They

speculated that their largest clutches might represent evidence

of communal nesting, but they did not provide definitive proof.

We likewise cannot be certain as to whether any of our individual

nests contain eggs from different females, but the large size of

one nest suggests the possibility. Regardless, the close proximity

and dense aggregation of nesting females we observed is remark-

able even for members of the E. bislineata species complex, and

we do not know of any previous records of deceased females in

nesting aggregations.

TODD W. PIERSON (e-mail: tpierso1@vols.utk.edu) and TYSON PAUL-

SON, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Ten-

nessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA (e-mail: tpaulson@vols.utk.edu).

EURYCEA AQUATICA (Brown-backed Salamander) and EURY-

CEA CIRRIGERA (Southern Two-lined Salamander). HATCH-

ING. On 13 March 2016, we lifted a small rock in a spring-fed

stream to reveal an adult female Eurycea aquatica attending

a clutch of eggs in Knox County, Tennessee, USA (35.95239°N,

83.88860°W; WGS 84). We momentarily positioned the rock at a

90° angle, with the nest suspended vertically in shallow, slowly

flowing water. Upon first examination, the nest consisted of ap-

proximately 40 eggs, at least half of which were occupied by vi-

able larvae. Within one minute, we noticed several of the larvae

within the eggs squirming vigorously and with increasing inten-

sity. In the next 5 min., we watched as all but one larva pushed

their way out of the eggs and swam into the water. Upon hatch-

ing, these larvae moved immediately to the gravel at the stream

bottom and attempted to find refuge in interstitial space. On 29

March 2016, we uncovered a female Eurycea cirrigera guarding a

clutch of eggs under a rock in a second-order stream in Haber-

sham County, Georgia, USA (34.50396°N, 83.48103°W; WGS 84).

This nest consisted of at least 44 eggs, and we did not notice any

eggs that had already hatched. We temporarily flipped the rock

upside down and rested the rock out of the water, and several of

the larvae began to hatch. We placed the rock in shallow, slowly

flowing water at a 90° angle. Within 5 min., approximately two-

thirds of the larvae had hatched and buried themselves in the

silt below the rock. Warkentin (2011. Integr. Comp. Biol. 51:111–

127) reviewed plasticity of hatching in amphibians in response

to environmental stimuli, including disturbance by potential

predators. However, relatively few observations of the hatching

of aquatic plethodontid salamander nests have been recorded

(Petranka 1998. Salamanders of the United States and Canada.

Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 587 pp.), and ex-

pedited hatching in response to a potential predator is not yet

documented. We acknowledge that we may have happened to

uncover these nests in the process of hatching, but the speed with

which the larvae hatched seems instead to suggest a response to

the disturbance similar to that exhibited by other amphibians.

The taxonomy of the Eurycea bislineata species complex is under

investigation, and our identifications reflect the best application

of the available taxonomy to evolutionary relationships suggest-

ed by genetic and genomic data (Timpe et al. 2009. Mol. Phylo-

genet. Evol. 52:368–376; Pierson et al., unpubl. data).

TODD W. PIERSON, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology,

University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA (e-mail: tpierso1@

vols.utk.edu); NATALIA J. BAYONA-VÁSQUEZ, Laboratorio de Genética

de Organismos Acuáticos, Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología,

Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México D.F. 04510, México

(e-mail: njbayonav@gmail.com).

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 599

DICAMPTODON TENEBROSUS (Coastal Giant Salamander).

FEEDING BEHAVIOR AND DIET. Dicamptodon tenebrosus is

an opportunistic predator that eats a wide variety of prey (Nuss-

baum et al. 1983. Amphibians and Reptiles of the Pacific North-

west. University Press of Idaho, Moscow. 332 pp.; Petranka 1998.

Salamanders of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian In-

stitution Press, Washington, DC. 587 pp.). However, terrestrial

earthworms (Class Oligochaeta: Order Megadrilacea) are rarely

reported as part of the diet of wild D. tenebrosus. Here, we relate

observations of D. tenebrosus feeding on two species of terres-

trial earthworms (Lumbricidae). These observations were made

along small forest streams in northwestern Oregon, USA, which

are described in detail elsewhere (Rombough 2017. Herpetol.

Rev. 48:154–155). Several species of earthworms, including Lum-

bricus terrestris and Octolasion cyaneum, are locally abundant in

this area.

Between 1840 and 2120 h on 30 October 2014, we observed

four terrestrial (metamorphosed) D. tenebrosus (SVL = ca. 80 to

> 120 mm) feeding along the edge of small streams in the afore-

mentioned area. These Dicamptodon were between 2 and 8 m

from the stream when first observed. All were walking slowly over

the surface; periodically, they were seen lowering their heads

into the moss and wet leaves that covered the substrate. At ca.

2100 h, one of these Dicamptodon (SVL = ca. 120 mm) caught

a L. terrestris that was crawling over the wet leaves. The worm

thrashed and attempted to crawl away with its anterior end, but

the Dicamptodon swallowed it using quick jerks of its head. The

entire process took <5 min.

On 07 February 2015, between 1930 and 2200 h, we observed a

larval (SVL = ca. 80 mm SVL) and two gilled adult (neotenic; SVL =

ca. 120 and 150 mm) D. tenebrosus feeding on L. terrestris in a small

stream. All Dicamptodon were in the shallow margins (depth < 20

cm) of slow pools below debris (leaf and stick) jams, less than 30

cm from the stream bank. Several additional Dicamptodon lar-

vae and gilled adults (SVL = ca. 50 to > 100 mm) were seen along

the shallow margins of similar pools; L. terrestris experimentally

dropped into these pools were immediately caught and eaten.

At 2115 h, we found a larval D. tenebrosus (SVL = ca. 80 mm)

on the gravelly bank of the stream, approximately 15 cm from

the water. As we watched, it moved forward and caught an Oc-

tolasion cyaneum (Fig. 1). The Dicamptodon immediately swal-

lowed the anterior end of the worm. However, the worm was

too large to eat quickly, and a battle ensued, in which the worm

repeatedly dug into the gravel with its posterior end, dragging

the Dicamptodon’s head down into the gravel, and partially

pulling itself out of the Dicamptodon’s mouth. Periodically, the

Dicamptodon jerked its head back, pulling the worm back out

of the gravel, and re-swallowing the escaped portion. This pro-

cess continued for ca. 15 minutes, at which point we retreated

so as not to disturb the salamander further. When we checked

on the salamander approximately 10 minutes later, it was still on

the bank, but we did not see the worm. At the time observations

were made, the weather was cool (air temp. = 11°C) and rainy,

and both L. terrestris and O. cyaneum were abundant on the soil

surface and in leaf packs along the stream.

On 21 February 2016, between 2100 and 2400 hours, we ob-

served a larval (SVL = ca. 70 mm) and a gilled adult (SVL ≥ 90

mm) D. tenebrosus feeding on L. terrestris that had washed into

a small stream (Fig. 2). Both Dicamptodon were in shallow (≤15

cm), slower-moving portions of the stream. At the time obser-

vations were made, the weather was cool (air temp. = 7°C) and

rainy, and L. terrestris were abundant on the soil surface and in

leaf packs along the stream.

To the best of our knowledge, this report is the first account

of larval Dicamptodon feeding out of water. Interestingly, both

species of worms described here are not native to North America,

but are introductions from Europe. Most existing studies do not

mention lumbricid worms as items of Dicamptodon diet, but this

may be an artifact of the studies’ timing or location. An indica-

tion that this phenomenon may be increasing and/or underes-

timated is the work of Parker (1994. Copeia 1994:705–718), who

studied the diet of larval Dicamptodon in a stream in northwest

California. Parker reported that, on two occasions following

heavy rains, “a large proportion of salamanders collected had

consumed terrestrial earthworms (Lumbricus sp.) that had been

washed into the stream and dominated total diet volume”.

We owe special thanks to Bill Fender of McMinnville, Oregon,

for identifying O. cyaneum.

CHRIS ROMBOUGH, Rombough Biological, PO Box 365, Aurora, Or-

egon 97002, USA (e-mail: rambo2718@yahoo.com); LAURA TRUNK, Jack-

son Bottom Wetlands Preserve, 2600 SW Hillsboro Hwy, Hillsboro, Oregon

97123, USA.

Fig. 1. Larval Dicamptodon tenebrosus eating Octolasion cyaneum on

the rocky bank of a small stream.

Fig. 2. Neotenic Dicamptodon tenebrosus eating Lumbricus terrestris

in the shallow margins of a stream. (The salamander pictured com-

pletely swallowed the Lumbricus within ca. 5 min.)

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

600 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

PLETHODON CINEREUS (Eastern Red-backed Salamander).

HABITAT. Plethodon cinereus is a woodland salamander primar-

ily found in wooded areas and forests of northeastern United

States and southeastern Canada (Petranka 1998. Salamanders

of the United States and Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press,

Washington, D.C. 587 pp.). As wooded areas and forests become

more fragmented, understanding whether P. cinereus can use or

traverse non-wooded habitats may become more important in

determining the ability of this species to respond to the increased

isolation of wooded fragments. Previous research has shown

that P. cinereus can move limited distances across non-wooded

habitats. For example, Marsh et al. (2004. Ecology 85:3396–3405)

found that P. cinereus displaced up to 55 m into a field habitat

were able to return to a forest habitat, and that P. cinereus would

cross open field habitat to reach islands of wooded habitat up to

25 m from a forested edge.

On 2 October 2016, we observed an adult P. cinereus (SVL

ca. 4–5 cm) under an artificial cover board (61 m x 61 m x 2 cm)

in a restored prairie habitat at the Granville Schools Land Lab,

Granville, Licking County, Ohio, USA (40.08888°N, 82.54083°W;

WGS84). The cover board had been originally placed in Spring

2016 as part of a larger grid of cover boards used to monitor snake

and small mammal distributions on the Granville Schools Land

Lab, a 15-ha restored prairie/wetland system that was reclaimed

from agricultural field (soybean and corn rotation) beginning in

the summer of 2014. The two nearest wooded habitats are 300 m

and 500 m from the cover board, suggesting the possibility the

salamander moved that far from the nearest suitable habitat. The

longest dispersal movement of P. cinereus observed to date is 143

m through a forested habitat (Sterrett et al. 2015. Herpetol. Rev.

46:71). In addition to the distance, the salamander would have

crossed at least one two-lane road or school driveway to reach

the cover board site from the nearest woodlands. Roads are of-

ten significant barriers to the movements of P. cinereus (Marsh et

al. 2005. Conserv. Biol. 19:2004–2008, Marsh et al. 2008. Conserv.

Genet. 9:603–613). We did not subsequently observe any sala-

manders under any cover boards, suggesting this salamander

may have been transiting the area, perhaps dispersing among

woodlands or engaging in a seasonal migration (e.g., Woolbright

and Martin 2014. J. Herpetol. 48:546–551) and/or was not suc-

cessful at colonizing the prairie habitat.

We thank J. Reding for his driving the Land Lab restoration

project, which was funded by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s

Partners for Wildlife Program. We also thank J. Rettig and L. Smith

for help in placing the cover boards.

GEOFFREY R. SMITH, Department of Biology, Denison University,

Granville, Ohio 43203, USA (e-mail: smithg@denison.edu); WESLEY O.

SMITH, Granville High School, 248 New Burg St. Granville, Ohio 43023, USA.

PLETHODON PETRAEUS (Pigeon Mountain Salamander).

ARBOREAL BEHAVIOR. Plethodon petraeus is a species of

conservation concern because it is only known to occur along

approximately 17 km of the southeastern slope of Pigeon

Mountain in northwest Georgia. Described as a crevice-

dwelling salamander, climbing behavior in in this species is well

documented on rocky outcrops, cliff faces, and cave entrances

(Wynn et al. 1988. Herpetologica 44:135–143; Jensen et al. 2002.

Southeast. Nat. 1:3–16). Despite morphological adaptations for

climbing and ample evidence of utilizing vertical exposed rock,

there have been no reports of individuals on trees.

At 2200 h on 21 April 2016 within Crockford-Pigeon Mountain

Wildlife Management Area in Walker County, Georgia, USA

(precise locality withheld due to conservation concerns) a

female adult P. petraeus was observed 45 cm above the ground

on the side of a moss-covered hardwood tree (Fig. 1). The tree

was within 1 m of a rock outcrop. During this encounter, the

individual was seen consuming an ant, a large component of

this species’ diet (Jensen and Whiles 2000. J. Elisha Mitchell

Sci. Soc. 116:245–250). Although it was not raining at the time

of the observation, the location had received rainfall within the

previous 24 h. This observation adds to the knowledge of this

species’ foraging habits beyond the rock crevices they are closely

associated with. It also adds to the increasing documentation of

facultative use of vegetation by plethodontid salamanders for

foraging (McEntire 2016. Copeia 104:124–131).

KATE C. DONLON, 2021 Coey Rd, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA

(e-mail: donlon.10@osu.edu); THOMAS C. McELROY, 1000 Chastain Rd,

Kennesaw, Georgia 30144, USA (e-mail: tmcelro2@kennesaw.edu).

PLETHODON WEHRLEI (Wehrle’s Salamander). ARBOREAL

BEHAVIOR. Plethodon wehrlei is a little-studied species with

a distribution largely within the Central Appalachian Plateau.

Although Green and Pauley (1987. Amphibians and Reptiles

of West Virginia. University of Pittsburgh Press, Pittsburgh,

Pennsylvania. 241 pp.) note that P. wehrlei may occasionally

ascend vegetation, a recent review on the arboreal ecology of

Plethodontidae (McEntire 2016. Copeia 104:124–131) did not

report arboreal behavior in P. wehrlei. Observations of arboreal

behavior should be noted, as it may have potential implications

Fig. 1. Plethodon petraeus foraging on the side of a tree, Crockford-

Pigeon Mountain Wildlife Management Area, Walker County,

Georgia, USA.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 601

for plethodontid research and conservation that occurs within

the range of P. wehrlei as traditional sampling methods are often

biased towards terrestrial behavior.

At 2200 h on 8 August 2013, numerous (> 5) P. wehrlei were

noted climbing woody vegetation (e.g., Rhododendron maxi-

mum, Great Laurel, and Betula alleghaniensis, Yellow Birch)

alongside a forest road in Monongahela National Forest, Ran-

dolph County, West Virginia, USA (38.63000°N, 79.88000°W, WGS

84, elev. 1065 m) following a rain event. Immediately after, a 1 x

20 m transect was searched for approximately 30 min. The tran-

sect was heavily vegetated with Yellow Birch and Great Laurel

and had minimal herbaceous ground cover. Air temperature was

approximately 20°C , humidity > 90%, and foliage and leaf litter

were wet. Twenty-seven salamanders were recorded, including

18 P. wehrlei, two P. glutinosus, five P. cinereus, and two Desmog-

nathus ochrophaeus. Twelve of the 18 (66%) P. wehrlei were found

on woody vegetation (primarily branches of great laurel; Fig. 1) at

a height of 0.5–1.5 m. The only other salamander found exhibit-

ing arboreal behavior was a single D. ochrophaeus.

This observation highlights that vertical structure may be

more important to P. wehrlei than previously noted and efforts

should be made to adequately sample and address this habitat

in future studies.

MICHAEL GRAZIANO, 210 Kottman Hall, School of Environment and

Natural Resources, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 43210, USA;

e-mail: mpgraziano@gmail.com.

PLETHODON YONAHLOSSEE (Yonahlossee Salamander). AR-

BOREAL BEHAVIOR. At 2314 h on 27 August 2016, we observed

an adult male Plethodon yonahlossee approximately one m off

the ground on a small, dead hemlock tree in Smyth County, Vir-

ginia, USA (36.71450°N, 81.51010°W; WGS 84). The salamander

had a large mental gland and sat vertically along the trunk with

its head lifted just off the tree (Fig. 1). A review of climbing and

arboreal behavior of plethodontid salamanders (McEntire 2016.

Copeia 104:124–131) reported many instances of other Plethod-

on climbing trees, but to the best of our knowledge, this is the

first documentation of this behavior in P. yonahlossee.

TODD W. PIERSON, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biol-

ogy, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA (e-mail: tpi-

erso1@vols.utk.edu); WILL LATTEA (e-mail: will.lattea@gmail.com), EVIN

T. CARTER, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University

of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee 37996, USA (e-mail: ecarte19@vols.

utk.edu); LINDSEY HAYTER, Admiral Veterinary Hospital, 204 Watt Road,

Knoxville, Tennessee 37934, USA (e-mail: lehayter28@hotmail.com).

TARICHA GRANULOSA (Rough-skinned Newt). PREDATION.

Taricha granulosa is well-known for its toxicity to most verte-

brates (Petranka 1998. Salamanders of the United States and

Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC. 587

pp.). Here, I relate an account of predation on an adult T. gran-

ulosa by Anas platyrhynchos (Mallard Duck). At 1100 h on 20

January 2014, I saw a mixed flock of ducks which included 26 A.

platyrhynchos feeding on a small farm pond in Marion County,

Oregon, USA (45.2322°N, 122.7894°W, WGS 84; elev. 55 m). I

watched the ducks from approximately 18 m away, using a pair

of 10 x 25 binoculars. As I watched, a female A. platyrhynchos

dipped her head underwater and caught an adult T. granulosa

(ca. 75 mm SVL). The duck held the T. granulosa in its bill, with a

grip just anterior to the hind legs. The bright orange venter of the

T. granulosa was clearly visible, even without binoculars.

The duck spent the next five minutes manipulating the

squirming T. granulosa: shaking it, dipping it in the water, toss-

ing it in the air and catching it by a different part of the body. The

latter movement appeared to be an attempt to re-position the

T. granulosa in its bill. After five minutes, the duck managed to

secure a grip on the T. granulosa’s head. At this point, the duck

swallowed the T. granulosa head-first, a process that required al-

most a minute and involved much head-tossing and thrusting

of its bill into the air. During this entire process, the duck con-

tinued swimming around on the pond. Using my binoculars, I

watched the duck very closely for the next two hours. It spent this

time swimming and preening in the same manner as the other A.

platyrhynchos present. It showed no apparent ill effects, nor did

it exhibit any behavior that I could distinguish as different from

Fig. 1. Yonahlossee Salamander (Plethodon yonahlossee) climbing a

tree, Smyth County, Virginia, USA.

Fig. 1. Wehrle’s Salamander (Plethodon wehrlei) exhibiting arboreal

behavior.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

602 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

that of the other ducks in the flock. After two hours, all the ducks

flew away.

Unfortunately, I do not know the fate of the duck in this observa-

tion. Nonetheless, it is interesting that the duck was able to consume

the newt, and that it did not exhibit symptoms of poisoning for at

least two hours. Birds, including A. platyrhynchos, are reported to

be highly susceptible to the toxin of T. granulosa (Storm 1948. Her-

petology of Benton Co., Oregon. Ph.D. Thesis, Oregon State Univ.,

Corvallis. 280 pp.; Brodie 1968. Copeia 1968:307–313; Mobley and

Stidham 2000. Wilson Bull. 112:563–564). Indeed, the only existing

account of duck predation on T. granulosa relates an observation of

a female A. platyrhynchos found dead with an adult male T. granu-

losa in its crop (Storm, op. cit.). Existing data suggest that, were the

duck affected by the newt’s poison, 15 min. is a sufficient interval

in which to exhibit symptoms, particularly given the rapid meta-

bolic rate of ducks and the relatively short time required to induce

symptoms in much larger animals (Brodie, op. cit.; Bradley and

Klika 1981. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 246:247; Rombough 2008. Herpetol.

Rev. 39:336). Although regional variation in newt toxicity has been

documented (Brodie and Brodie 1990. Evolution 44:651–659; Brodie

and Brodie 1991. Evolution 45:221–224), the reported susceptibil-

ity of birds suggests that the A. platyrhynchos would be expected to

show some symptoms of poisoning, even at relatively low levels of

toxicity. Why this one did not is puzzling. It is also puzzling that the

newt’s noxious skin secretions did not repel the duck. It may be that

dipping the T. granulosa in the water was the duck’s attempt to rinse

off these skin secretions, though this is speculation on my part.

This observation adds to a growing body of literature that

suggests amphibians might be seasonally important food sourc-

es for ducks, particularly during periods of high protein need

(Wells 2007. Ecology and Behavior of Amphibians. University of

Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 1400 pp.; Rombough and Brad-

ley 2010. Herpetol. Rev. 41:203), an aspect of the birds’ life history

that might have been overlooked because of the timing and loca-

tion of many previous studies of A. platyrhynchos diet.

I thank Michael O’Loughlin for reviewing this note.

CHRIS ROMBOUGH, Rombough Biological, P.O. Box 365, Aurora,

Oregon 97002, USA; e-mail: rambo2718@yahoo.com.

ANURA — FROGS

ADENOMERA HYLAEDACTYLA (Napo Tropical Bullfrog).

PREDATION. There are many published accounts of Giant

Fishing Spiders (Ancylometes rufus) and other ctenid spiders

consuming frogs (Prado and Borgo 2003. Herpetol. Rev. 34:238–

239; Toledo 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:395–400; Melo-Sampaio

et al. 2012. Herpetol. Rev. 43:636–637). At 2311 h on 5 August

2011 an adult Adenomera hylaedactyla was found being preyed

upon by an Ancylometes rufus in leaf litter (Fig. 1). Five minutes

later, another spider (Ctenus sp.) was observed preying upon a

juvenile A. hylaedactyla (Fig. 2). Both predation events occurred

in a small forest fragment in Rio Branco, Acre, Brazil (9.911880°S,

67.767382°W, WGS 84; 173 m elev.). At the time of the observation,

the spiders were immobilizing the frogs by biting on either side

of the body with their chelicerae and injecting venom into the

lateral portion near the groin. Our observations lasted 30 minutes

using white headlamps. We did not observe any resistance or

fight behavior by the frogs, possibly due to the quick effect of the

spiders’ toxins.

PAULO ROBERTO MELO-SAMPAIO, Departamento de Vertebrados,

Museu Nacional, Quinta da Boa Vista – São Cristóvão – CEP: 20140-040, Rio

de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (e-mail: prmelosampaio@gmail.com); LO-

RENA CORINA BEZERRA DE LIMA, Laboratório de Ecologia e Evolução,

Instituto Butantan, Av. Dr. Vital Brazil, 1500 – Butantã – CEP: 05503-900 São

Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil (e-mail: lorenacorinabezerradelima@gmail.com);

JÚNIOR MARCOS LIMA MACIEL, (e-mail: junior.maciel@gmail.com);

CAMILA MONTEIRO BRAGA DE OLIVEIRA, (e-mail: camila.mbo@gmail.

com); RAELLEN DA SILVA MOURA, União Educacional do Norte, BR 364

Km 02 – Alameda Hungria, 200 – Jardim Europa II – CEP: 69.915-497, Rio

Branco, Acre, Brazil (e-mail: raellensilva@gmail.com).

ATELOPUS CARRIKERI (Guajira Stubfoot Toad) and ATELOPUS

LAETISSIMUS (Santa Marta Harlequin Frog). INTERSPECIFIC

AMPLEXUS. Amphibian reproduction is linked to the commu-

nication strategies and the acoustic, visual, and chemical signals

produced by breeding pairs (Bowcock et al. 2008. Anim. Behav.

75:1571–1579; Wells 2010. The Ecology and Behavior of Amphib-

ians. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 1400 pp.).

However, signals do not always guarantee intraspecific mating

(Wells 2010, op. cit.). Here, we report the first observation of in-

terspecific amplexus between Atelopus carrikeri and A. laetis-

simus, two amphibian species endemic to the Sierra Nevada de

Santa Marta, Colombia (SNSM). The SNSM is an isolated moun-

tain range located on the northeastern Caribbean coast of Co-

lombia. The SNSM National Park boasts extremely high levels of

biodiversity and endemism and was recently ranked the world’s

most irreplaceable protected site (Le Saout et al. 2013. Science

342:803–805).

Fig. 1. Ancylometes rufus preying on an adult Adenomera hylaedactyla.

Fig. 2. Ctenus sp. preying on a juvenile Adenomera hylaedactyla.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 603

Atelopus carrikeri inhabits paramo ecosystems at high eleva-

tions between 2900 and 4800 m elev. (Rueda-Solano 2012. Her-

petotropicos 8:61–66; Rueda-Solano et al. 2016. J. Therm. Biol.

58:91–98), whereas A. laetissimus inhabits cloud forests and is

usually found at lower elevations of 1500–2800 m elev. (Ruiz-Car-

ranza et al. 1994. Revista Acad. Colomb. Ci. Exact. 19:153–163).

The species are listed as Critically Endangered and Endan-

gered, respectively (http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2010-

2.RLTS.T54496A11143667.en; http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.

UK.2014-3.RLTS.T54519A3015811.en; 27 April 2017).

We recorded interspecific amplexus between a male A. car-

rikeri and female A. laetissimus (Fig. 1) at 2130 h on 20 June 2016,

in cloud forest at a location locally known as the Pascual stream,

in San Pedro de la Sierra, in the Cebolletas mountain range on

the western slope of the SNSM, Cienaga, Colombia (10.91944°N,

73.93056°W, WGS 84; 2000 m elev.). During our two-day field

expedition, we recorded a reproductive event of A. laetissimus,

with more than 20 observations of intraspecific A. laetissimus

amplexus (Fig. 2). We easily recognized the male A. carrikeri due

to its smooth skin with bright coloring and big size with sturdy

limbs, and darkened iris; which is very different than male A. la-

etissimus.

We are uncertain how this amplexus occurred since they are

usually allopatric, utilizing different ecosystems in the SNSM.

However, a plausible hypothesis is that the Pascual stream begins

in the paramo and crosses a large part of the Cebolletas moun-

tain range until it reaches the Sevilla river. This path creates zones

of contact between the paramo and forested ecosystems, which

would allow for A. carrikeri individuals to disperse into the distri-

butional limits of A. laetissimus. This potential corridor may allow

for the occurrences of interspecific amplexus between these two

Atelopus species. The result of this amplexus may be the hybrid-

ization or introgression of genes between the two species, similar

to reported hybridizations between Rhinella atacamensis and

R. arunco (Correa et al. 2012. J. Herpetol. 46:568–577). However,

we are not certain hybridization will happen. Our new finding of

the amplexus between interspecific Bufonids accompanies other

similar records within the family (Haddad et al. 1990. Rev. Bras.

Biol. 50:739–744; Machado and Bernarde 2011. Herpetol. Notes

4:167–169; Correa et al. 2012, op. cit.; Flores-Hernández and Mar-

tínez-Coronel 2014. Acta Zool. Mex. 30:395–398; Sodré et al. 2014.

Herpetol. Notes. 7:287–288; Costa-Campos et al. 2016. Acta Zool.

Mex. 32:385–386). Nonetheless, this finding could have important

conservation implications for Atelopus populations in the SNSM.

Fig. 2. Multiple intraspecific amplexus between conspecific Atelopus laetissimus encountered in the Pascual stream, in San Pedro de la Sierra,

during 20–21 June 2016, in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia.

Fig. 1. Interspecific amplexus between a male Atelopus carrikeri (top)

and a female Atelopus laetissimus (bottom) from Pascual stream,

2200 m cloud forest, during the reproductive season in June 2016, in

the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, Colombia.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

604 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

JOSÉ LUIS PÉREZ GONZÁLEZ, Grupo de Investigación en Ecología

Aplicada, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, University del Magdalena, Santa

Marta, Colombia (e-mail: joseluisperezgonzalez2407@gmail.com); NICO-

LETTE ROACH, Department of Wildlife, Fisheries and Ecological Sciences,

Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, USA; Global Wildlife

Conservation, PO Box 129, Austin, Texas 78767, USA (e-mail: nroach@

tamu.edu); LUIS ALBERTO RUEDA SOLANO, Grupo de Investigación en

Ecología Aplicada, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, University of Magdalena,

Santa Marta, Colombia; Grupo Biomics, Facultad de Ciencias, University de

los Andes, Bogotá, Colombia (e-mail: biologoluisrueda@gmail.com).

ATELOPUS SPUMARIUS (Pebas Stubfoot Toad). BEHAVIOR. Un-

like the iconic Central American Atelopus species, little is known

about the behavior of Amazonian Atelopus species. During field

work in Amazonia I was able to observe and film, to my knowl-

edge, previously undescribed behavior of A. spumarius sensu

lato (Lötters et al. 2002. Salamandra 38:95–104) in three different

individuals of two different populations, one on each side of the

Amapari River near the village of Serra do Navio, Amapá, Brazil

(A: at 1120 h on 6 April 2016 at 0.9426000°N, 51.9437667°W, 108 m

elev.; B: at 1340 h on 7 April 2016 at 0.88876°N, 52.02463°W, 91 m

elev.; C: at 1120 h on 9 April 2016 at 0.88916°N, 52.02416°W, 91 m

elev., WGS84). The animals were completely undisturbed when

filmed in their natural habitat from a minimum distance of ca. 4

m. The observed individuals were all adult males (A. SVL = 3.01

cm, 1.47 g; B. SVL = 2.77 cm, 1.57 g; C. SVL = 2.85 cm, 1.41 g) that

were calling at the time of encounter or started calling during the

encounter. All three individuals were roaming on a branch or a

tree trunk (Fig. 1) and eventually, when sitting, shortly rubbed

their venters on the wood in a shaky or swaying movement. The

behavior was initiated by slightly lifting the posterior, followed

by moving the venter to the left and right in a swaying manner

(video footage of this behavior can be viewed at: https://tinyurl.

com/hq7j4zs). In terms of duration it took ca. 4–5 s from begin-

ning to termination of this distinct behavior. In all incidents

it was displayed in close proximity to the used calling spot on

the same branch or tree trunk. The behavior was observed be-

fore as well as after calling activities. Further, in the footage of

the third observation one can clearly recognize liquid excretion

during the behavior (for video footage see: https://tinyurl.com/

y9ftpgv2). Since the same individual was filmed urinating some

minutes prior to the excretion event (also visible in the footage),

I have reason to assume a function other than bladder emptying,

especially as the origin of the liquid cannot be stated with cer-

tainty. Further observations and examination of the secretion as

well as the nature and texture of the skin in the involved area will

help to understand whether the observed behavior could be a

manner of territorial marking.

DANIELA C. RÖSSLER, Trier University, Department of Biogeography,

Am Universitätsring 15, 54296 Trier, Germany; e-mail: roesslerdaniela@aol.

com.

BARYCHOLOS TERNETZI (Chimbo Frog). PREDATION. Barycho-

los is a monotypic genus containing only B. ternetzi (Craugasto-

ridae) and is endemic to the Cerrado biome (Valdujo et al. 2012.

S. Am. J. Herpetol. 7:63–78). This species is commonly found in

riverine forest litter and permanent streams with a rocky bed in

the Cerrado and gallery forests (Bastos et al. 2003. Anfíbios da Flo-

resta Nacional de Silvânia, Estado de Goiás. Stylo Gráfica e Editora.

Goiânia, Goiás. 29 pp.; Araújo et al. 2007. Check List 3:153–155).

At 1910 h on 24 May 2016, we found an individual Ancylo-

etes concolor feeding on an adult male B. ternetzi (total length

= 1.5 cm; municipality of João Pinheiro, Minas Gerais, Brazil;

17.41121°S, 45.66604°W, WGS84; elev. 691). At the moment of the

observation, the air temp. was 23°C and the water temp. 22°C.

The predator was found with its prey already dead in the stream

margin on stony substrate.

Spiders from the genus Ancylometes are normally found as-

sociated with water bodies and can easily paddle on the water

surface, diving for prey and away from predators (Höfer and

Brescovit 2000. Insect Syst. Evol. 31:323–360). Besides preying

upon invertebrates, they also prey on small vertebrates such as

fish (Gasnier et al. 2009. In Fonseca et al. [eds.], A Fauna de Ar-

trópodes da Reserva Florestal Ducke: Estado Atual do Conheci-

mento Taxonômico e Biológico, pp. 223–230. Instituto Nacional

de Pesquisas da Amazônia–INPA, Manaus) and anurans (Maffei

et al. 2010. Herpetol. Notes 3:167–170; Bocchiglieri et al. 2010.

Herpetol. Rev. 41:325; Moura and Azevedo 2011. Biota Neotr.

11:1–3). To our knowledge, this is the first report of predation on

B. ternetzi by A. concolor. After the observation, the frog and spi-

der were collected and deposited in the Museu de Zoologia João

Moojen, at the Universidade Federal de Viçosa, Viçosa, Minas

Gerais, Brazil (voucher number MZUFV 17150).

We thank Antonio D. Brescovit for helping with the identifica-

tion of the spider species, Katie Lempke for English review, Den-

drus Projetos Ambientais e Florestais for financial support, and

Sean Graham for editorial suggestions.

Fig. 1. Typical position of a male Atelopus spumarius sensu lato on a

branch, in which the described behavior was observed.

Fig. 1. Barycholos ternetzi being preyed upon by an Ancylometes con-

color in the municipality of João Pinheiro, Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 605

CLODOALDO L. ASSIS (e-mail: clodoassis@yahoo.com.br), JHONNY

J. M. GUEDES (e-mail: jhonnyguds@gmail.com), and RENATO N. FEIO,

Museu de Zoologia João Moojen, Departamento de Biologia Animal, Uni-

versidade Federal de Viçosa, CEP 36570-000, Viçosa, MG, Brazil (e-mail:

rfeio@ufv.br).

CALLIMEDUSA TOMOPTERNA (Tiger-striped Leaf Frog)

and DENDROPSOPHUS MINUTUS (Lesser Treefrog).

INTERSPECIFIC AMPLEXUS. Availability of reproductive sites,

such as calling and oviposition sites, shared by anuran species

might lead to interspecific matings, particularly when males

perform active searches for females, use satellite behavior, or

have limited capacity to discriminate between sexes, all of which

are common behaviors in many Neotropical frogs (Sodré et al.

2014. Herpetol. Notes 7:287–288; Rocha et al. 2015. Herpetol.

Notes 8:213–215; Ceron and Zocche 2016. Herpetol. Rev.

47:120). Herein we report two cases of interspecific amplexus

between individuals from two different families: Hylidae and

Phyllomedusidae. At 2041 h on 18 January 2016, we found many

reproducing anuran species at a temporary pond, in Reserva

Extrativista Arapixi, Boca do Acre, Amazonas, northern Brazil

(8.993683°S, 67.831433°W, WGS 84; 137 m elev.). These species

were: Callimedusa tomopterna, Dendropsophus leucophyllatus,

D. marmoratus, D. minutus, D. sarayacuensis, Phyllomedusa

bicolor, P. camba, Pithecopus palliatus, and Scinax garbei.

We observed two pairs of male Dendropsophus minutus

(Lesser Treefrog, Ranita Amarilla Común) amplexing male Cal-

limedusa tomopterna (Tiger-striped Leaf Frog) on vegetation

around the pond. The pairs remained in amplexus and did

minimal movements while being observed for 30 minutes. The

first pair was found in inguinal amplexus (Fig. 1) while the sec-

ond pair was backwards with the mouth of the male D. minutus

mouth directed just above the cloaca of C. tomopterna (Fig. 2).

In the same pond we observed conspecific amplexus of adult D.

minutus (Fig. 3), and P. camba. No females of C. tomopterna were

found. Although interspecific amplexus has been documented

in Amazonian species such as bufonids (Machado and Bernarde

2011. Herpetol. Notes 4:167–169) and hylids (Aichinger 1987.

Salamandra 23:269–276), amplexus between different families is

rarely observed in nature (Carvalho and Nascimento 2012. Her-

petol. Rev. 43:461).

This study was conducted with SISBIO permit #51748-1.

PAULO ROBERTO MELO-SAMPAIO, Programa de Pós-graduação em

Zoologia, Museu Nacional, Quinta da Boa Vista, Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janei-

ro, CEP: 20940-040, Brazil (e-mail: prmelosampaio@gmail.com); JOSIMAR

COSTA DA SILVA, Instituto Desenvolver Amazonas - Av. Amazonas, 1728.

Bairro Macaxeiral, Boca do Acre, Amazonas, CEP: 69850-000, Brazil.

CRAUGASTOR SABRINUS (Long-legged Stream Frog). DIET.

Craugastor sabrinus (Craugastoridae) ranges from eastern Gua-

temala to the Maya Mountains in southern Belize (Crawford and

Smith 2005. Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 35:546–555). It is found in wet

and moist tropical forests along rivers and streams. Listed as near

threatened in the IUCN Red List, its population decline is mainly

due to habitat degradation and loss, especially in Guatemala.

Species from the genus Craugastor are opportunistic feeders and

have been documented feeding on arthropods (Lieberman 1986.

Acta Zool. Mex. 15:1–72). Despite being considered common in

Belize, little is known about the natural history and diet of C. sab-

rinus. Here we report a vertebrate prey item for this species.

At 0900 h on 7 Mar 2016, we observed a Scincella cherriei

(Brown Forest skink; SVL ca. 60 mm) crossing the path on the

Gibnut Trail in the Cockscomb Basin Wildlife Sanctuary in south-

ern Belize (16.78540°N 88.45860°W; WGS 84). The S. cherriei was

disturbed by our movement and ran through leaf litter away from

Fig. 1. Interspecific amplectant pair of males of Dendropsophus

minutus and Callimedusa tomopterna.

Fig. 2. Another interspecific amplectant pair of males of Dendropso-

phus minutus and Callimedusa tomopterna with unusual position.

Fig. 3. Syntopic conspecific amplectant pair of Dendropsophus

minutus.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

606 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

the path. We then observed the S. cherriei encounter a C. sabrinus

(SVL ca. 80 mm), which promptly proceeded to feed on the skink,

with only the tail of the skink remaining outside the mouth of the

frog when first observed by us (Fig. 1). We observed the S. cher-

riei moving within the body cavity of the C. sabrinus for approxi-

mately five minutes. Although we did not stay to observe the frog

completely ingest the skink, we consider S. cherriei to be a prey

item of the C. sabrinus.

MARY-RUTH LOW, Wildlife Reserves Singapore, 80 Mandai Lake Rd,

Singapore 729628 (e-mail: maryruth.low@wrs.com.sg); BRADLEY NISSEN,

2305 Shelby Dr, Charlottesville, Virginia 22901, USA; GLISELLE MARIN,

5619 Moguel & Lizarraga Ave, Belize City, Belize, Central America; JORDI

JANSSEN, Dijkstraat 1, 6701 CH Wageningen, Netherlands.

ELEUTHERODACTYLUS PLANIROSTRIS (Greenhouse Frog).

PREDATION. Eleutherodactylus planirostris is a small direct-

developing frog native to Cuba, Isla de Juventud, the Cayman Is-

lands, and the Caicos Islands (Frost 2016. Amphibian Species of

the World: an Online Reference. Version 6.0, http://research.amnh.

org/herpetology/amphibia/index.html) [Accessed 2017.03.20].

American Museum of Natural History, New York) and introduced

to the southeastern USA, Hawaii, Hong Kong, Guam, Philippines,

Jamaica, Honduras, Surinam, Isla de Guanaja (Honduras), and Ve-

racruz, Mexico (Frost, op. cit.; Olson et al., 2011. Pacific Sci. 66:255–

270). Predators of E. planirostris in its native range include inverte-

brates, frogs, mammals, birds, lizards, and snakes (Henderson and

Powell 1999. In Crother [ed.] Caribbean Amphibians and Reptiles,

pp. 223–268. Academic Press, San Diego, California), including

three species of Cubophis (Henderson and Powell 2009. Natural

History of West Indian Reptiles and Amphibians. University Press

of Florida, Gainesville. 495 pp.). In the introduced range, preda-

tion is less well-documented. Diadophis punctatus (Ring-necked

Snake) is the only predator native to the USA known to consume

E. planirostris (Meshaka 2011. Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 6:1–101).

Although Ernst and Ernst (2003. Snakes of the United States and

Canada. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington D.C. 661

pp.) list E. planirostris as a prey item of Rhadinaea flavilata (Pine

Woods Snake), they provide no documentation and none of the

references cited therein contain additional information. Here we

document predation on E. planirostris by R. flavilata.

At 1856 h on 11 October 2016, we captured a juvenile R. fla-

vilata (HM 163103) that had eaten an adult E. planirostris (HM

163012) at a private residence in Alachua County, Florida, USA

(29.658926°N, 82.379202ºW; WGS84). Rhadinaea flavilata eat

primarily amphibians, especially hylid frogs (Ernst and Ernst,

op. cit.). Other members of the genus Rhadinaea feed on eleu-

therodactylid frogs throughout Central and South America

(Myers 1974. Bull. Am. Mus. Nat. Hist. 153:1–268), as well as on

lizards, salamanders, amphibian eggs, and other anurans, in-

cluding some highly toxic dendrobatids (Lenger et al. 2014. Her-

petol. Notes 7:83–84). Other predators of E. planirostris in parts

of its introduced range include Osteopilus septentrionalis (Cuban

Treefrog; Meshaka, op. cit.), which is also a predator in the na-

tive range (Henderson and Powell, op. cit.), and Boiga irregularis

(Brown Treesnake) on Guam (Mathies et al. 2012. Herpetol. Rev.

43:143–144).

ANDREW M. DURSO, Department of Biology, Utah State University,

Logan, Utah 84322, USA (e-mail: amdurso@gmail.com); LUKE SMITH,

3716 NW 7th Place, Gainesville, Florida 32607, USA (e-mail: smithsqrd@

gmail.com).

GASTROPHRYNE OLIVACEA (Western Narrow-mouthed Toad).

PREDATION. On 12 November 2016, 11.5 km SE of Valentine, Jeff

Davis County, Texas, USA (30.5217°N, 104.4020°W; WGS 84), we

found a dead Gastrophryne olivacea impaled on a barbed wire

fence (Fig. 1) at a known Loggerhead Shrike (Lanius ludovicia-

nus) larder. Documented predators of G. olivacea include snakes

(Agkistrodon contortrix, Thamnophis spp.) and other frogs (Litho-

bates spp.). Gastrophryne olivacea possess toxic and slippery skin

secretions that may afford them some protection from predation

(Dodd 2013. Frogs of the United States and Canada. Volume 1. The

John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 460 pp.). To

our knowledge, this is the first record of shrike predation upon G.

olivacea (Clark 2011. Son. Herpetol. 24:20–22; Dodd 2013, op. cit.).

The specimen is deposited in the James F. Scudday vertebrate col-

lection at Sul Ross State University (SRSU 6928).

Fig. 1. Gastrophryne olivacea fatally impaled by a Loggerhead Shrike.

Fig. 1. Craugastor sabrinus ingesting a Scincella cherriei.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 607

CRYSTAL KELEHEAR (e-mail: crystal.kelehear@hotmail.com), MOR-

GAN SEILER (e-mail: morgan_seiler@yahoo.com), and SEAN P. GRAHAM,

Department of Biology, Geology, and Physical Sciences, Sul Ross State Uni-

versity, Alpine, Texas, 79832, USA (e-mail: sean.graham@sulross.edu).

HYPSIBOAS ALBOMARGINATUS (White-edged Treefrog). PRE-

DATION. Here we report opportunistic predation of Hypsiboas

marginatus by Attila rufus (Gray-hooded Attila; Tyrannidae), a

bird endemic to the Atlantic Forest of eastern Brazil (Sick 1997.

Ornitologia Brasileira. Editora Nova Fronteira. Rio de Janeiro.

912 pp.). At 1030 h on 30 September 2008 in Bairro Guaraú,

municipality of Peruíbe, state of São Paulo, Brazil (24.358850°S,

47.018913°W; WGS 84), an adult A. rufus was observed captur-

ing a frog in a pond on a dirt road. After that, the bird flew and

perched in a tree, where it was photographed with a H. albomar-

ginatus in its bill (Fig. 1A). The bird beat the frog against a branch

several times. The frog gave a distress call and inflated its body.

After subjugating the frog, the bird swallowed it posterior-first.

At 1145 h on 8 September 2012, at Opashaus Lodge, mu-

nicipality of Domingo Martins, state of Espírito Santo, Brazil

(20.348391°S, 40.675957°W, WGS 84), an adult A. rufus was ob-

served swallowing an individual of H. albomarginatus (Fig. 1B).

It took 40 min. to the complete ingestion (also posterior-first).

This is the first record of predation of H. albomarginatus by A.

rufus. Although there are no Neotropical birds that are entirely

frog specialists, frogs seem to be frequent opportunistic prey for

avian taxa in this region (Toledo et al. 2007. J. Zool. 271:170–177).

We thank Almir Almeida and Mario Candeias for sharing their

observations and photographs

JOÃO PAULO GAVA JUST, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Biologia

Animal (PPG-BA), Departamento de Ecologia, Zoologia e Genética, Univer-

sidade Federal de Pelotas (UFPel), Capão do Leão, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil

(e-mail: joaop_gava@hotmail.com); JAIRO JOSÉ ZOCCHE, Programa de

Pós-Graduação em Ciências Ambientais (PPG-CA), Laboratório de Ecologia

de Paisagem e de Vertebrados, Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense

(UNESC), Ave. Universitária, 1105, Criciúma, Santa Catarina, Brazil (e-mail:

jjz@unesc.net).

LEPTODACTYLUS CAATINGAE. PREDATION. Little is known

about the natural history of Leptodactylus caatingae, a species

that inhabits the Caatinga of northeastern Brazil. This species is

recognized as an explosive breeder that reproduces at temporary

ponds (Heyer and Juncá 2003. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington

116:317–329; Magalhães et al. 2013. S. Am. J. Herpetol. 8:203–210)

and can be found within highly human-disturbed areas (Vieira

et al. 2012. Bol. Mus. Para Emílio Goeldi. Cienc. Nat. 7:153–156).

Here we present the first report on its predators.

At 2000 h on 24 February 2016, we found a juvenile Lepto-

dactylus fuscus (SVL = 31.2 mm; head width = 11 mm) feeding

on a juvenile of L. caatingae (SVL = 24.2 mm; head width = 8.2

mm), near a small temporary pond formed after heavy rains, at

vacant land inside urban perimeter in the municipality of Jequié,

Bahia, Brazil (13.840533°S, 40.072654°W, WGS 84; elev. 194 m). At

the moment we found them, the juvenile L. fuscus had already

captured the juvenile L. caatingae and had swallowed its left

leg almost entirely (Fig. 1). The prey struggled for about 20 min.

to disentangle from the mouth of the predator. When it finally

managed to liberate itself, its left foot was already completely di-

gested. It is possible that our presence with lamps and camera

disturbed the predator and hence helped the juvenile L. caatin-

gae to get free. Or it is possible that the prey was too big to be

swallowed completely (the prey made up 77.6% of the predator’s

length). We collected both frogs and deposited them in the her-

petological collection of Universidade Estadual do Sudoeste da

Bahia (MHNJCH 1079 and MHNJCH 1080 for L. caatingae and L.

fuscus, respectively).

Although it is known that L. fuscus is an opportunistic preda-

tor (Sugai et al. 2012. Biota Neotrop. 12:99–104) and that anuro-

phagy is common in the family Leptodactylidae (Measey et al.

2015. PeerJ 3:e1204, DOI 10.7717/peerj.1204), this is the first re-

port of L. fuscus preying on other frogs.

We thank Nathana Pereira for helping with fieldwork. The

frogs were collected under ICMBio/SISBIO permit #35068.

GABRIEL NOVAES-E-FAGUNDES, Programa de pós-graduação em

Zoologia, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Rodovia Jorge Amado, km

16, CEP 45662-900, Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil (e-mail: gnovaesefagundes@gmail.

com); JULIANA ZINA, Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade

Estadual do Sudoeste da Bahia, Avenida José Moreira Sobrinho, Jequiez-

inho, CEP 45208-091, Jequié, Bahia, Brazil.

LEPTODACYLUS INSULARUM (San Miguel Island Frog). DE-

FENSIVE BEHAVIOR. Leptodactylus insularum is a common

terrestrial inhabitant of lower elevations of southern Central

and northern South America. Until recently the northern popu-

lations of the species were regarded as a synonym of L. bolivi-

anus (Savage 2002. The Amphibians and Reptiles of Costa Rica: A

Fig. 1. Hypsiboas albomarginatus being preyed upon by Gray-hood-

ed Attila (Attila rufus) in southeast Brazil. A) Predation event from

Bairro Guaraú, state of São Paulo. B) Predation event from Opashaus

Lodge, state of Espírito Santo.

PHOTO A BY ALMIR ALMEIDA . PHOTO B BY MARIO CANDEIAS

Fig. 1. Leptodactylus fuscus ingesting left leg of a juvenile of Lepto-

dactylus caatingae.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

608 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

Herpetofauna between Two Continents, between Two Seas. Uni-

versity of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 934 pp.; Heyer and de

Sá 2011. Contrib. Zool. 635:1–58).

On 12 March 2015, I caught an adult specimen of L. insularum

ca. 300 m NW of La Gamba Tropical Research Station, approx. 10

km NW Golfito, Provincia de Puntarenas, Costa Rica (8.70312°S,

83.20456°W, WGS 84; elev. 120 m). The individual was placed in

a bag overnight and handled for a photo session the next morn-

ing. During manipulation the frog inflated its body and raised its

legs and body well above the ground, displaying the aposematic

coloration of the posterior thighs (Fig. 1). This behavior lasted for

a short while (< 20 sec) and could be repeated several times by

tapping the frog gently on its head.

Defensive behaviors of frogs were recently reviewed by Toledo

et al. (2011. Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 23:1–25). Accordingly, a behavior as

described above is classified as full body-raising with legs vertically

stretched, showing aposematic colors. Within the genus, full

body-raising has been described from L. labyrinthicus, L. laticeps,

L. latrans, and L. mystacinus, but apparently not from members

of the L. bolivianus group (Toledo et al., op. cit.). According to

Toledo et al. (op. cit.), the behavior is common in species with

noxious skin secretions. Toxic skin secretions are known from a

number of species of the genus (e.g., Ryan et al. 2010. Herpetol.

Rev. 41:337–338; Toledo et al. 2011, op. cit.; Haddad et al. 2013.

Guia dos Anfíbios da Mata Atlântica: Diversidade e Biologia.

Anolisbooks, São Paulo. 544 pp.), but to my knowledge not yet

from L. insularum, but they are likely to occur.

Many thanks to Jörg Scheidung and Jeff Schreiner for their

help in the field and to Mark Scherz for his help in the office.

MICHAEL FRANZEN, Zoologische Staatssammlung München (ZSM-

SNSB), Münchhausenstrasse 21, 81247 München, Germany; e-mail:

michael.franzen@zsm.mwn.de.

LIMNONECTES PALAVANENSIS (Smooth Guardian Frog).

PREDATION. Limnonectes palavanensis is a nocturnal leaf-

litter frog found in the western and northern part of Borneo and

Palawan Island of the Philippines (Das 2007. A Pocket Guide:

Amphibians and Reptiles of Brunei. Natural History Publications

[Borneo], Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. 208 pp.). This small

frog (snout–urostyle length: males = 21–30 cm, females = 28–33

cm) inhabits the forest floor of primary and secondary mixed-

dipterocarp forest, where males sporadically call to attract

females. Females lay eggs in the leaf litter and the eggs are

guarded by the males until hatching. The male then transports

the newly hatched tadpoles to small bodies of water (Inger and

Voris 1988. Copeia 1988:1060–1061; Goyes Vallejos 2016. Doctoral

Dissertation. University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut).

Instances of predation have never been reported for Limnonectes

palavanensis. Here, we report a predation event by the Rough-

backed Snake (Xenodermus javanicus) of an adult female of L.

palavanensis. Seemingly a frog specialist, X. javanicus is active at

night and it has been observed foraging under dead leaves on the

forest floor, prime L. palavanensis habitat (Stuebing et al. 2014. A

Field Guide to the Snakes of Borneo. Natural History Publications

[Borneo], 2nd edition, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia. 310 pp.).

This observation took place at the Kuala Belalong Field Studies

Centre (KBFSC), located within the Ulu Temburong National

Park (Brunei Darussalam; 4.546°N, 115.157°E; WGS 84). On the

night of 16 October 2014, we observed an adult X. javanicus with

its stomach engorged, close to an artificial pool sporadically used

by males of L. palavanensis to deposit tadpoles. The individual

was taken to the KBFSC Laboratory to be photographed and

released the following night (Fig. 1A). At 0900 h on 17 October

2014, a regurgitated individual of L. palavanensis was found in

the terrarium where the individual X. javanicus was held. Upon

examination, we found that it was an adult female (Fig. 1B).

This observation constitutes the first record of predation of L.

palavanensis.

Fig. 1. Leptodactylus insularum (San Miguel Island Frog) exhibiting

defensive behavior.

Fig. 1. A) Rough-backed Snake (Xenodermus javanicus) after

regurgitation occurred. B) Regurgitated individual of Limnonectes

palavanensis.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 609

JOHANA GOYES VALLEJOS, Department of Ecology and

Evolutionary Biology, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA

(e-mail: johana.goyes@uconn.edu); HANYROL H. AHMAD SAH, Faculty

of Science, Universiti Brunei Darussalam, Tungku Link, Gadong BE 1410,

Brunei Darussalam.

LITHOBATES SPHENOCEPHALUS (Southern Leopard Frog)

and AMBYSTOMA MACULATUM (Spotted Salamander).

INTERSPECIFIC AMPLEXUS. Interspecific amplexus has been

described in a variety of both native and invasive anurans,

especially in those species that have explosive reproductive

events (Wells 2007. The Ecology and Behavior of Amphibians.

University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 1400 pp.). When

multiple anuran species are breeding in aggregations there may

be misidentification during the mating process. The literature

reports males attempting to mate with inanimate objects, other

males, dead conspecifics, and individuals of other species

(Bedoya et al. 2014. Herpetol. Notes. 7:515–516; Rocha et al.

2015. Herpetol. Notes. 8:213–215). The literature usually reports

incidences of interspecies amplexus between organisms of the

same order (generally between anurans). However, multiple

instances of interspecific amplexus between anurans and

caudates have been described. Here I report the interspecific

amplexus between an anuran, Lithobates sphenocephalus, and a

caudate, Ambystoma maculatum.

During the spring amphibian migrations in Harford County,

Maryland, USA (39.2555°N, 76.15480°W, WGS84; elev. 6.5 m),

multiple species of amphibians breed simultaneously in the

same ephemeral wetlands. At 2144 h on 25 March 2015, an adult

L. sphenocephalus was found in amplexus with an adult A. macu-

latum (Fig. 1) in an ephemeral roadside ditch less than 1 m from

the edge of a road. The area is part of a large wetland complex

with breeding Anaxyrus americanus, L. sylvaticus, Pseudacris

crucifer, Acris crepitans, and L. palustris all present within the

same wetland complex that night. After photos were taken, the

animals were released back into the roadside ditch. The A. macu-

latum immediately swam away and started struggling violently

to remove the L. sphenocephalus, but was unable to accomplish

this in the 20 min. they were observed. There has been no other

observed interspecific amplexus at the site within the last two

years.

I thank Richard Seigel for his review and comments on this

note.

HUNTER J. HOWELL, Department of Biological Sciences, Towson

University, 8000 York Road, Towson, Maryland 21252-0001, USA; e-mail:

hhowel1@students.towson.edu.

OREOPHRYNELLA QUELCHII (Roraima Black Frog). ARBORE-

AL NIGHT SHELTER. The Guayana highlands of South America,

also known as Pantepui, constitute a singular biogeographical

province recognized by the uniqueness of its biota, biodiver-

sity and endemism. This region is characterized by sandstone

tabletop mountains (tepuis) that often emerge as high-elevation

“islands” (1500–3000 m elev.) in the overall landscape (Huber

1995. In Steyermark et al. [eds.], Flora of the Venezuelan Guay-

ana, pp. 1–61. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon). Bufonids of the

genus Oreophrynella are endemic to the summits and slopes of

the eastern tepuis in southern Venezuela and adjacent Guyana

and Brazil (ca. 1067–2800 m elev.). This genus currently contains

nine species. They are clearly distinguished from other bufonids

by their small size, thick skin between digits, and opposable toes

(Kok 2009. Zootaxa 2071:35–49). Most of the species are diurnal

rock dwellers with terrestrial habits (McDiarmid and Gorzula

1989. Copeia 1989:445–451; Señaris et al. 1994. Publ. Asoc. Ami-

gos de Doñana 3:1–37; Señaris 1995. Mem. Soc. Cienc. Nat. La

Salle 140:177–182; Señaris et al. 2005. Pap. Avul. Zool. 45:61–67).

Oreophrynella highland species are found active mainly on bare

sandstone in open areas on the tepuis or resting beneath rocks,

but occasionally they can be observed sitting < 1 m above ground

on leaves of Stegolepis guianensis, Lomaria sp., and Brocchinia

hechtioides (McDiarmid and Gorzula 1989, op. cit.). Although

McDiarmid and Gorzula (1989, op. cit.) have studied at least four

species of Oreophrynella (including O. quelchii) in four tepuis,

it is not clear what species they reported climbing bushes, and

importantly, why these rock dwellers may engage in such climb-

ing. The two upland species O. dendronastes and O. macconnelli

have arboreal habits and are primarily found associated to veg-

etation (Lathrop and MacCulloch 2007. Herpetologica 63:87–93;

Kok 2009, op. cit.).

Oreophrynella quelchii is a small toad (SVL = 18–23 mm),

endemic to the summit of Roraima and Wei-Assipu tepuis, near

the borders of Venezuela, Guyana and Brazil, between 1700–

2800 m elev. (MacCulloch et al. 2007. Herpetol. Rev. 38:24–30).

Oreophrynella quelchii is diurnal and terrestrial, and is usu-

ally found on bare sandstone or open bare rocky surfaces, but

also in peat patches along or near small streams or temporary

puddles. This species is listed as Vulnerable (Hoogmoed and

Señaris 2004. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2004.RLTS.

Fig. 1. Interspecific amplexus by Lithobates sphenocephalus on

Ambystoma maculatum.

Fig. 1. Oreophrynella quelchii resting in a tangle of lichen attached

to a Bonnetia roraimae bush at the summit of Mount Roraima, Ven-

ezuela.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

610 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

T54853A11216183.en; 28 Mar 2017) because it is only known

from two localities. Although this species is common on the

summit of the Roraima tepui and its population is apparently

stable, their behavior and ecology remained virtually unknown.

Here, we report on an opportunistic observation on the use

of a bush as a night shelter by O. quelchii. This record was made

at the summit of Roraima tepui (5.161255°N, 60.781025°W, WGS

84; 2277 m elev.) on 19 November 2015 at 1936 h. We observed an

adult O. quelchii lodged within a small tangle of lichen attached

to a small Bonnetia roraimae bush, at approximately 50 cm above

the ground (Fig. 1). The toad remained immobile during the 20

min we stayed observing it.

Our observation confirms the ability of O. quelchii to climb

in vegetation. While the species inhabiting the sandstone sum-

mits of the tepuis are primarily rock dwellers (McDiarmid and

Gorzula 1989, op. cit.), we believe that the capacity of O. quelchii

to climb bushes at night could be a way to reduce predation by

terrestrial spiders (Theraphosidae). Theraphosid spiders are the

only known potential predator for O. quelchii so far (McDiarmid

and Gorzula 1989, op. cit.). This predator is nocturnal and may

easily predate O. quelchii in the terrestrial environment, both on

top of or beneath the sandstone rocks where this species is gen-

erally found. This is the first record of diurnal O. quelchii climb-

ing bushes to refuge at night probably to protect themselves

from predation by nocturnal, terrestrial theraphosid spiders at

the ground level in open bare rocky areas.

We are grateful to Crystal Kelehear for the constructive criti-

cisms that have improved this manuscript.

ITALO MOURTHE (e-mail: imourthe@gmail.com) and EMIL HER-

NANDEZ, Programa de Pós-graduação em Biodiversidade e Conservação,

Laboratório de Zoologia, Faculdade de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade

Federal do Pará, Rua José Porfírio, 2515, Esplanada do Xingu, 68.372-040,

Altamira, Pará, Brazil (e-mail: emilhjh@ufpa.br); J. CELSA SEÑARIS, Insti-

tuto Venezolano de Investigaciones Cientícas, Centro de Ecología, Labora-

torio de Ecología y Genética de Poblaciones, Altos de Pipe, Apartado Postal

21827, Caracas 1020-A, Venezuela (e-mail: celsisenaris@gmail.com).

PHYLLOMEDUSA VENUSTA (Lovely Leaf Frog). DIET. Phyllome-

dusa venusta is an arboreal frog found in northern Colombia, the

valley of Magdalena, the Darién on both sides of the Colombia-

Panamá border, and western Venezuela. The species is common,

but populations are decreasing due to deforestation by agricul-

tural and livestock activities, illegal plantations, human estab-

lishments, and use of agrochemicals (Rodríguez-Mahecha et al.

2008. Guía Ilustrada de Fauna del Santuario de Vida Silvestre Los

Besotes,Valledupar, Cesar, Colombia. Editorial Panamericana,

Formas e Impresos, Bogotá, Colombia. 574 pp.). The food habits

and many other aspects of its biology and ecology are unknown.

Herein we describe the diet of P. venusta in the dry tropical

forest of Colombia at three sites: 1) The Natural Reserve of Civil

Society Campoalegre, Municipality Los Cordobas, Department

of Cordoba (8.48502°N, 76.19520°W, WGS84; elev. 120 m); 2)

Finca Los Mameyales, Municipality Piojó, Department of Atlán-

tico (10.74480°N, 75.09279°W, WGS84; elev. 206 m); 3) Las Deli-

cias farm, Municipality Aracataca, Department of Magdalena

(10.58694°N, 74.14224°W, WGS84; elev. 197 m).

We examined 28 stomachs of P. venusta collected during

0800–1200 h and 1600–1800 h within forests and disturbed ar-

eas. Samples were obtained during 2007 in the dry season (Janu-

ary–March), first rains (April–June), and heavy rains (Septem-

ber–December). SUL (mm), and maximum mouth width (mm)

were recorded for each individual. We identified prey to lowest

taxonomic level possible (family and genus), and their length

and width were measured (complete prey only) using a digital

caliper (nearest 0.1 mm). The individual volume of each prey

item and the number of prey items per stomach for each prey

category were recorded. Volume of each prey item was estimated

using the formula of a prolate spheroid.

Of the captured frogs, six were females and 22 were males

(mean SUL = 67.60 ± 8.76 mm; mean mouth width = 21.76 ± 2.10

mm). The diet consisted of 16 types of prey and was dominated

in volume and frequency by orthopterans. Acarina showed the

highest numerical contribution (Table 1).

It has been suggested that acariphagia occurs in small an-

urans in terrestrial habits. However, P. venusta is large and arbo-

real, suggesting that acariphagia is a trophic phenomenon not

limited to the species defined by Simon and Toft (1991. Oikos

61:263–278). The large numbers of orthopterans and blattarians

consumed are congruent with that reported for other Phyllom-

edusa spp. (Parmelee 1999. Sci. Pap. Nat. His. Mus. Univ. Kansas

11:1–59; Vaz-Silva et al. 2004. Herpetol. Rev. 35:160; Freitas et al.

2008. Biota Neotrop. 8:101–110). Considering the type and prey

proportion, P. venusta appears to be a generalist predator with a

sit-and-wait foraging strategy.

We are grateful to Colciencias, Universidad Nacional de Co-

lombia, Universidad del Atlántico, people at our field sites, Tropi-

cal Organism Biology Group of the Biology Department of the

Universidad Nacional de Colombia, J. O. Combita, M. C. Franco,

and N. Vanegas.

ARGELINA BLANCO-TORRES, Tropical Organism Biology Group,

Biology Department, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Carrera 45 No.

26-85, Building 421, Laboratory 224, Bogota, Colombia, 111321 (e-mail: ar-

gelinab@gmail.com); MARTA DURÉ, Centro de Ecología Aplicada del Lito-

table 1. Composition of arachnid prey in the diet of Phyllomedusa

venusta in tropical dry forest of northern Colombia. Volume in mm3.

L = larvae.

Prey Number Volume Frequency of

(%) (%) occurrence

Acarina 5 (31.25) 0.61 (0.02) 0.07

Archegozetes 4 (25) 0.55 (0.02) 0.04

Euzetes 1 (6.25) 0.06 0.04

Opiliones 1 (6.25) 11.76 (3.98) 0.04

Phrynidae 1 (6.25) 111.76 (3.98) 0.04

Insecta

Orthoptera 4 (25) 1694.67 (60.30) 0.14

Acrididae sp1 1 (6.25) 47.09 (1.68) 0.04

Tettigonidae sp1 1 (6.25) 1255.03 (44.66) 0.04

Tettigonidae sp1 1 (6.25) 342,.00 (12.17) 0.04

Gryllidae sp1 1 (6.25) 50.54 (1.80) 0.04

Blattodea 2 (12.5) 864.60 (30.76) 0.07

Blattellidae sp1 1 (6.25) 370.38 (13.18) 0.04

Blattellidae sp2 1 (6.25) 494.21 (17.59) 0.04

Coleoptera 1 (6.25) 27.52 (0.98) 0.04

L.Coleoptera sp1 1 (6.25) 27.52 (0.98) 0.04

Lepidoptera 1 (6.25) 110.88 (3.95) 0.04

L.Lepidoptera sp1 1 (6.25) 110.88 (3.95) 0.04

Hymenoptera 2 (12.5) 0.32 (0.01) 0.04

Solenopsis 2 (12.5) 0.32 (0.01) 0.04

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 611

ral – Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Cientícas y Técnicas, Ruta 5, Km

2.5, Corrientes, Argentina, 3400; MARIA ARGENIS BONILLA, Organism Bi-

ology Group, Biology Department, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Car-

rera 45 No. 26-85, Building 421, Laboratory 224, Bogotá, Colombia, 111321.

PROCERATOPHRYS SCHIRCHI (Sapo-de-chifres; Smooth

Horned Frog). ANTIPREDATOR BEHAVIOR. Proceratophrys

schirchi is a medium (SVL = 39–50 mm) frog endemic to the At-

lantic Forest, occurring in Rio de Janeiro, Espírito Santo, Minas

Gerais and Bahia states in eastern Brazil (Haddad et al. 2013.

Guia de anfíbios da Mata Atlântica: Diversidade e Biologia.

Editora Anolis Books, São Paulo, São Paulo. 544 pp.). Species of

the genus Proceratophrys usually inhabit the leaf-litter after the

metamorphosis (Giaretta et al. 2000. J. Herpetol. 34:173–178;

Kwet and Faivovich 2001. Copeia 2001:203–215). Few studies deal

with aspects of the natural history, ecology, and behavior of Pro-

ceratophrys species.

At 1930 h on 21 May 2016, we captured a male P. schirchi at

Reserva Biológica Augusto Ruschi, Santa Teresa, Espírito Santo,

southeastern Brazil (19.9103°S, 40.5502°W, WGS 84; 650 m elev.).

The frog was sitting on top of the leaves (Fig. 1A), and remained

motionless until we hand-captured it, it displayed the behavior

of thanatosis or death feigning in hand (Fig. 1B). When placed on

the ground the individual remained in this position for ca. one

minute. After returning it to leaf-litter, the frog displayed stiff-

legged behavior (Fig. 1C). This latter behavior was reported for

P. moehringi (Weygoldt 1986. Zool. Jahrb. Syst. 113:429–454); for

P. appendiculata (Sazima 1978. Biotropica 10:158); for P. renalis

(Peixoto et al. 2013. Herpetol. Notes 6:479–430); for P. boiei and

P. melanopogon (Toledo et al. 2010. J. Nat. Hist. 44:1979–1988).

Once captured, the individual was transported in a wet plas-

tic bag to the laboratory. On site, it displayed the behavior of puff-

ing-up the body (Fig. 1D). The same behavior was reported for P.

cristiceps (Mângia and Garda 2015. Herpetol. Notes 8:11–14). The

similarity in behavior between the congeners may be indicative

of convergence among leaf-litter anurans (Sazima 1978, op. cit.;

Garcia 1999. Herpetol. Rev. 30:224).

We report for the first time a detailed repertoire of antipreda-

tor mechanisms of P. schirchi, contributing to the knowledge on

behavioral ecology of this species.

The specimen is deposited in the Zoological Collection of In-

stituto Nacional da Mata Atlântica (MBML 9677; Museu de Biolo-

gia Mello Leitão), Santa Teresa, Espírito Santo, Brazil.

We thank Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodi-

versidade for the field work’s license (n° 49.871-1). ATM thanks

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento Pessoal de Nível Superior and

DAK and ECC thank Fundação de Amparo a Pesquisa no Espírito

Santo (FAPES) for scholarships. RBG Clemente-Carvalho is grate-

ful to the Universidade Vila Velha and FAPES, which sponsored

the research of the Laboratório de Ecologia de Anfíbios e Répteis

(#44/2014 and #0611/2015, respectively).

ALEXANDER T. MÔNICO,Universidade Vila Velha, Laboratório de

Ecologia de Anfíbios e Répteis, Vila Velha 29102-770, Espírito Santo, Brazil

(e-mail: alexandermonico@hotmail.com); WELINTON DIONES LAUVERS,

Instituto Federal do Espírito Santo, Laboratório de Genética, Santa Teresa

29650-000, Espírito Santo, Brazil; TATIANE DE MELLO DO CARMO, Centro

Universitário do Norte do Espírito Santo, São Mateus, Espírito Santo, Brazil;

DIOGO ANDRADE KOSKI; ELAINE COSTA CAMPINHOS; and RUTE B. G.

CLEMENTE-CARVALHO, Universidade Vila Velha, Laboratório de Ecologia

de Anfíbios e Répteis, Vila Velha, Espírito Santo, Brazil (e-mail: rutebeatriz@

hotmail.com.br).

PSEUDIS PLATENSIS. ENDOPARASITES. Three species of

the genus Pseudis are known to occur in Argentina (Vaira et al.

2012. Cuad. Herpetol. 26:131–159). Tadpoles are large, reach-

ing total lengths of 170 mm (Guzmán and Raffo, 2011. Guía de

los anfibios del Parque Nacional y la Reserva Natural El Palmar

Otamendi. Administración de Parques Nacionales, Buenos Aires.

104 pp.). In Argentina, P. platensis is distributed across Buenos

Aires, Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Santa Fe, Santiago

del Estero and Salta Provinces (Vaira et al. 2012, op. cit.). Pseudis

platensis hosts the nematodes Gyrinicola sp. (Kehr and Hamann

2003. Herpetol. Rev. 34:336–341), Spiroxys sp. (González and

Hamann 2010. Brazil. J. Biol. 71:1089–1092), and Brevimulticae-

cum sp. (González and Hamann 2013. Brazil. J. Biol. 73:451–452)

from Corrientes Province, Argentina and Cosmocerca podicipi-

nus, Rhabdias sp., Brevimulticaecum sp., and Physocephalus sp.

(Campião et al. 2010. Parasitol. Res. 106:747–751; Campião et al.

2016. Comp. Parasitol. 83:92–100) from Corumbá, Mato Grosso

do Sul, Brazil.

In this note we provide a new host record of Gyrinicola cha-

baudi occurring in P. platensis. Six tadpoles of P. platensis (mean

body length = 101.1 mm ± 9.0 SD) were collected from Bañado

de Viñalito (24.406639°S, 63.02925°W, WGS 84; 218 m elev.), Salta

Province, Argentina and deposited in the herpetology collection

of the Universidad Nacional de San Juan, San Juan, Argentina as

UNSJ 3000. The body cavity was opened by a mid-ventral inci-

sion, the digestive tract was removed and its contents examined

for helminths using a dissecting microscope. Fifty-three nema-

todes (21 males, 32 females) were removed and identified as

G. chabaudi. Infection prevalence (number tadpoles infected/

number tadpoles examined x 100) was 100%; mean intensity

(mean number of nematodes per infected tadpole) was 8.83 ±

4.45 SD, range = 5–16. All of the nematodes were deposited in the

Helminthological Collection, Fundación Miguel Lillo as (CH-N-

FML 07710).

Gyrinicola chabaudi was described from specimens recov-

ered from the gut of Leptodactylus ocellatus tadpoles from Santo

Amaro, São Paulo, Brazil (Araujo and Artigas 1982. Mem. Inst.

Butantan 44/45:383–390) and Scinax nasicus from Corrientes,

Argentina (González and Hamann 2005. Facena 21:145–148).

The males were found later from the intestine of tadpoles of S.

Fig. 1. Antipredator postures of Proceratophrys schirchi (MBML9677):

A) natural posture; B) thanatosis; C) stiff-legged behavior; and D)

puffing-up the body.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

612 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

ruber and Rhinella crucifer (Souza-Júnior et al. 1991. Rev. Brasil.

Biol. 51:585–588). The specimens of G. chabaudi (males) identi-

fied herein possess the diagnostic characters of this species, es-

pecially three pairs of genital papillae: one preanal pair, another

postanal, laterally projecting and a third ventral pair located in

a short, subulated and coiled tail. In this note, the distribution

of G. chabaudi is expanded and P. platensis is a new host record.

We are grateful to Marissa Fabrezi (Instituto de Biología y

Geociencias del NOA-Salta) for identifying the tadpoles.

GABRIEL CASTILLO, Universidad Nacional de San Juan Argentina. Di-

versidad y Biología de Vertebrados del Árido, Departamento de Biología,

San Juan, Argentina (e-mail: nataliocastillo@gmail.com); GERALDINE RA-

MALLO, Instituto de Invertebrados, Fundación Miguel Lillo, San Miguel

de Tucumán, Argentina (e-mail: gramallosl@yahoo.com.ar); CHARLES R.

BURSEY, Pennsylvania State University, Department of Biology, Shenango

Campus, Sharon, Pennsylvania 16146, USA (e-mail: cxb13@psu.edu); STE-

PHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology, Whittier,

California 90608, USA (e-mail: sgoldberg@whittier.edu); JUAN CARLOS

ACOSTA, Universidad Nacional de San Juan Argentina. Diversidad y Bi-

ología de Vertebrados del Árido, Departamento de Biología, San Juan, Ar-

gentina (e-mail: jcacostasanjuan@gmail.com).

PSEUDOPHILAUTUS AMBOLI (Amboli Bush Frog). PREDA-

TION BY TERRESTRIAL BEETLE LARVAE. Amphibians are im-

portant prey for numerous arthropod taxa, including ground

beetles (Toledo 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:395–399; Bernard and

Samolg 2014. Entomol. Fennica 25:157–160). Previous studies

have shown that Epomis larvae feed exclusively on amphibians

and display a unique luring behavior in order to attract their prey

(Wizen and Gasith 2011. PLoS ONE 6:e25161). Moreover, the lar-

val mandibles are characterized by two curved “hooks,” a modi-

fication for grasping onto the amphibian skin (Brandmayr et al.

2010. Zootaxa 2388:49–58). Published observations of Epomis

beetles attacking amphibians are scarce, and the majority of our

knowledge comes from reports originating in Japan (Crossland

et al. 2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:107–108) or the Middle East (Wizen

and Gasith 2011, op. cit.). To the best of our knowledge, the only

record from India of amphibian predation by Epomis reports of

a ground-dwelling toad Duttaphrynus scaber carrying the beetle

larva (Barve and Chaboo 2011. Herpetol. Rev. 42:83–84).

Pseudophilautus amboli is a small endemic frog distributed in

the Western Ghats of India. It is known from a few localities only

in Maharashtra and Karnataka (http://research.amnh.org/vz/her-

petology/amphibia/Amphibia/Anura/Rhacophoridae/Rhacoph-

orinae/Pseudophilautus/Pseudophilautus-amboli; 20 Feb 2017).

This species is classified as Critically Endangered due to its narrow

distribution range, and is threatened by habitat loss and fragmen-

tation (http://www.iucnredlist.org/details/58910/0; 2 Jun 2017).

Here we report predation of P. amboli by Epomis larvae in India.

At 2300 h on 22 October 2016, we performed an amphibian

survey at Amboli forest, a hilly location on the Northern West-

ern Ghats ridge in Sindhudurg District of Maharashtra, India

(15.964681°N, 74.003616°E, WGS 84; 690 m elev.). During our visit

we observed several juveniles of P. amboli, active on broad leaves

in the forest, approximately 20 cm above the ground surface.

Upon close inspection, we noticed that five of these specimens

(SVL ca. 40 mm) had small beetle larvae attached to their bod-

ies (Fig. 1). GW identified the larvae as Epomis sp. based on his

work with this genus and its interactions with amphibians. All

larvae observed on P. amboli were first-instars attached to the

throat area, and some had their head embedded deep inside the

amphibian’s flesh (Fig. 1B). Nevertheless, the frogs were still alive

and did not show any sign of struggling. They seemed to behave

normally and moved about in the vegetation without problems.

The amphibians and larvae were not collected.

The infected P. amboli may have encountered the Epomis

larvae on vegetation above the ground surface, similarly to what

is reported for E. nigricans larvae attacking tree frogs in Japan

(Tachikawa 1994. In Amazing Life of Insects, Atlas 48th Special

Exhibition. Otaru Museum, Otaru. 20 pp.). The location of the

larvae on the amphibians’ bodies suggests that they enticed the

frogs to approach by displaying their characteristic luring be-

havior (summary in Wizen and Gasith 2011, op. cit.). Moreover,

because Epomis larvae feed exclusively on amphibians in a para-

sitic manner, the interaction is usually fatal to the amphibian.

Our observations serve as evidence for the existence of a stable

breeding population of Epomis beetles in the area that relies on

the frogs as its main food source. This calls for further research

to monitor and evaluate the impact of the beetles on the popula-

tion of the Critically Endangered amphibian.

We thank Nirman Chowdhury and Gargi VR for assistance in

the field.

GIL WIZEN, 602-52 Park St. E, Mississauga, Ontario L5G 1M1, Can-

ada (e-mail: wizentrop@gmail.com); ANISH PARDESHI (e-mail: anish-

pardeshi103@gmail.com) and KAKA BHISE, Malabar Nature Conservation

Club, 591 Amboli Bazar, Amboli, Sawantwadi Taluka, Sindhudurg District,

Maharashtra, India (e-mail: msbkaka29@gmail.com).

RANA BOYLII (Foothill Yellow-legged Frog). PREDATION. Rana

boylii lives and breeds primarily in perennial stream habitats of

Fig. 1. Epomis sp. larvae preying on Pseudophilautus amboli in Am-

boli forest, Sindhudurg District of Maharashtra, India. A) A juvenile P.

amboli metamorph active on the vegetation with an Epomis sp. larva

attached to its throat. B) Epomis sp. larva with its head embedded in

the flesh of P. amboli.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 613

the Pacific Coast region of western North America, from cen-

tral Oregon to Baja California (Zweifel 1955. Univ. California

Publ. Zool. 54:207–292; Hayes et al. 2016. Gen. Tech. Rpt. PSW-

GTR-248). Rana boylii is a Species of Special Concern in Califor-

nia and population declines have been primarily attributed to

altered flow and temperature regimes resulting from the con-

struction of dams along many of their native streams (Kupfer-

burg 1996. Ecol. Appl. 6:1332–1344). Chytrid fungus (Batracho-

chytrium dendrobatidis) may have played an important role in

the decline of R. boylii in California (Padgett-Flohr and Hopkins

2009. Dis. Aquat. Org. 83:1–9), and so might the introduction of

non-native species such as the American Bullfrog (Lithobates

catesbeianus; Kupferberg 1997. Ecology 78:1736–1751). Little is

known about the impact that predation might have had on R.

boylii populations, but predation of adult R. boylii by L. catesbe-

ianus has been reported in at least two stream systems in north-

ern California (Crayon 1998. Herpetol. Rev. 29:232; Hothem et al.

2009. J. Herpetol. 43:275–283). Here, I report on the predation of

a R. boylii larva by L. catesbeianus.

Copeland Creek is the primary drainage of the 255.8-ha Mit-

sui Ranch, located at the top of Sonoma Mountain in Sonoma

County, California, USA (38.335834°N, 121.579652°W; WGS 84).

The creek drains a landscape comprised primarily of annual

grasslands with isolated stands of Umbellularia californica (Cali-

fornia Bay Laurel), Quercus lobata (Valley Oak), and Q. agrifiolia

(Coast Live Oak). On 25 May 2015, while surveying the creek, I

encountered and collected three L. catesbeianus in a small pool.

The stomach of one small L. catesbeianus (SVL 70 mm; gape 27

mm) contained one snail (Physidae), one beetle (Hydrophylli-

dae), one water strider (Gerridae), and one R. boylii larva at de-

velopmental stage 28 (Gosner 1960. Herpetologica 16:183–190).

Rana draytonii and L. catesbeianus do not breed in this section

of Copeland Creek but they use it for dispersal, foraging, and

as a moist corridor to move between ponds when flows are low

enough to permit these activities. Thus, I assume predation of

R. boylii larvae by L. catesbeianus is opportunistic rather than a

constant pressure.

I thank the Sonoma Mountain Ranch Preservation Founda-

tion for allowing access and providing opportunity.

JEFFERY T. WILCOX, Sonoma Mountain Ranch Preservation Founda-

tion, 3124 Sonoma Mountain Road, Petaluma, California 94594, USA; e-

mail:jtwilcox@comcast.net.

SCAPHIOPUS COUCHII (Couch’s Spadefoot). AGGREGATION.

Tadpole aggregation behaviors have been observed in many

North American anuran families, including Bufonidae, Hylidae,

Leptodactylidae, Microhylidae, Ranidae, Rhinophrynidae, and

Scaphiopodidae (Wells 2007. The Ecology and Behavior of Am-

phibians. The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 1148

pp.). Benefits of aggregations include increased foraging oppor-

tunities, increased resource availability, physiological benefits,

and decreased predation. However, this could come at the cost

of increased competition, cannibalism, and predation risk (Mc-

Diarmid and Altig 1999. Tadpoles: The Biology of Anuran Larvae.

The University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 444 pp.; Wells,

op. cit.). Although the exact triggers influencing the occurrence

of aggregation in tadpoles are not fully understood, it is likely

strongly influenced by environmental and ecological parameters

and a balance between the benefits and costs of this behavior.

Observations of various forms of aggregation in spadefoot

(family Scaphiopodidae) tadpoles have resulted in the identifi-

cation of three major types of aggregation: feeding aggregations,

premetamorphic protective aggregations, and metamorphic

aggregations (Bragg 1965. Gnomes of the Night: The Spadefoot

Toads. University of Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, Penn-

sylvania. 127 pp.; Black 1973.. Ph.D. dissertation, University of

Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma. 221 pp.). Within this family, the

majority of studies have detailed aggregation behaviors in Plains

Spadefoot (Spea bombifrons) tadpoles (Bragg and King 1960. Was-

mann J. Biol. 18:273–289; Bragg 1964. Wasmann J. Biol. 22:299–

305; Bragg 1965, op. cit.; Black 1968. Proc. Oklahoma Acad. Sci.

49:13–14). Similarly, several studies have documented aggrega-

tion behaviors in tadpoles of the Eastern Spadefoot (Scaphiopus

holbrookii; Abbott 1884. Am. Nat. 18:1075–1080; Ball 1936. Trans.

Connecticut Acad. Arts Sci. 32:351–379; Richmond 1947. Ecology

28:53–67), Hurter’s Spadefoot (S. hurteri; Bragg 1956. Herpeto-

logica 12: 201–204; Bragg 1959. Wasmann J. Biol. 17:23–42; Bragg

1968. Wasmann J. Biol. 26:11–16), and Mexican Spadefoot (Spea

multiplicata; Dodd 2013. Frogs of the United States and Canada,

Volume 2. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Mary-

land. 982 pp.). Compared to these species, considerably less is

known about Scaphiopus couchii. Black (1973, op. cit.) experi-

mentally demonstrated aggregation behaviors in S. couchii tad-

poles under laboratory conditions, and similar to Bragg (1965,

op. cit.), provided no account of this behavior in the field. Here,

we report an observation of aggregation behavior in S. couchii

tadpoles from the Chihuahuan Desert of west Texas.

On 3 July 2014, two large aggregations of Scaphiopus couchii

tadpoles were found in a shallow, ephemeral pool along a dirt road

on C. E. Miller Ranch, Jeff Davis County, Texas, USA (30.60548°N,

104.64239°W; WGS 84; Fig. 1). Each aggregation consisted of ap-

proximately 700 tadpoles that were visible at the surface of the

water. However, turbid water and the presence of individuals at

the bottom of the pool prevented a more accurate assessment of

the number of tadpoles in each aggregation. Surrounding these

large aggregations were smaller aggregations of 8–20 tadpoles. In

sum, the total size of each of these aggregations likely exceeded

1000 tadpoles. The majority of individuals were feeding at the

water surface in a vertical position, as described by Black (1973,

op. cit.). A group of 16 individuals (15 fluid preserved and one

preserved as tissue sample) were taken as vouchers to confirm

identification (following Altig and McDiarmid 2015. Handbook

of Larval Amphibians of the United States and Canada. Cornell

University Press, Ithaca, New York. 345 pp.) and deposited at

the Biodiversity Collections at the University of Texas at Austin

(TNHC 91983 [TJL 2691]). Although aggregations have been ob-

served in other Scaphiopus (see Bragg 1965, op. cit.), to the best

of our knowledge, this appears to be the first detailed description

of aggregation behavior in the field for S. couchii.

We thank the Miller family for their continued hospitality and

support of our herpetological research program, and J. Farkas for

reviewing earlier drafts of this manuscript. Specimens were col-

lected under a Texas Parks and Wildlife Department Scientific

Collecting Permit (SPR-1097-912) issued to TJL.

DREW R. DAVIS, Department of Biology, University of South Dakota,

414 East Clark Street, Vermillion, South Dakota 57069, USA (e-mail: drew.

davis@usd.edu); TRAVIS J. LaDUC, Texas Natural History Collections, De-

partment of Integrative Biology, 10100 Burnet Rd, PRC 176–R4000, The Uni-

versity of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas 78758-4445, USA (e-mail: travieso@

austin.utexas.edu).

SCINAX NASICUS (Lesser Snouted Treefrog). PREDATION BY

TRACHYCEPHALUS TYPHONIUS (Canauaru Frog). Trachy-

cephalus typhonius is a large hylid with generalist feeding habits,

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

614 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

mostly feeding on insects and arachnids (Vaz-Silva et al. 2004.

Herpetol. Rev. 35:160; Dure and Kehr 2006. Herpetol. Rev. 16:109).

Records of occasional adult anuran prey include Hypopachus

variolosus (Dundee and Liner 1985. Herpetol. Rev. 16:109), Den-

dropsophus soaresi (Loebmann 2013. Herpetol. Notes 6: 275–

276), and Scinax ruber (Cintra et al. 2013 Herpetol. Rev. 44:500).

Here, we report a predation event by a male T. typhonius on an

individual of Scinax nasicus.

At 2345 h on 15 December 2016 at Alto Farm, municipality

of Aquidauana, Mato Grosso do Sul state, Brazil (19.57349°N,

56.15404°W; WGS 84), we found a male T. typhonius with most

the body of an S. nasicus already swallowed, bitten on its inguinal

region (Fig. 1). Swallowing was assisted by pushing the prey in

using the forelimbs. Scinax nasicus is a small hylid frog and has

been reported to be predated by a snake (Leptophis ahaetulla;

Lopez et al. 2003. Herpetol. Rev. 34:68–69) and birds ( Toledo et al.

2005 Herpetol. Bull. 92: 31–32; Ávila 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 29:169).

This is the first report of S. nasicus as prey of an anuran, and first

record of this species in the diet of T. typhonius.

We thank Marina and Lucas Leuzinger for logistical support

during our research at Barranco Alto farm. LSMS acknowledges

grant #2015/25316-6 from the São Paulo Research Foundation

(FAPESP) and for a Rufford Small Grant from The Rufford Foun-

dation. TSFS acknowledges productivity grant #310144/2015-9

from the National Council of Technological and Scientific Devel-

opment (CNPq).

LARISSA SAYURI MOREIRA SUGAI, Universidade Estadual Paulista

(UNESP), Instituto de Biociências, Rio Claro, and Programa de Pós-Gradua-

ção em Ecologia e Biodiversidade, 13506-900, São Paulo, Brazil (e-mail: (lar-

iagus@gmail.com); GABRIEL NAKAMURA DE SOUZA, Programa de Pós

Graduação em Ecologia, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto

Alegre, 90040-060, RS, Brazil; JOSÉ LUIZ MASSAO MOREIRA SUGAI, Cen-

tro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Federal de Mato Grosso

do Sul, Campo Grande, 79070-900, MS, Brazil; THIAGO SANNA FREIRE

SILVA, Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP), Instituto de Geociências e

Ciências Exatas, Rio Claro, 13506-900, SP, Brazil.

SCINAX RUBER (Red-snouted Treefrog). PREDATION. Birds

make up 15% of the main groups of vertebrate predators of post-

metamorphic frogs, and Toledo et al. (2007. J. Zool. 271:170–177)

recorded 38 species of anurans as prey for 27 species of birds in

the neotropical region. Herein we report a predation event on S.

ruber by Monasa nigrifrons (Black-fronted Nunbird; Fig. 1), a bird

that feeds on small vertebrates and large insects, mostly arthro-

pods, small lizards, and amphibians (Sherry and McDade 1982.

Ecology 63:1016–1028; Melo and Marini 1999. Ararajuba 7:13–15).

The event occurred on the morning of 1 October 2016 in a terra-

firme forest with Guadua bamboo located in the Zoobotanical

Park belonging to the Federal University of Acre, Brazil (9.9572°S,

67.8736°W, WGS 84, 165 m elev.). The attack method used by M.

nigrifrons was sally-strike (Remsen and Robinson 1990. Stud.

Avian Biol.13:144–160). The bird was perched on a bamboo stalk

at a height of 6 m and quickly flew down and captured the am-

phibian that was on a stalk about one meter from the ground.

After catching it, the bird returned to the same place and began

to manipulate the prey until it swallowed it (Fig. 1). This is the

first record of predation by M. nigrifrons on Scinax ruber.

JAILINI DA SILVA ARAÚJO, Laboratório de Herpetologia, Universidade

Federal do Acre CEP 69915-900 Rio Branco – Acre, Brazil (e-mail: jaillini@

gmail.com); EDSON GUILHERME, Laboratório de Ornitologia, Centro de

Fig. 1. Trachycephalus typhonius preying upon Scinax nasicus.

Fig. 1. Monasa nigrifrons preying on Scinax ruber.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 615

Ciências Biológicas e da Natureza – CCBN, Universidade Federal do Acre

CEP 69915-900 Rio Branco – Acre, Brazil (e-mail: guilherme@ufac.br).

SPEA MULTIPLICATA (Mexican Spadefoot). PREDATION. Am-

phibians are an important part of the diet of many predators. For-

ty-five percent of predation events on amphibians, particularly

anurans, are by snakes (Toledo et al. 2007. J. Zool. 271:170–177).

Here we document a new predator-prey interaction between a

neonate Mexican Dusky Rattlesnake (Crotalus triseriatus) and a

Spea multiplicata.

At 1530 h on 24 May 2016 in San Gaspar Tlahuelilpan, Mete-

pec, Estado de México, México (19.244665°N, 99.559191°W, WGS

84, 2583 m elev.), a local gave us a living newborn rattlesnake (C.

triseriatus; total length = 205.5 mm; 9.2 g) in a plastic bottle. A

few minutes later the snake regurgitated a mostly undigested S.

multiplicata (total length = 70.7 mm; 4.8 g). The toad represented

34.4% and 52.1% of the snake’s total length and body weight, re-

spectively (Fig. 1). This record is consistent with reports of prey

consumption that represent 50%, or more, of snake body mass

in vipers (Mociño-Deloya et al. 2014. Rev. Mex. Biodiv. 85:1289–

1291; Rebón-Gallardo et al. 2015. Rev. Mex. Biodiv. 86:550–552).

After the toad was regurgitated, the snake had a slight ab-

dominal distension, as has been reported in neonates of similar

size (Mociño-Deloya et al. 2014, op. cit.; Rebón-Gallardo et al.

2015, op. cit.). Crotalus triseriatus is endemic to Central México

and considered a sit-wait generalist predator, eating some inver-

tebrates, such as arthropods, but mainly vertebrates such as sal-

amanders (Pseudoeurycea spp.), frogs, lizards (Sceloporus bican-

talis, S. grammicus, S. scalaris, S. torquatus), rodents (Microtus

mexicanus, Neotomodon alstoni, Peromyscus spp.), rabbits (Syl-

vilagus floridanus), and individuals of its own species (Mociño-

Deloya et al. 2014, op. cit.).

Tadpoles of S. multiplicata are preyed on by aquatic larvae

of scavenging beetles (Hydrophilus sp.), larvae of salamanders

(Ambystoma tigrinum), turtles (Kinosternon flavescens), grack-

les (Quiscalus sp.), and skunks (Spilogale putorius; Wright and

Wright 1949. Handbook of Frogs and Toads of the United States

and Canada. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, New York.

640 pp.). However, until this observation, known predators of

adults included only Thamnophis marcianus (Woodward and

Mitchell 1990. Southwest. Nat. 35:449–450).

O. IVÁN MARTÍNEZ VACA LEÓN (e-mail: imvleon83@gmail.com) and

JAVIER MANJARREZ, Laboratorio de Biología Evolutiva, Centro de inves-

tigación en Recursos Bióticos. Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma

del Estado de México, Km 14.5 carretera Toluca – Ixtlahuaca, San Cayetano,

Toluca, Estado de México 50200, México (e-mail: jsilva@uaemex.mx).

SPEA MULTIPLICATA (New Mexico Spadefoot). PREDATION.

On 12 November 2016, 11.5 km SE of Valentine, Jeff Davis County,

Texas, USA (30.52166°N, 104.40198°W; WGS 84), we found two

Spea multiplicata impaled on a barbed wire fence at a known

Loggerhead Shrike (Lanius ludovicianus) larder. Gartersnakes

(Thamnophis sirtalis) are currently the only reported predator

of S. multiplicata (Woodward and Mitchell 1990. Southwest. Nat.

35:449–450; Dodd 2013. Frogs of the United States and Canada.

The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 982

pp.). To our knowledge, this is the first record of predation by L.

ludovicianus upon S. multiplicata (Clark 2011. Sonoran Herpetol.

24:20–22; Dodd 2013, op. cit.). The specimens of S. multiplicata

were preserved in the Sul Ross State University James F. Scudday

vertebrate collections as SRSU 6929–6930.

MORGAN SEILER (e-mail: morgan_seiler@yahoo.com); SEAN P. GRA-

HAM, Department of Biology, Geology, and Physical Sciences, Sul Ross

State University, Alpine, Texas 79832, USA (e-mail: sean.graham@sulross.

edu); CRYSTAL KELEHEAR, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute,

Apartado 0843-03092, Balboa, Ancon, Panama (e-mail: crystal.kelehear@

hotmail.com).

TRACHYCEPHALUS TYPHONIUS (Canauaru Frog). PREDA-

TION. When threatened, species of the genus Trachycepha-

lus release a sticky secretion presumably as a strategy to deter

predators (Delfino et al. 2002. J. Morphol. 253:176–186). Despite

Fig. 1. Partially digested Mexican Spadefoot (Spea multiplicata), top,

and the neonate Mexican Dusky Rattlesnake (Crotalus triseriatus)

that regurgitated it, bottom. Fig. 1. Trachycephalus typhonius being consumed by Leptophis

ahaetulla.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

616 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

this defense, amphibians (Langdref-Filho et al. 2012. Herpetol.

Rev. 43:472) and snakes (De Freitas and Lima 2012. Herpetol.

Rev. 43:472) have been reported to feed upon Trachycephalus.

Among the snakes, Leptophis ahaetulla (Albuquerque and Di-

Bernardo 2005. Herpetol. Rev. 36:325), Liophis poecilogyrus (Silva

et al. 2003. Herpetol. Rev. 34:68), and Clelia bicolor (Prado 2003.

Herpetol. Rev. 34:231–232) are known predators of T. venulosus.

On the night of 10 December 1999, along the Sucuri River, Mato

Grosso do Sul state, Brazil (21.254479°S, 56.570091°W; WGS 84),

we observed a Leptophis ahaetulla preying on a female T. typho-

nius (Fig. 1). The behavior was recorded on the trunk of a tree,

about two meters from the ground. To our knowledge this is the

first report of T. typhonius as prey of L. ahaetulla.

NELSON RODRIGUES DA SILVA, Laboratório de Herpetologia,

Universidade Federal de Alagoas, 57072-970, Maceió, Alagoas, Brazil

(e-mail: nelsonrodrigues2701@yahoo.com.br); PAULO ROBSON DE

SOUZA, Laboratório de Prática de Ensino de Biologia, Universidade

Federal de Mato Grosso do Sul, 79.070-900, Campo Grande, Mato Grosso

do Sul, Brazil (e-mail: paulorobson.souza@gmail.com).

TRACHYCEPHALUS TYPHONIUS (Veined Treefrog) and

DERMATONOTUS MUELLERI (Mueller’s Termite Frog).

INTERSPECIFIC AMPLEXUS AND NECROPHILIA. Cases of

interspecific amplexus are found between living and dead

individuals of many anuran species (Bedoya et al. 2014. Herpetol.

Notes 7:515–516; Ribeiro et al. 2014. Herpetol. Rev. 45:479–480;

Sodré et al. 2014. Herpetol. Notes 7:287–288), though this behavior

is more common among species with explosive breeding (Wells

2007. The Ecology and Behavior of Amphibians. University of

Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 1148 pp.). During breeding

events necrophilic interactions may occur, often when males

drown females, but continue to perform reproductive behaviors

after her death (Izzo et al. 2012. J. Nat. Hist. 46:2961–2967). In this

work, we report two cases of interspecific amplexus and one of

necrophilia, involving Trachycephalus typhonius (Hylidae) and

Dermatonotus muelleri (Microhylidade).

Our observations were made at night on 20–21 January 2016, in

a temporary lagoon in Aratuba, Ceará, northeast Brazil (4.4116°S,

39.0479°W, WGS 84; 841 m elev.). At 2350 h on 20 January 2016, an

adult T. typhonius was observed amplexing an adult D. muelleri

in the water (Fig. 1A). At 2355 h on the same date, we observed

another adult individual T. typhonius amplexing a female D.

muelleri out of the water (Fig. 1 B). At 2203 h on 21 January 2016,

a case of necrophilia was observed between an adult T. typhonius

and a male D. muelleri (with blackened vocal sac) inside the

water (we moved the pair onto the ground for photography; Fig.

1C). Each observation lasted about four minutes.

A case of necrophilia has already been recorded among con-

specific T. typhonius (de Moura and Loebmann 2014. Herpetol.

Bras. 3:60–61). To our knowledge, the present work reports the

first record of interspecific amplexus and necrophilia between T.

typhonius and D. muelleri and indeed, among the families Mi-

crohylidae and Hylidae.

FREDE LIMA-ARAUJO, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia

e Recursos Naturais, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus Pici, CEP

60455-760, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil (e-mail: fred.bio.ma@gmail.com); ANA

CAROLINA BRASILEIRO, Programa de Pós-Graduação em Ecologia

e Recursos Naturais, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Campus Pici, CEP

60455-760, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil (e-mail: carolbrmelo@hotmail.com);

SANJAY VEIGA MENDONÇA, Pós-Graduação em Ciências Veterinárias,

Universidade Estadual do Ceará, Campus do Itaperi, CEP 60740-00,

Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil.

TESTUDINES — TURTLES

BATAGUR TRIVITTATA (Burmese Roofed Turtle). DESCRIP-

TION AND PHENOLOGY OF SEXUAL DICHROMATISM.

Batagur trivittata is a large (carapace length [CL] to 580 mm),

critically endangered (< 10 adult females survive in the wild),

Fig. 1. Interspecific amplexus in the water (A), interspecific amplexus

on land (B) and necrophilia (C) between Trachycephalus typhonius

and Dermatonotus muelleri.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 617

aquatic turtle endemic to the major rivers of Myanmar (Ernst

and Barbour 1989. Turtles of the World. Smithsonian Institution

Press, Washington, D.C. 313 pp.; Rhodin et al. 2011. Turtles in

Trouble: The Worlds’ 25+ Most Endangered Tortoises and Fresh-

water Turtles – 2011. IUCN Tortoise and Freshwater Turtle Spe-

cialist Group, Lunenburg, Massachusetts. 54 pp.). Adult B. trivit-

tata exhibit pronounced sexual dichromatism; mature males

have an olive-green carapace with a black vertebral stripe and

two flanking dark lateral stripes, the plastron is ivory white, the

neck is yellowish, and the head is bright yellow-green with a

prominent black stripe extending backwards from the nostrils.

In contrast, the carapace, plastron, and head-neck of the much

larger mature females are uniformly dark brown to gray-black

(Theobald 1867–68. J. Linn. Soc. Zool. 1868:4–64; Smith 1931.

The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Vol. 1.

Loricata and Testudines. Taylor and Francis, London. 185 pp.).

Hatchlings and juveniles of both sexes have a dark greenish-

brown carapace with a pale yellow plastron. Although sexual

dichromatism has long been recognized in B. trivittata (e.g.,

Theobald, op. cit.), the age and body size at which these differ-

ences become apparent has hitherto gone unreported. We here

describe the development of sexually dimorphic coloration in

two cohorts of B. trivittata being reared in captivity as part of

a head-starting conservation program (Platt et al. 2014. Turtle

Survival 2014:45–48).

The cohorts of young turtles on which our observations are

based were hatched from eggs deposited by wild female B. trivit-

tata during February–March 2012 and 2013 in sandbanks along

the Chindwin River in Sagaing Region, Myanmar. We collected

the eggs shortly after deposition (< 24 h) and incubated them

under natural conditions at a secure sandbank near Limpha Vil-

lage (25.80570°N; 95.52200°E; India-Bangladesh datum). Upon

hatching (late May through early June), the neonates were trans-

ferred to 946-liter fiberglass tanks and maintained for three years

(stocking density of 20–25 hatchlings/tank during the first year,

reduced to 10–12 juveniles/tank in subsequent years). Young

turtles were reared on a diet composed primarily of chopped wa-

ter spinach (Ipomoea aquatica; provided on alternate days) and

commercial cat kibble (provided once per week). At three years

of age, each cohort was transferred to a concrete rearing pond

(9.1 × 12.1 m and 12.1 × 12.1 m; both ponds ca. 1.5 m deep) and

watermelon and figs (Ficus glomeratus) were added to the diet

when available. We weighed, measured, and recorded the shell

and head coloration of each turtle during February or March

2013–17. The 2012 and 2013 cohorts consist of 85 and 135 turtles,

respectively.

Differences in coloration among individuals in each cohort

were not apparent during the first two years post-hatching;

plastrons remained white to yellow, carapaces were a uniform

greenish-brown, and head coloration a dull green. At age three,

a slight darkening of the plastron was evident on a few turtles,

but otherwise plastron, carapace, and head coloration appeared

unchanged from previous years. Sexual dichromatism first

became evident at age four in both cohorts. At this age, females

began to display areas of dark pigmentation on the plastron,

plastral bridge, and undersurface of the marginal scutes. The

degree of pigmentation varied greatly among individuals with

some displaying extensive, well-defined dark patches while in

others pigmentation was faint although discernible, and confined

to small areas of each scute. On the plastron and underside of

the marginal scutes, darkening appears to begin in the posterior

distal-most corner of each scute and radiates upwards and

outwards towards the mid-line. Darkening of the plastral bridge

followed a similar pattern except the pigmentation extends

upwards and outwards, away from the mid-line. In four-year-old

males, the plastron becomes bright cream-white, the black head-

stripe is obvious, and the head assumes a subdued greenish

hue. The carapace is gray-brown and the three black carapacial

stripes typical of adult males are not yet visible. A small number

(< 10%) of individuals in each cohort retained juvenile coloration

at age four and could not be reliably sexed. The mean (± 1 SD) CL

of four-year-old B. trivittata was 210 ± 38 mm (N = 220; range =

113–280 mm). The mean CL of males (CL = 212 ± 31 mm; range =

113–260 mm; N = 71) was slightly larger than females (CL = 208 ±

41 mm (range = 116–280 mm; N = 137), although this difference

was not significant (two-tailed t-test with unequal variances; t =

-0.67; DF = 176; P = 0.50).

At age five (2012 cohort only), dichromatic coloration was

more pronounced. Among many females, dark pigmentation of

the plastral bridge and underside of the marginal scutes is near-

complete or complete (Fig. 1A). Pigmentation of the plastron

in most females was extensive, although as with four-year-old

turtles, considerable individual variation was noted (Fig. 1B).

Fig. 1. Sexual dichromatism

among a five-year-old cohort of

Batagur trivittata hatched from

eggs collected along the Chind-

win River in Myanmar. Heav-

ily pigmented plastron, plastral

bridge, and marginal scutes of

female (1A). Less extensive plas-

tral pigmentation in this female

illustrates the wide range of in-

dividual variation present within

the same cohort (1B). Uniform

grey-black coloration of the head

and neck of female (1C). Head

coloration in male (1D). Plastron

and thickened tail of male (1E).

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

618 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

The carapace and head-neck of females are grey-black (Fig.

1C). Among males, the yellow-green head coloration becomes

brighter and more defined, and faint striping is evident on the

carapace (Fig. 1D). These color changes in males are accompa-

nied by a pronounced thickening of the tail (Fig. 1E). The mean

(± 1 SD) CL of five-year-old turtles was 264 ± 18 mm (range =

224–303 mm). Five-year old females (CL = 270 ± 18 mm; range =

224–303 mm; N = 56) were larger than males (CL = 250 ± 11 mm;

range = range = 230–274 mm; N = 29) and this difference was

significant (two-tailed t-test with unequal variances; t = 6.05, DF

= 80, P < 0.0001).

In conclusion, we found that sexually dichromatic coloration

becomes apparent among B. trivittata when CL exceeds about

120 mm between the age of four and five years, at least under

captive conditions. We expect dichromatism to develop at a later

age among wild turtles, which presumably grow at a slower rate.

Whether there is a body size × age interaction as demonstrated

in some reptiles (e.g., Alligator mississippiensis; Joanen and Mc-

Nease 1987. In Webb et al. [eds.], Wildlife Management: Croco-

diles and Alligators, pp. 329–340. Surrey Beatty & Sons, Pty., Ltd.,

Chipping Norton, NSW) remains unknown. Furthermore, our

observations indicate dichromatism first becomes evident at

about the same age the sexes begin to diverge in body size. Shine

and Iverson (1995. Oikos 72:343–348) determined that females of

most turtle species attain sexual maturity at about 70% of maxi-

mum body size. According to Smith (op. cit.), female B. trivittata

may reach a CL of 580 mm. Based on this value female B. trivit-

tata should thus become sexually mature when CL reaches 406

mm or about twice the current (2017) mean CL of the 2012 co-

hort. Our observations therefore suggest that sexual dichroma-

tism among B. trivittata becomes evident well before females

reach sexual maturity.

We thank the Ministry of Environmental Conservation and

Forestry for granting us permission to conduct research in Myan-

mar. Fieldwork in Myanmar was made possible by generous

grants from Andrew Sabin and the Andrew Sabin Family Founda-

tion, Panaphil Foundation, Helmsley Charitable Trust, Margaret

A. Cargill Foundation, and United States Fish and Wildlife Ser-

vice. The field assistance of Tun Win Zaw and Moe Aung Thu was

critical to the success of our project. We also thank Deb Levinson

and Ruth Elsey for assistance with obtaining literature, and Lewis

Medlock for insightful comments on a draft of this manuscript.

This paper represents technical contribution number 6564 of the

Clemson University Experimental Station.

STEVEN G. PLATT (e-mail: sgplatt@gmail.com), TINT LWIN (e-mail:

tintlwin.2010@gmail.com), and MYO MIN WIN, Wildlife Conservation Soci-

ety - Myanmar Program, No. 12, Nanrattaw St., Kamayut Township, Yangon,

Myanmar (e-mail: 4nge86@gmail.com); KALYAR PLATT, Turtle Survival Al-

liance - Myanmar Program, No. 12, Nanrattaw St., Kamayut Township, Yan-

gon, Myanmar (e-mail: kalyarplatt@gmail.com); THOMAS R. RAINWATER,

Tom Yawkey Wildlife Center & Belle W. Baruch Institute of Coastal Ecology

and Forest Science, Clemson University, P.O. Box 596, Georgetown, South

Carolina 29442, USA (e-mail: trrainwater@gmail.com).

CHELONIA MYDAS (Eastern Pacific Green Sea Turtle). DIET.

Chelonia mydas is considered an opportunistic omnivore in all

stages of its development (Amorocho and Reina 2008. J. Exp. Mar.

Biol. Ecol. 360:117–124). Novel diet items have been reported,

including Ptilosarcus undulatus (Sea Pen) (Seminoff et al. 2002.

Copeia 2002:266–268); Pleuroncodes planipes (Pelagic Red Crabs)

(Lopez-Mendilaharsu et al. 2005. Aquat. Conserv. Mar. Freshw.

Ecosyst. 15:259–269); tunicates and crustaceans (Amorocho and

Reina 2007. Endang. Species Res. 3:43–51); hydrozoans, scypho-

zoans, nematodes, annelids, mollusks (Carrion-Cortez et al.

2010. J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 90[5]:1005–1013); squids, octopus

(Riosmena-Rodriguez and Lara-Uc 2015. Herpetol. Rev. 46:617)

and sea urchins (Reséndiz et al. 2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:282).

It has been suggested that this dietary diversity is a response

to the energetic requirements of these animals in the early life

stages, facilitating nutritional gains for development and matu-

ration (Bjorndal 1985. Copeia 1985[3]:736–751), and optimiz-

ing digestion time (Amorocho and Reina 2008. J. Exp. Mar. Biol.

Ecol. 360:117–124). It has also been noted that diet in C. mydas

is influenced by resource availability (Balazs 1980. NOAA Tech.

Memo. NOAA-TM-NMFS-SWFS-7; Garnett et al. 1985. Wildl. Res.

12:103–112) and that diet selection is linked to the composition

and capacity of their hind-gut microflora, which may change as

the turtles grow and/or occupy different habitats (Bjorndal 1980.

Mar. Biol. 56:147–154).

In 2016 we collected food samples from the esophagi of 39 ju-

venile and subadult C. mydas (mean body mass 39.30 ± 27.78 kg)

during three field forays, and recorded straight carapace length

(mean 74.42 ± 27.78 cm). Collection sites were “el Espinazo del

diablo” (27.919490°N, 114.194480°W), “el Dátil” (27.777139°N,

114.171358°W) and “la Choya” (27.645778°N, 114.091806°W) at

Ojo de Liebre Lagoon, Baja California Sur, Mexico. In all samples,

a combination of the red algae Polysiphonia sp., Spyridia sp,. and

green algae Codium sp. were present and comprised 75% of the

total volume. Turtle mean body condition index (BCI) was 1.48

(range = 1.2–1.8), similar to the values reported for previous stud-

ies (Koch et al. 2007. Mar. Biol. 153[1]:35– 46; Seminoff et al. 2003.

J. Mar. Biol. Assoc. U.K. 83:1355–1362), which suggests that the

animals were in good nutritional status and had the capacity for

future favorable reproductive performance.

This is the first report of targeted Polysiphonia sp., Spyridia

sp. and Codium sp. consumption by C. mydas in Ojo de Liebre

Lagoon and in Baja California Sur. It has been established that

marine algae provide minerals, vitamins, carbohydrates, and

protein (Lourenço et al. 2002. Phycol. Res. 50:233–241); they also

stimulate the metabolism and immune system, and can reduce

heavy metals absorption (Ohta et al. 2009. Biol. Pharm. Bull.

32[5]:892–898). In addition, the ingestion of algae provide an im-

portant source of energy in sea turtles (Bjorndal 1997. In P. L. Lutz

and J. A. Musick (eds.), The Biology of Sea Turtles, pp. 199–231.

CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida), increasing rates of growth and a

faster attainment of sexual maturity (Amorocho and Reina 2008.

J. Exp. Mar. Biol. Ecol. 360:117–124). The fact that Polysiphonia

sp., Spyridia sp. and Codium sp. accounted for 75% of the total

diet of C. mydas corroborates that these red and green algae are a

significant food resource for the turtles and the fact that the ani-

mals were in good nutritional status suggests the capacity to as-

similate nutrients from those algae species (Bjorndal 1990. Bull.

Mar. Sci. 47[2]:567–570). It is also important to note that these

algae species were not previously reported as components of C.

mydas diet in Ojo de Liebre lagoon or in Baja California Sur, sug-

gesting that turtles are able to adapt by shifting their food source.

Ojo de Liebre lagoon is an important feeding and development

area for C. mydas, and in these inshore foraging habitats, turtles

demonstrate high site fidelity (Balazs and Chaloupka 2004. Mar.

Biol. 145:1043–1059). For this reason, understanding feeding

ecology and diet of sea turtles is essential for their conservation

in these areas by identifying important food resources and allow-

ing informed decisions on the management of endangered pop-

ulations (Bjorndal 1999. In K. L. Eckert et al. [eds.], Priorities for

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 619

Research in Foraging Habitats, pp. 12–18. Research and Manage-

ment Techniques for the Conservation of Sea Turtles. IUCN/SSC

Marine Turtle Specialist Group Publication No. 4). It is desirable

to continue monitoring the different foraging areas in the Ojo

de Liebre Lagoon throughout the year to identify any seasonal

variation in the diet of sea turtles in relation to their age classes

and the presence of these algae and others nutrients.

We thank PROYECTO PROCER 2016 “PARTICIPACIÓN SO-

CIAL EN EL MONITOREO DEL HABITAT CRÍTICO DE LA TOR-

TUGA NEGRA EN LA LAGUNA OJO DE LIEBRE Y LA LAGUNA

DE SAN IGNACIO” Programa de Conservación de Especies en

Riesgo (PROCER) de la Comisión Nacional de Areas Naturales

Protegidas (CONANP) for funding this research and for their

assistance during field work. Thanks to Everardo Mariano-Me-

lendez and Oscar Javier Salazar-Mendez (Reserva de la Biosfera

el Vizcaíno) for their support and guidance during the develop-

ment of this research. Thanks to Aarón Sanchez, Fabian Castillo,

Joaquín Rivera and Antonio Zaragoza from Exportadora de Sal

S.A. (ESSA) for their assistance with fieldwork logistics and to

Carmen Méndez Trejo (Programa de investigación en Botanica

marina UABCS).

EDUARDO RESÉNDIZ, Alianza Keloni A. C. Antonio Rosales 698, col.

Centro, C.P. 23000, La Paz B.C.S. México and Universidad Autónoma de Baja

California Sur, Carretera al Sur KM 5.5., Apartado Postal 19-B, C.P. 23080,

La Paz, B.C.S. México (e-mail: jresendiz@uabcs.mx); YOALLI HERNÁNDEZ-

GIL, ANA SOFÍA MERINO-ZAVALA, JORGE ARMANDO VEGA-BRAVO,

Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur, Carretera al Sur KM 5.5.,

Apartado Postal 19-B, C.P. 23080, La Paz, B.C.S., México; MARÍA MÓNICA

LARA-UC, Alianza Keloni A.C. Antonio Rosales 698, col. Centro C.P. 23000,

La Paz, B.C.S., México and Universidad Autónoma de Baja California Sur,

Carretera al Sur KM 5.5., Apartado Postal 19-B, C.P. 23080, La Paz, B.C.S.,

México (e-mail: mlara@uabcs.mx).

CHELYDRA SERPENTINA (Snapping Turtle). MOVEMENT AND

FLOOD RESPONSE. Snapping Turtles are ranked as S3 in Mani-

toba due to the relatively few known populations, and are list-

ed as Special Concern nationally (COSEWIC 2008. vii + 47pp.).

There is little known about population sizes, survivorship, clutch

sizes, habitat use, movement, and nest predation in Manitoba

(Norris-Elye 1949. Can. Field Nat. 63:145–147). Here we report

on habitat use and movement of Chelydra serpentina in south-

western Manitoba during non-flood (2010 and 2012) and flood

(2011) years. The 2011 flood in the Assiniboine River watershed

remained in flood stage for 100 days beginning in early May and

remained high through early August (www.gov.mb.ca/flood-

ing/2011/index.html; 1 October 2013). To date, there have been

few studies on the impacts of changes in flood plains on animal

spatial ecology (Hanke et al. 2015. Wetl. Ecol. Manag. 23:215–226;

Zeng et al. 2015. PLoS ONE 10:e0127387), and even fewer that

have investigated the impacts of flooding on reptiles (Bateman

et al. 2008. J. Arid Environ. 72:1613–1619; Yagi and Litzgus 2012.

Copeia 2012:179–190).

This study took place in the lower Little Saskatchewan Riv-

er, in southwestern Manitoba, Canada (49.8872°N, 100.1211°W;

WGS 84). The headwaters of the Little Saskatchewan are in Rid-

ing Mountain National Park and the river meanders southward

for approximately 150 km where it flows into the Assiniboine Riv-

er, approximately 15 km W of Brandon. The main study area was

located between Glenorky (north) and Kirkham’s (south) bridges.

The straight-line distance between the most northern and south-

ern locations of the study area was 10 km; the distance along the

Little Saskatchewan River between these same two points was

12.5 km. The surrounding area is primarily agricultural and pas-

toral land. The vegetation community beyond the riparian habi-

tat is comprised of shrubs, such as Silver Sage (Elaeagnus com-

mutate), and trees including Aspen (Populus tremuloides) and

Burr Oak (Quercus macrocarpa) with occasional gaps in which

the grazed land reaches the riparian habitat of the river.

Nine Snapping Turtles were located and captured by hand or

net from14 May to 15 June 2010; one additional turtle was cap-

tured on 9 June 2011. Nine out of ten of the turtles were captured

in May 2010 or June 2011 in the same marsh (approximately 7.5

ha in size), located on the west side of the Little Saskatchewan

River and approximately 1.5 km S of the Glenorky Bridge (Fig.

1). One turtle was captured in a nearby rivulet in June 2010. We

recorded weight (kg), carapace width and length (cm), plastron

length (cm), pre-cloacal tail length (cm), post-cloacal tail length

(cm), water temperature (°C), and air temperature (°C) for each

turtle (Table 1). We determined sex by either the presence of

eggs and/or the ratio of the ratio of posterior plastron lobe to

pre-cloacal tail length (Mosimann and Bider 1960. Can. J. Zool.

38:19–38). All individuals were adults, and there were six males,

two females, and two of unknown sex. Each turtle was also given

a unique notch combination on the marginal scutes of the cara-

pace with a triangle file.

All turtles were restrained by placing their heads into a buck-

et, as described by (Galbraith and Brooks 1983. Herpetol. Rev.

14:115). A VHF radio transmitter (Advanced Telemetry Systems,

transmitter model R1930, 24 g, ATS, Isanti, Minnesota, USA) was

attached to the lower right side of the carapace. The area was first

sanded and cleaned, and the radio transmitter was adhered to

the shell with waterproof epoxy gel and Mighty Putty™ (Brown

et al. 1990. Can. J. Zool. 68:1659–1663). The transmitters have a

battery life of approximately three years. We tracked animals by

foot and canoe once a week using an ATS R410 VHF receiver (ATS,

Isanti, Minnesota, USA) during the summers of 2010 (14 May–21

October), 2011 (19 April–September 11), and 2012 (22 March–6

August).

We calculated home range sizes (ha) using the minimum

convex polygon (MCP for 95% of points) in R v3.2.1 (adehabi-

tatHR, MCP; Table 2). We assumed that the transmitter had been

shed when we recorded 30 consecutive locations in the same

spot for an individual, and excluded these locations from the

home range calculations. Home range sizes were larger in the

flood year (2011) compared to non-flood years (2010 and 2012;

Table 2), although we were unable to complete statistical analy-

ses because of our small samples sizes.

When turtles were located we recorded the date, time, loca-

tion (UTM within 5 m), habitat, and behavior of each located

turtle (when observed). We categorized turtle locations into 6

types: river (main channel of the Little Saskatchewan River or

Assiniboine River), riverbank, splay channel (small flow of water

that was separate from the main river channel, but joined to the

main river channel at both ends), marsh (marshy areas typically

within 25–100 m of the river), field (flooded area that had been

cultivated), and rock (exposed rock in the river). We also catego-

rized the behavior of individuals (where we had a visual record)

into 3 categories: basking in the open, moving through the water,

or resting on the bottom. We were unable to evaluate difference

between the sexes because we only tracked two females.

The majority of our locations during tracking were in the river

(75%, N = 202), a smaller percentage were found in the marsh

(22%, N = 60), a handful of locations were in splay channels (3%,

N = 7), and a single location was in a field (0.3%, N = 1). They

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

620 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

also were more often found in the river during the summer (July

1st onwards; 86%, N = 140 out of 162 summer locations), than

in the spring (May and June; 57%, N = 62 out of 108 spring lo-

cations). In the spring, there were more locations in the marsh

(47%, N = 41 out of 108) compared to the summer (12%, N = 19

out of 162 summer locations). During tracking, animals were not

typically visible (20%, N = 56), and were less often visible during

the flood year (2011; 7%, N = 7) compared to the non-flood years

(2010: 29%, N = 30; 2012: 24%, N = 19). Visible animals were most

commonly found in the marsh (66%, N = 37) or on the riverbank

(18%, N = 10); they were less frequently found in the river (11%, N

= 6), in the splay channel (4%, N = 2) or on rocks in the river (2%,

N = 1). The Little Saskatchewan River is very turbid (especially in

the spring) so visibility in the river is limited to the near-shore,

shallow areas.

Water in the marsh, or splay channels was clear, and therefore

animals located in these areas were easy to see. Animals basking

on the edge of the marsh, riverbank, or on rocks in the river were

also easy to see. Because of this visibility bias, we only compared

the locations of visible animals for the marsh. More of the visible

animals in the marsh were seen in the water column (47%, N =

17), with fewer animals resting on the bottom (36%, N = 13) or

basking on the edge (17%, N = 6). Atmospheric basking behavior

(animal is out of the water) was highest in the marsh (10%, N = 6),

compared to the river (5%, N = 11), or splay channels (0%).

Snapping Turtles observed in our study in southwestern

Manitoba appeared to have larger home ranges during the flood

year (2011) than in non-flood years (2010 and 2012). This in-

crease in home range size during flood events has been shown

in other turtle species. For example, flooded peatlands due to

beaver dams created new aquatic habitat (of high thermal qual-

ity) resulting in larger home range sizes in Spotted Turtles (Clem-

mys gutatta) (Yagi and Litzgus 2012. Copeia 2012:179–190). The

2011 flood on the Little Saskatchewan River did not appear to

Fig. 1. Radio telemetry locations for 10 Chelydra serpentina tracked in southwestern Manitoba in 2010–2012. The area flooded in 2011, but

returned to non-flood conditions in 2012.

table 1. Morphology, water temperature, and air temperature capture data for female (N = 2) and

male (N = 6) Common Snapping Turtles captured in the Little Saskatchewan River in southwestern

Manitoba in 2010–2011. Morphological measures included: mass, carapace length (CL), carapace

width (CW), and plastron length (PL).

Female Male

Mean ± SE Range Mean ± SE Range

Mass (kg) 7.2 ± 0.35 6.8 – 7.5 10.9 ± 1.49 7.2 – 17.3

CL (cm) 29.2 ± 0.40 28.8 – 29.6 35.1 ± 1.65 30.0 – 41.9

CW (cm) 26.4 ± 1.50 24.9 – 27.9 31.5 ± 1.73 27.3 – 38.9

PL (cm) 22.5 ± 0.35 22.5 – 23.2 25.8 ± 0.92 23.1 – 28.1

Water Temp. (°C) 17.0 ± 1.50 15.5 – 18.5 21.2 ± 1.89 16.0 – 25.5

Air Temp. (°C) 20.8 ± 4.75 16.0 – 25.5 22.6 ± 2.21 16.0 – 29.0

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 621

permanently create more aquatic habitat, because in 2012 they

had home range sizes comparable to pre-flood levels in 2010.

That said, there were differences in where they were spending

their time in the non-flood years. In 2010, they were all found

in the northern section of the river (Fig. 1), whereas in 2011 and

2012 some animals occupied the southern portions of the river,

where it intersected with the Assiniboine River.

Possibly, individuals were swept downstream in 2011, result-

ing in larger home ranges. There were more turtles located down-

stream during 2011 compared to 2010 (Fig. 1). Currents were not

measured along this stretch of the river during the flood event,

but were significantly higher along the nearby Assiniboine River

during the same time frame. On May 9, 2011, the Assiniboine

River in Brandon recorded a peak flow of 1280 m3/s, and a crest

at 364 m above sea level (www.gov.mb.ca/flooding/2011/index.

html; 1 October 2013). The southern edge of our study site in-

cludes the junction of the Little Saskatchewan and Assiniboine

Rivers (Fig. 1) so high water levels on the Assiniboine River were

directly affecting the Little Saskatchewan River, in addition to

the high water volume on the Little Saskatchewan River itself.

Water levels remained high on both the Little Saskatchewan and

Assiniboine Rivers until August of 2011. Individuals may have

been swept downstream, and then chose to hibernate in these

locations and remained there during 2012. None of our tracked

turtles were in the southern portion of the Little Saskatchewan

River in 2010, but some were there in 2012 after the flood (Fig. 1).

It is also possible that females were moving downstream to

seek out nesting habitat. In this system, we typically found nests

and nesting females on sandy shorelines. During a flood event

there will likely be less nesting habitat available, because the san-

dy shorelines were flooded and no longer be available. This may

have caused the increase in female home range sizes. The two

females that we tracked both increased their home range sizes,

although our small samples sizes do not allow us to statistically

test for differences between males and females. Given that both

males and females increased their home range size, it is likely

that the differences we saw during flooding were a combination

of high flow rates and lack of nesting habitat. Given that climate

change is likely to increase the frequency and severity of flood

events, it is imperative that we further study these events so that

we can have a better understanding of how these events impact

animals both in the short- and long-term.

Thanks to N. Cairns, D. Hoysak, A. Hoysak, and P. Malcolm for

their assistance with data collection. Funding and in-kind sup-

port were provided by Brandon University Research Committee,

Brandon University Student Union, Department of Zoology/Bi-

ology, and Manitoba Conservation. All protocols were done with

the approval of the Brandon University Animal Care Committee

(2009-R05) and all necessary permits for field study were ob-

tained (Manitoba Conservation: WB11022, WB12410).

PAMELA L. RUTHERFORD, Department of Biology, Brandon Universi-

ty, 270 18th St., Brandon, Manitoba, Canada R7A 6A9 (e-mail: rutherfordp@

brandonu.ca); CHRISTOPHER D. MALCOLM, Department of Geography,

Brandon University, 270 18th St., Brandon, Manitoba, Canada R7A 6A9 (e-

mail: malcolmc@brandonu.ca); KALI MEADOWS, MORGEN BURKE, and

SHANE PRATT.

EMYS ORBICULARIS (European Pond Turtle). NEONATE DIET.

Detailed information on the ecology of neonatal emydine turtles

is scarce (Costanzo et al. 2008. J. Exp. Zool. 309A:297–379). In-

deed, because of their small body size, and their high susceptibil-

ity to predation, field studies on neonatal emydids are logistically

complex. Accordingly, the foraging ecology, and thus the precise

composition of the diet of emerging young emydids is virtually

unknown. Despite this lack of detailed information, it is usually

assumed that neonatal emydine turtles rely on residual yolk un-

til nest emergence and that; after emergence their diet is com-

posed of gastropods and insects based on information gathered

on larger juvenile individuals (Ottonello et al. 2005. Amphibia-

Reptilia 26:562–565).

We studied Emys orbicularis, a typical emydine turtle species,

in “Brenne” one of the largest wetlands of central France. These

field studies include protection of nests, and subsequent moni-

toring of the emergence of neonates. At the end of the emergence

table 2. Home range sizes (ha) calculated for minimum convex polygons (MCP for 95% of points) for

10 turtles tracked in the Little Saskatchewan River in southwestern Manitoba from May 2010 to August

2012. For each individual, the number of times the turtle was located is indicated in brackets. For mean

values the numbers of individuals is indicated in brackets.

2010 2011 2012

Tag Sex MCP MCP MCP

144 M 3.98 (13) 40.10 (11) NA

160 M NA 16.88 (10) 48.09 (7)

182 M 14.12 (14) 125.27 (11) NA

223 M 68.00 (11) 160.64 (8) 67.15 (12)

286 M 11.68 (11) 4.36 (11) 19.45 (15)

307 M 3.95 (16) NA NA

240 F 11.25 (13) 320.85 (13) NA

323 F 66.43 (10) 162.27 (11) 112.73 (13)

203 NA 10.07 (11) NA NA

261 NA NA NA 21.93 (9)

Mn ± SE 23.69 ± 9.59 (8) 118.62 ± 42.03 (7) 53.87 ± 17.15 (5)

Range 3.95 – 68.0 4.36 – 320.85 19.45 – 112.73

Mn ± SE (F) 38.84 ± 27.59 (2) 241.56 ± 79.29 (2) NA

Mn ± SE (M) 20.35 ± 12.09 (5) 69.45 ± 31.06 (5) 44.90 ± 13.86 (3)

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

622 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

period, nests are excavated to assess the emerging success (num-

ber of viable young produced) as well as the presence and the

number of dead individuals, dead embryos, or undeveloped

eggs.

At the end of May 2017, three weeks after the usual latest

emergence date, we excavated a nest that had produced two

turtles. The nest also contained one dead individual, three dead

embryos, and three undeveloped eggs. Surprisingly, we found an

additional living neonate at the bottom of the nest. Upon cap-

ture, this individual defecated, suggesting that it had ingested

solid food after birth while still being within the nest. Examina-

tion of the fecal pellet revealed that it was composed of the cara-

pace scutes of other neonatal turtles.

This observation indicates that neonatal E. orbicularis can

feed on solid food sources while still being within the nest. Al-

though we do not know if the turtle consumed was alive, this

seems unlikely, and to our knowledge, it is the first reported case

of intra-nest necro-cannibalism in an emydine turtle species. We

do not know whether the young had ingested parts of a (dead)

sibling because it was unable to leave the nest or if it remained in

the nest because it found food resources there. Future examina-

tions of nest contents may allow us to quantify the frequency of

such unusual behavior.

FREDERIC BEAU, RNN de Chérine, Maison de la Nature et de la

Réserve, 36290 Saint-Michel-en-Brenne (e-mail: rncherine.frederic@or-

ange.fr); FRANCOIS BRISCHOUX, CEBC UMR7372 CNRS-ULR, 79360 Vil-

liers en Bois, France (e-mail: francois.brischoux@gmail.com).

GLYPTEMYS INSCULPTA (Wood Turtle) and GRAPTEMYS GEO-

GRAPHICA (Northern Map Turtle). INTERSPECIFIC BASKING.

Intraspecific basking has been observed in a number of North

American turtle species (e.g., Weber and Layzer 2014. Herpetol.

Rev. 45:117; Jones and Cochran 2014. Herpetol. Rev. 45:311–312;

Hartzell et al. 2015. Herpetol. Rev. 46:621; Hartzell and Hartzell

2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:453). On 28 June 2017 at 1330 h, I observed

and photographed interspecific basking of Glyptemys insculpta

with two Graptemys geographica (Fig. 1) within the North Branch

of the Susquehanna River, Columbia County, Pennsylvania, USA.

Identification of each species was confirmed with binoculars.

All three turtles were observed basking on a fallen tree emerging

from the river approximately 30 m from the riverbank within a

section of the river approximately 280 m wide and several meters

in depth. Each turtle was situated approximately 1 m away from

the other turtles and all turtles remained in the same positions

during approximately 10 minutes of observation.

Throughout their range, G. insculpta are known to occupy lo-

tic habitats ranging from small streams to large rivers; however,

some differences in typical lotic habitat use have been noted be-

tween populations (Harding and Bloomer 1979. HERP, Bull. New

York Herpetol. Soc. 15:9–26; Ernst and Lovich 2009. Turtles of

the United States and Canada, 2nd ed. Johns Hopkins University

Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 827 pp.). G. insculpta populations

associated with the Great Lakes region typically occupy larger

streams and rivers, thus more often sharing habitat and bask-

ing opportunities with G. geographica (Harding 1990. In Beaman

et al. [eds.], Proceedings of the 1st International Symposium on

Turtles and Tortoises: Conservation and Captive Husbandry, pp.

31–35. California Turtle and Tortoise Club, Van Nuys, California;

J. Harding, pers. comm.). However, eastern populations of G. ins-

culpta more typically occupy smaller streams and overall appear

to spend more time away from water seasonally than western

populations of this species (e.g., Harding and Bloomer 1979, op.

cit.; Kaufman 1992. J. Herpetol. 26:315–321; Ernst 2001. Chelon.

Conserv. Biol. 4:94–99; Hartzell, pers. observ.). Because G. geo-

graphica typically inhabit large bodies of water (e.g., lakes, riv-

ers; Pluto and Bellis 1986. J. Herpetol. 20:22–31; Ernst and Lovich

2009, op. cit.), this observation of interspecific basking with G.

geographica appears to be unusual for G. insculpta populations

in the eastern portion of their range.

SEAN M. HARTZELL, Department of Biological and Allied Health Sci-

ences, Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania, Bloomsburg, Pennsylvania

17815, USA; e-mail: smh14844@huskies.bloomu.edu.

PODOCNEMIS EXPANSA (Giant South American River Turtle).

JUVENILE MOVEMENT. The Turtle Conservation Program of the

Lower Negro River was founded in 2014, and is focused on a pri-

ority area for chelonian conservation in the Amazon (Fagundes

et al. 2015. Divers. Distrib. 1–13). The program meets a demand

from the Brazilian riverine communities of three protected ar-

eas (PAs: Jaú National Park, Rio Unini Extractive Reserve, and

Rio Negro State Park North Section) to protect turtle species that

are an important food resource. One of the program’s principal

aims is to promote the conservation and management of nesting

Fig. 1. Glyptemys insculpta (arrow) basking with Graptemys

geographica.

Fig. 1. Post-hatching Podocnemis expansa recaptured in the Jaú Riv-

er, Amazonas State, Brazil. The figure shows the individual marked

with the phalanx amputation method.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 623

sites for four different turtle species in the above mentioned PAs

through participatory monitoring.

In December 2015, we marked 510 Podocnemis expansa

hatchlings in the Jaú River, Amazonas State, Brazil (2.2535°S,

62.6510°W; WGS 84). We used the phalanx amputation method to

remove a toe from all hatchlings to indicate their birth year (Bal-

estra et al. 2016. Biodiv. Bras. 6:130). We then randomly selected

a sample of 30 marked hatchlings for taking biometric measures.

Hatchlings had a mean straight-line carapace length of 57 ± 3.60

mm (51.75–64.00, N = 30). Hatchlings remained in captivity for

one month before being released in Supiá Lake (01.904639°S,

61.465639°W; WGS 84). Nine months after their release we re-

captured one marked juvenile P. expansa (Fig. 1) on Cuxiaú Lake

(01.85660°S, 61.60416°W; WGS 84), 38.47 km upstream from Su-

piá Lake (Fig. 2). The recaptured individual had a straight-line

carapace length of 108 mm. We estimated that the juvenile trav-

eled an average of 4.27 km/month to reach Cuxiaú Lake.

The movements of Podocnemis species are strongly related

to the hydrological variation of Amazonian rivers (Alho and

Pádua 1982. Acta Amazon. 12:323–326; Fachín-Terán et al. 2006.

Chelon. Conserv. Biol. 5:18–24). Adults of P. expansa can migrate

hundreds of kilometers searching for nesting sites or feeding

areas during the dry and flooded periods, respectively. On the

other hand, knowledge about hatchling and juvenile movements

is scarce. A recent study suggests that P. expansa hatchlings may

follow adults to feeding areas immediately after leaving nesting

sites, as a post-hatchling parental care strategy (Ferrara et al.

2013. J. Comp. Psychol. 127:24–32). Conversely, adult females

tracked by satellite telemetry system in the Xingu River showed

different dispersion routes after nesting and only one female

stayed close to the nesting beach (Carneiro and Pezzuti 2015.

Herpetol. Rev. 46:244–245). Our findings provide the first record

of the movement of a P. expansa juvenile. We could not determine

if the juvenile migrated with other individuals.

Actions aimed at reversing the population decline of P. e x -

pansa should concentrate on understanding and protecting ju-

veniles and adults (Mogollones et al. 2010. Chelon. Conserv. Biol.

9:79–89) and our finding is a first step in achieving this goal.

LIRIANN C. N. SILVA (e-mail: lirianncns@gmail.com), CAMILA K.

FAGUNDES (e-mail: cfagundes@wcs.org), CAMILA R. FERRARA (e-mail:

cferrara@wcs.org), THAIS Q. MORCATTY, Wildlife Conservation Society

Brasil - Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Av. General Rodrigo Octávio,

6200, 69080-900, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil (e-mail: tatamorcatty@gmail.

com); VIRGÍNIA C. D. BERNARDES, Centro de Estudos de Quelônios da

Amazônia, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia, Av. André Araújo,

2936, 69067-375, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil (e-mail: virginiacdbernardes@

gmail.com); RACHEL K. ACOSTA (e-mail: rachel.acosta@icmbio.gov.

br), MARIANA M. LEITÃO (e-mail: mariana.leitão@icmbio.gov.br), ANA

L. C. B. FIGUEIREDO (e-mail: gueiredo.analuiza@gmail.com), ANA F.

C. Z. TINTO, Instituto Chico Mendes – Rua Antenor Carlos Frederico, 69,

69750-000, Novo Airão, Amazonas, Brazil (e-mail: ana.tinto@icmbio.gov.

br); POLLYANA F. LEMOS, Instituto de Pesquisas Ecológicas – Rod. Dom

Pedro I, Km 47, Nazaré Paulista, São Paulo, Brazil (e-mail: lemos@ipe.org.br);

PAULO C. M. ANDRADE, Laboratório de Animais Silvestres, Universidade

Federal do Amazonas - Mini campus, Av. General Rodrigo Octávio, 6200,

69080-900, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil (e-mail: pcmandra@yahoo.com.

br); JAIME G. NERY-JÚNIOR, Departamento de Mudanças Climáticas e

Unidades de Conservação, Secretaria do Meio Ambiente – Rua Raimundo

Marques de Medeiros, 84, 69730-000, Novo Airão, Amazonas, Brazil (e-mail:

jrboanerge@hotmail.com); MARIA C. G. PEREIRA, Departamento de

Mudanças Climáticas e Unidades de Conservação, Secretaria do Meio

Ambiente – Av. Mário Ipiranga Monteiro, 3280, 69050-030, Manaus,

Amazonas, Brazil (e-mail: dukarmo@demuc.com).

PSEUDEMYS SUWANNIENSIS (Suwannee Cooter). LONG

DISTANCE MOVEMENT AND HOMING. Several turtle species

in riverine ecosystems move relatively long distances (Moll

and Moll 2004. The Ecology, Exploitation, and Conservation of

River Turtles. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK; Ernst and

Lovich 2009. Turtles of the United States and Canada, 2nd ed.,

Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland. 827 pp.).

Podocnemis expansa exhibits the longest known movements

of any riverine turtle, migrating 45–422 km between foraging

areas and nesting beaches in Amazon basin rivers such as the

Río Caquetá and Río Trombetas (von Hildebrand et al. 1997.

Aspectos de la Biología Reproductiva y Técnicas para su Manejo.

Disloque Editores, Santa Fe de Bogotá, Colombia; Vogt 2008.

Amazon Turtles. Biblios, Lima, Peru). In Malaysia, a marked

female Batagur baska was recaptured at a nesting site 80 km

upstream from its initial capture site in the Perak River (Moll

1980. Malaysian J. Sci. 6:23–62). In North America, MacLaren et al.

(2017. Herpetol. Rev. 48:180–181) reported a Pseudemys gorzugi

that traveled 35.5 km in 33 days from Dolan Falls Preserve in

Devil’s River, Texas, USA, downstream to its confluence with the

Rio Grande. They noted this might be the longest movement by

any freshwater turtle in North America. Pseudemys suwanniensis

is another freshwater turtle capable of moving long distances

(Carr. 1952. Handbook of Turtles. Cornell University Press,

Ithaca, New York). Six individuals of this species moved ≥ 4 km

in the Santa Fe River (SFR), the largest Florida tributary of the

Suwannee River; the longest distance was 5.9 km (Kornilev et

al. 2010. Chelon. Conserv. Biol. 9:196–204). Munscher et al.

(2015. Herpetol. Rev. 47:127) confirmed long range movement

of a juvenile P. suwanniensis that travelled 14.8 km downriver

between two springs that feed the lower Suwannee River, Florida,

USA. Here we add an additional observation of P. suwanniensis

in the Suwannee River drainage that extends the longest known

movement distance by a North American freshwater turtle.

On 5 May 2011, GRJ captured a subadult female P. suwan-

niensis (241 mm straight midline plastron length [PL]) by hand

while conducting a snorkeling survey of the turtle assemblage in

the SFR (Johnston et al. 2016. Bull. Florida Mus. Nat. Hist. 54:69–

103). The exact location of capture is unknown, but it was within a

1-km reach between Rum Island (29.8327°N, 82.6778°W; WGS84)

Fig. 2. Probable movement track of the juvenile of Podocnemis ex-

pansa between its capture in December 2015 and recapture in Au-

gust 2016, in the Jaú National Park, Amazonas State, Brazil.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

624 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

and Ginnie Springs (29.8336°N, 82.6879°W), Gilchrist County,

Florida. The turtle was individually marked by drilling a unique

combination of holes in the marginal scutes and released at the

1-km reach where it was captured initially. On 14 July 2013, TT

and ES recaptured this individual (288 mm PL) in a baited hoop

trap in the Suwannee River estuary (29.3261°N, 83.1076°W; Dixie

County, Florida) while conducting a survey of the Suwannee Al-

ligator Snapping Turtle (Macrochelys suwanniensis) population

(Thomas 2013. M.S. thesis, University of Florida, Gainesville).

Our conservative estimate of the distance between her original

capture location and recapture at the mouth of the Suwannee

River is 130 km. She was released at the trap location and not

observed again until her recapture (293 mm PL) by GRJ on 1 July

2015 in the same 1-km reach of the SFR near Rum Island where

she was originally captured and marked. Sometime between July

2013 and July 2015 this subadult female travelled 130 km against

the river current from the Suwannee River estuary back to her

original capture location at Rum Island in the SFR, a minimum

roundtrip of 260 km.

We hypothesize that she was displaced from her normal

home range by strong currents that followed Tropical Storm Deb-

by on 26 June 2012, and then returned home as currents returned

to normal. Our ability to determine the frequency of this putative

response to flooding is limited by the small number (N = 29) of

P. suwanniensis opportunistically captured in baited hoop traps

in the Suwannee River operated by the Florida Fish and Wildlife

Conservation Commission during 2011–2013. During the six

years prior to the M. suwanniensis survey, we captured and indi-

vidually marked 1226 P. suwanniensis in the SFR. Of these, only

one was captured in the Suwannee River. We have no data to esti-

mate how many individuals or which demographic groups move

between the SFR and Suwannee River estuary, and whether they

occur routinely or only under certain environmental conditions.

Our observation, coupled with the capture of 13 unmarked P.

suwanniensis at the confluence of the Suwannee River with the

Gulf of Mexico, also confirms observations by Carr (1940. A Con-

tribution to the Herpetology of Florida. Univ. Florida Publ., Biol.

Sci. Ser. 3:1–118) that this species regularly forages in the Suwan-

nee River estuary.

We thank Ken Dodd, John Iverson, Vivian Páez, Anders Rho-

din, and Dick Vogt for their help with literature.

GERALD R. JOHNSTON, Department of Natural Sciences, Santa Fe

College, Gainesville, Florida 32606, USA (e-mail: jerry.johnston@sfcollege.

edu); JOSEPH C. MITCHELL, Florida Museum of Natural History, University

of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (e-mail: dr.joe.mitchell@gmail.

com); ERIC SUAREZ, Fish and Wildlife Research Institute, Florida Fish and

Wildlife Conservation Commission, 1105 S.W. Williston Road, Gainesville,

Florida 32601, USA (e-mail: Eric.Suarez@myFWC.com); TRAVIS M. THOM-

AS, Nature Coast Biological Station, University of Florida, Cedar Key, Florida

32625, USA (e-mail: Travis.thomas@u.edu).

TERRAPENE CAROLINA TRIUNGUIS (Three-toed Box Turtle).

ENTANGLEMENT. Entanglement in human-made materials is

well documented in snakes (Barton and Kinkead. 2005. Soil Wa-

ter Conserv. Soc. 60:33A–35A; Kapfer and Paloski. 2011. Herpetol.

Conserv. Biol. 6:1–9), but is less frequently reported for terrestrial

turtles.

At 1250 h on 15 April 2017, two living and one deceased Ter -

rapene carolina triunguis were observed in close proximity to a

roll of discarded woven-wire fencing in Cleveland County, Okla-

homa, USA (35.2446°N, 97.4002°W; WGS 84). One of the living T.

carolina triunguis had its claw and part of its foot entangled in

the fencing (Fig. 1). A second living individual was not entangled.

A third deceased individual was present, and while the cause of

death cannot be determined, it is plausible that it too may have

been entangled in the discarded fencing and succumbed. The

entangled T. carolina triunguis was released, and a portion of

the fencing was removed from the area. Photos of this event have

been deposited at HerpMapper (HM 185273).

Brisbin, Jr. et al. (2003. In Mitchell et al. [eds.], Urban Her-

petology, pp. 367–380. Society for the Study of Amphibians &

Reptiles, Salt Lake City, Utah) reported a single case of wire-fence

entanglement and mortality in Terrapene carolina carolina, Here

we provided further evidence of this threat to Terrapene spp.

CHRISTOPHER E. SMITH, Wildlife Research & Consulting Services,

LLC, PO Box 803, Lakeland, Minnesota 55043, USA (e-mail: christopher.

smith@eldecology.com); MARK W. PARKER, 126 E. Mosier St. Nor-

man, Oklahoma 73069, USA (e-mail: galacticarachnid1983@gmail.com).

TRACHEMYS SCRIPTA SCRIPTA (Yellow-bellied Slider). MAXI-

MUM SIZE. During a snorkeling survey of the freshwater turtle

assemblage in the Ichetucknee River in Ichetucknee Springs

State Park, Columbia County, Florida, USA (29.965669°N,

82.761917°W; NAD 84) on 22 March 2015, we hand-captured an

unmarked female Trachemys scripta scripta that measured 336

mm straight midline carapace length (CLmid), 344 mm maximum

carapace length (CLmax), 317 mm straight midline plastron length

(PLmid), 326 mm maximum plastron length (PLmax), 156 mm shell

height (HT), 245 mm shell width (SW), and 6400 g mass (Fig. 1).

The Ichetucknee River is an 8.4 km spring-fed tributary of the

Santa Fe River in northern Florida with clear, thermally stable

(19.9–23.6°C) water that supports an abundance of submerged

aquatic macrophytes (Heffernan and Cohen 2010. Limnol.

Oceanogr. 55:677–688; Chapin and Meylan 2011. Herpetol. Con-

serv. Biol. 6:51–60). During 2014–2017, we captured and marked

103 T. s. scripta at this site; the second largest female in our

sample measured 242 mm CLmid and 228 mm PLmid. On 2 June

2001, JCM captured a large female T. s. scripta by hand in Dare

County, North Carolina (35.785906°N, 75.755947°W, NAD 84)

measuring 335 mm CLmax, 318 mm PLmax, 138 mm HT, 229 mm

SW, and 4500 g mass. The only other female caught at this lo-

cation was 218 mm CLmax, 205 mm PLmax, 89 mm HT, and 183

mm SW. Habitat in this part of North Carolina is pocosin wet-

lands in deep peat deposits (Weakley and Schafale 1991. Wet-

lands 11 [Supplement]:355–375). Most aquatic habitats are deep,

Fig. 1. Terrapene carolina triunguis with its hind foot entangled in

woven-wire fencing.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 625

dark water, human-dug ditches along access roads. A 309 mm

CLmax and 294 mm PLmax female T. s. scripta came from the Great

Dismal Swamp National Wildlife Refuge in Virginia, also a region

with extensively-ditched pocosin wetlands (Mitchell 1994. The

Reptiles of Virginia, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington,

D.C. 352 pp.). The large turtles we report here exceed previously

known maximum sizes for T. s. elegans (Platt and Rainwater 2003.

Herpetol. Rev. 34:242; Powell et al. 2016. Peterson Field Guide to

Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America.

Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Massachusetts. 494 pp.) and T. s .

scripta (Mitchell, op. cit.).

Very large female sliders may exist in other habitats and pop-

ulations, but some of the largest known until now have been in

ponds on barrier islands off the coast of South Carolina (Gibbons

et al. 1979. Georgia J. Sci. 37:155–159; DeGregorio et al. 2102.

Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 7:307–312). These authors hypothesized

that large Alligator mississippiensis in the ponds ate the smaller

T. s. scripta and contributed to the rapid growth of large females.

Large alligators do not occur in pocosin wetland ditches and

rarely occur in spring runs (Johnston et al. 2016. Bull. Florida

Mus. Nat. Hist. 54:69–103; ECM, pers. obs.). Other selective forc-

es may have contributed to the exceptional growth of the large

females we report here, and we cannot rule out the possibility

that growth in freshwater turtles is highly individualistic (Cong-

don and van Loben Sels 1993. J. Evol. Biol. 6:547–557). We could

not ascertain whether these two large females are extremely old

individuals or had exceptional growth histories or both. Because

they were substantially larger than all the other individuals in

their respective populations, we caution against using data from

these turtles to infer an association between habitat type and

geographic location without additional information.

We thank Pete Butt, Georgia Shemitz, Tabitha Hootman, and

the many volunteers who help us conduct turtle surveys in the

Ichetucknee River. Bob Powell provided the source for the mea-

surement in the field guide. Our research in Ichetucknee Springs

State Park was facilitated by Ginger Morgan and Sam Cole un-

der Florida Department of Environmental Protection permit

number 03011712 to GRJ. JCM thanks the DoD Legacy Resource

Management Program for funding his research on Dare County

Bombing Range in North Carolina.

JOSEPH C. MITCHELL, Florida Museum of Natural History, University

of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (e-mail: dr.joe.mitchell@gmail.

com); GERALD R. JOHNSTON, Department of Natural Sciences, Santa Fe

College, Gainesville, Florida 32606, USA (e-mail: jerry.johnston@sfcollege.

edu); ERIC C. MUNSCHER, Department of Natural Resources, SWCA Envi-

ronmental Consultants, Houston, Texas 77040, USA (e-mail: emunscher@

swca.com).

CROCODYLIA — CROCODILIANS

ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS (American Alligator). REPRO-

DUCTION. During the 2015 alligator nesting season in southwest

Louisiana, alligator nests experienced flooding and egg loss. On

16 June 2016, Tropical Storm Bill made landfall along the west

Texas Gulf Coast, and on 18 June water levels rose to 67.7 cm

above marsh level in the coastal marshes of southwest Louisi-

ana. On 25 June, water levels had dropped to 54.8 cm, and on

29 June, had receded to 47.4 cm above mean marsh level. Using

these water levels and nest height measurements, an estimation

of the hatch rate was estimated for the 2015 season, near Grand

Chenier, Louisiana.

From studies conducted on Rockefeller Refuge (Grand Che-

nier, Louisiana, USA), nest construction and egg deposition

takes place over a 21-day period which typically extends from

early to late June (Joanen and McNease 1992. In Proceedings of

the 11th Working Meeting Crocodile Specialist Group, Volume I,

pp. 207–221). This study documented daily nesting activity and

related the nesting period to spring ambient temperatures. Nest-

ing occurred earliest when temperatures in March–May were the

highest (Joanen and McNease 1979. Int. Zoo Yearbook 19:61–66).

Using this information, egg deposition for the 2015 season was

predicted to commence on 5 June and end on 25 June, with peak

nesting near 14 June. On 8 June, approximately halfway through

the first week of egg deposition, the first ten nest containing eggs

were found. The age of the oldest eggs, determined from ban-

width measurements (Ferguson 1985. In Gans et al. [eds.], Biol-

ogy of the Reptilia: Development, pp. 329–491, John Wiley and

Sons, New York), was 2–3 days old, which put the date of deposi-

tion on 5–6 June, and thus the calculated laying dates correlated

very closely with the predicted date of 5 June as the onset of the

nesting season.

Using nest dimension data collected by Joanen (1969. Proc.

Southwest. Assoc. Game Fish Comm. Conf. 23:141–151), the bot-

tom of the egg cavity was found to be 35 cm below the top of

the nest. The results from this study also showed that the average

Fig. 1. Maximum known size Trachemys scripta female from Ichet-

ucknee Springs State Park, Florida, USA: A) carapace, B) plastron.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

626 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

distance from the top of the nest to the top of the egg cavity was

17.4 cm, with an average egg cavity depth of 17.6 cm. Water lev-

els were recorded each week throughout the entire year in the

study area. Measured water levels for the month of June were

compared to the calculated dimensions of nest height and egg

cavity dimensions (Table 1). The average nest height of 10 nests

measured on 8 June was 91.4 cm above marsh level. The bottom

of the nest cavity was predicted to be 56.1 cm above marsh level.

With the bottom of the nest cavity at 56.1 cm and the measured

water levels at 50.0 cm, no eggs would be flooded during the first

week of egg deposition.

On 14 June, the midpoint of the nesting season, water levels

rose to 63.4 cm above marsh level. It was observed that females

tended to build their nests higher than the existing water levels.

Nest height was calculated to be 106.7 cm, with the bottom of the

egg cavities at 69.5 cm above the marsh floor. No eggs laid in the

second week of nesting would have been flooded; however, the

rise in water level during the week of 14 June would have inun-

dated the eggs laid during the first week.

On 22 June, water levels had begun to recede and were re-

corded at 61.6 cm. The tops of the nests constructed during this

period were predicted to have been 103.6 cm above marsh level,

with the bottoms of the egg cavities at 67.7 cm. Thus, no eggs laid

during the last week of nesting would have experienced flood-

ing. The water levels continued to fall, and were recorded to be

46.9 cm on 29 June in the study area. At this level, no eggs were

subjected to flooding, and water levels were below the egg cavi-

ties of the nests that were constructed during the first week of the

nesting period.

Studies conducted concerning the sequence of nesting and

clutch size indicated that the largest females that lay the largest

clutches (average 40 eggs/nest) construct nests during the first

week of the season. Approximately 25% of the total nesting ef-

fort (total eggs) is expended during the first week. The second

week comprises the bulk of the nesting effort (59%) and consists

of nests that average 38 eggs/clutch. During the third and final

week, smaller females construct nests that contain an average of

35 eggs/nest (Joanen and McNease 1992, op. cit.). The 2015 nest-

ing season was interesting in that water levels increased dramati-

cally during the second week of the season, forcing females to

build nests higher to accommodate the rising water. Nests that

were laid during the first week were flooded due to the increased

water levels, thus drowning the majority of the eggs and em-

bryos. Eggs laid during the second and third weeks of the season

were deposited in egg cavities constructed high enough above

the water levels to avoid losses to the rising water. Alligator eggs

are not affected by 2 h of submersion, but eggs flooded for 48 h

produce 100% mortality (Joanen and McNease1979, op. cit.).

Egg collections in the study area for the 2015 nesting season

revealed a 25% egg loss during the 2015 nesting season. A to-

tal of 21,435 eggs were collected from approximately 800 nests

within the study site. Apparently nest height, as demonstrated in

this study, is regulated by marsh water levels at the time of nest

construction and varies with water level fluctuations. The 19,077

hatchlings produced were incorporated into a Louisiana Depart-

ment of Wildlife-approved alligator ranching program which was

initiated in 1986, and allows farmers to collect eggs from private-

ly owned marshlands (Joanen et al. 1997. In C. H. Freese [ed.],

Harvesting Wild Species—Implications for Biodiversity, pp. 465–

506. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland).

Our research was supported by the Miami Corporation. We

thank Chad Courville, Land Manager of Miami Corporation, for

help with collection of data and Darren Richard (Louisiana De-

partment of Wildlife and Fisheries) for supplying the water level

data at the study site. The authors would also like to thank Jerry

Savoie, the owner of Savoie’s alligator farm, for locating nests,

counting eggs, and allowing us to use these data.

TED JOANEN, 1455 Big Pasture Rd., Lake Charles, Louisiana 70607,

USA; MARK MERCHANT, Department of Chemistry, McNeese State Uni-

versity, 450 Beauregard Dr., 225 Kirkman Hall, Lake Charles, Louisiana

70609, USA (e-mail: mmerchant@mcneese.edu).

ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS (American Alligator). NEO-

PLASIA. Alligator mississippiensis is known for its ability to resist

infection and survive with severe physical maladies (Merchant

et al. 2003. Comp. Biochem. Physiol. 136:505–513; Hayes 2016.

Alligators of Texas. Texas A&M University Press. College Station,

Texas. 227 pp.). Neoplastic diseases have been documented in

this species (Elsey and Nevarez 2011. Herpetol. Rev. 44: 503–504;

Elsey et al. 2013. Southeast. Nat. 12:31–34;) as well as in other

crocodilians (Janert 1998. J. Zoo Wildl. Med. 29:72–77; Huchzer-

meyer 2003. Crocodiles. Biology, Husbandry and Diseases. CABI

Publ., Wallingford, Oxon, UK. 337 pp.) and non-crocodilian rep-

tiles (Frye 1991. Biomedical and Surgical Aspects of Captive Rep-

tile Husbandry. Vol. II. Krieger Publ. Co. Malabar, Florida. 637 pp.;

Hes et al. 2007. Veterinarni Lekar 3:49–55).

We investigated a report of a male alligator (3.04 m, total

length) that was harvested on 15 September 2016 with an

abnormal “growth” on its front right forelimb (Fig. 1). This

individual was harvested on private property in Matagorda

County, Texas, USA, and sold in the commercial market trade;

therefore, histological or radiographic investigation was

not conducted. However, from photographic evidence we

concluded that the growth was most likely a large fibrosarcoma

or fibromyxoma, based on information from previous published

reports for A. mississippiensis. As indicated in previous reports

of neoplasia, palpation of the mass revealed that it was dense

rather than cystic or fluctuant. This individual did not seem to

be greatly affected by the mass in that it appeared healthy (i.e.,

not emaciated) and presumably able to feed and move normally.

Although determining exact age in crocodilians without

molecular techniques is considered subjective, this individual

appeared to be relatively old, based on total length, and had likely

persisted with the mass for some time, based on the relative size

of the mass. However, depending on the exact cause of the mass,

the growth could have been present from months to years.

The two previous reports of alligator neoplasia were from al-

ligators captured from the wild in coastal Louisiana. Based on a

table 1. Water levels at Superior Bridge in relation to predicted alliga-

tor nest dimensions.

Month June Water Bottom of egg Top of egg Top of

(day) levels (cm) cavity (cm) cavity (cm) nest (cm)

1 59.1 – – –

8 50.0 56.1 74.4 91.4

14 63.4 69.5 87.8 106.7

18 67.6 73.8 92.3 109.7

22 61.6 67.7 86.0 103.6

25 54.3 60.4 78.6 97.5

29 46.9 53.0 70.6 88.0

The marsh level is 30.1 cm

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 627

review of the available literature, there have been no reports of

neoplasia in A. mississippiensis from other portions of its range.

To our knowledge, this is the first report of a large neoplastic

growth in an alligator from Texas. This is contribution number

17-115 of the Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute.

CORD B. EVERSOLE (e-mail: cord.eversole@students.tamuk.edu) and

SCOTT E. HENKE, Department of Animal, Rangeland, and Wildlife Sci-

ences, Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute (MSC 218), Texas A&M

University-Kingsville, Kingsville, Texas 78363, USA.

ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS (American Alligator). DIET. Al-

ligator mississippiensis is a generalist predator and scavenger,

consuming a wide variety of vertebrates and invertebrates (Ga-

brey 2010. Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 5:241–250), including at least

40 species of birds (Gabrey and Elsey 2017. J. Louisiana Ornithol.

10:1–12). Here we document a new species of waterfowl in the

diet of American Alligator.

At 1215 h on 1 December 2016 (sunny, air temp. = 15.6°C),

using 10 x 50 mm binoculars, we observed an alligator (total

length ~ 1.4 m), 25 m from us, swimming with a dead adult male

Gadwall (Anas strepera) in its mouth, along the Maxent Canal,

Bayou Sauvage National Wildlife Refuge, New Orleans, Orleans

Parish, Louisiana, USA (30.05175°N, 89.87996°W, WGS 84; 0 m

elev.). After 2 min the alligator stopped swimming to float for 2

min. During this time a smaller alligator (total length ~ 1.1 m)

swam toward the larger alligator’s head and the duck carcass, ap-

proaching to within 0.6 m. The larger alligator then turned away

from the smaller alligator and resumed swimming. The alligator’s

location on the western border of the refuge suggests that it may

have either captured the duck or scavenged it. Although duck

hunting was not allowed on the refuge on that date, it was al-

lowed on adjacent private land. Reports of American Alligator

predation on ducks have been mostly from spring and sum-

mer on flightless juveniles and molting adults (Elsey et al. 2004.

Southeast. Nat. 3:381–390).

JENNIFER O. COULSON, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Bi-

ology, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana 70118, USA (e-mail: jcoul-

son@tulane.edu); THOMAS D. COULSON, 64340 Fogg Lane, Pearl River,

Louisiana 70452, USA.

ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS (American Alligator). NOVEL

NON-NATIVE PREY. American Alligators are opportunistic

predators and their food habits have been well studied (Elsey et

al. 1992. Proc. Annu. Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Fish Wildl. Agencies

46:57–66, and references therein and below). Composition of

A. mississippiensis diet often varies due to regional limitation

in prey availability (Neill 1971. The Last of the Ruling Reptiles.

Alligators, Crocodiles, and their Kin. Columbia University

Press, New York. 486 pp.; Gabrey 2010. Herpetol. Conserv. Biol.

5:241–250). Additionally, differential digestion rates can lead

to over-representation of materials resistant to digestion or

under-representation of rapidly digested soft-bodied prey

items (Jackson et al. 1974. J. Herpetol. 8:378–381; Garnett 1985.

J. Herpetol. 19:303–304; Delany and Abercrombie 1986. J. Wildl.

Manage. 50:348–353; Platt et al. 1990. Northeast. Gulf Sci. 11:123–

130). We herein report on a novel prey item for A. mississippiensis,

which to our knowledge has not previously been reported.

During the sanctioned statewide autumn harvest of wild

A. mississippiensis one of us (EL) opportunistically observed

the presence of numerous non-native Pomacea maculata

(Giant Applesnail) in the stomach of a free-ranging adult A.

mississippiensis trapped in southeast Louisiana (Fig. 1). The TL

and sex of the A. mississippiensis specimen are unknown. The

A. mississippiensis was likely trapped on 4 September 2015; the

observation was made on 5 September 2015 when the carcass

was processed for the hide and meat markets. The processing

facility is located in Houma, Louisiana (Terrebonne Parish) and

A. mississippiensis processed there are generally trapped locally.

The stomach contained ca. 15–20 P. maculata opercula in addition

to Diamond-backed Water Snake (Nerodia rhombifer) remains.

Numerous (at least 20) other harvested A. mississippiensis

specimens had also consumed P. maculata; opercula were

commonly observed throughout the 2015 harvest season at the

same processing facility. When A. mississippiensis carcasses were

being unloaded from boats or trucks to be measured and placed

in cold storage, P. maculata opercula would be regurgitated from

the A. mississippiensis carcasses; numerous P. maculata were

typically expelled from each carcass. This observation prompted

EL to take the photograph (Fig. 1) of the actual stomach contents

of one specimen for documentation of this novel prey item. Of

interest, some local trappers likewise noted the presence of P.

maculata in harvested A. mississippiensis carcasses during the

2015 trapping season, which prompted them to use them as bait

during the 2016 autumn alligator harvest in sites in southeastern

Louisiana (Vacherie and Lake Des Allemands).

Native Pomacea paludosa (Florida Applesnail) have been ob-

served as prey of juvenile A. mississippiensis in Florida (Fogarty

and Albury 1967. Proc. Annual Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Game

Fish Comm. 21:220–222). In that study of 36 A. mississippiensis

caught in a single night in one canal, 24 stomachs contained

Fig. 1. Neoplastic mass on the front right forelimb of a wild American

Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis).

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

628 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

119 P. paludosa which comprised 65.8% of the stomach con-

tents (Fogarty and Albury, op. cit.). Other studies conducted in

Florida reported P. paludosa as important invertebrate prey for A.

mississippiensis (Delany and Abercrombie, op. cit.; Delany et al.

1986. Florida Field Nat. 16:90–96; Delany et al. 1999. Proc. Annu.

Conf. Southeast. Assoc. Fish Wildl. Agencies. 53:375–389). A re-

cent study conducted in Louisiana on food habits of 448 adult A.

mississippiensis reported unspecified “snails” were observed in

some stomach contents (Gabrey, op. cit.); it is unknown if these

were P. maculata.

Pomacea maculata is an invasive freshwater snail native

to South America, and has expanded and is now established

throughout the southeastern United States (Monette et al. 2016.

Southeast Nat. 15:689–696), including Louisiana (Byers et al.

2013. PLOS ONE 8[2]:e56812). This genus can pose risks to ag-

ricultural crops and human and wildlife health; laboratory stud-

ies demonstrated the neurotoxin linked to Avian Vacuolar My-

elinopathy (AVM) can be transferred by P. maculata to its avian

predators (Robertson 2012. Potential Threats of the Exotic Apple

Snail Pomacea insularum to Aquatic Ecosystems in Georgia and

Florida. Master of Science Thesis. University of Georgia, Athens,

Georgia. 74 pp.; Byers et. al., op. cit.). This could be a concern, as

A. mississippiensis prey on a variety of avian species (Gabrey and

Elsey J. Louisiana Ornithol. 10:1–10).

Other crocodilians have been adversely impacted by con-

sumption of non-native exotic species. Long-term monitoring of

Crocodylus johnstoni (Australian Freshwater Crocodile) popula-

tions shows a decline following invasion of the toxic prey species

Rhinella marina (Cane Toad; Letnic et al. 2008. Biol. Conserv.

141:1773–1782). However, the vulnerability to this deleterious

effect varies among populations of C. johnstoni (Somaweera et

al. 2012. Anim. Conserv. doi.10:1111/j.1469–1795.2012.00578x.;

Doody et al. 2014. Biol. Invasions 16:2303–2309), with some

populations having little or no mortality from ingestion of the

toads (Somaweera et al., op. cit.) while adverse impacts on other

populations may include local extirpation (Britton et al. 2013.

Wildl. Res. http://dx.doi.org.10.071/WR12215). Observations on

another crocodilian, Crocodylus moreletii (Morelet’s Crocodile),

suggest it is able to tolerate consuming bufogenin from Marine

Toads (Platt and Rainwater 2007. Brenesia 67:79–81).

It would be of interest to determine to what extent A. mis-

sissippiensis consumes P. maculata; however it is important to

recognize the opercula are likely resistant to digestion and could

be over-represented in stomach content analyses (references

above).

To our knowledge this prey species has not previously been

reported for A. mississippiensis despite how well studied food

habits are within the species. It may be beneficial to determine

if P. maculata are energetically advantageous as a prey item, per-

haps leading this taxa to become increasingly commonly con-

sumed by A. mississippiensis and other large adult crocodilians.

Whether consumption of possibly toxic P. maculata has adverse

effects on A. mississippiensis remains unknown; experiments to

evaluate acute toxicity are currently being conducted.

We thank Jeff Boundy for the snake identification and Gary

LaFleur, Jr. for assistance with suggesting photo documentation

of the P. maculata observation.

RUTH M. ELSEY, Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries, 5476

Grand Chenier Highway, Grand Chenier, Louisiana 70643 USA (e-mail:

relsey@wlf.la.gov); ERIC LEDET, Louisiana Department of Wildlife and

Fisheries, 2000 Quail Drive, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70898, USA; JACOBY

CARTER, U.S. Geological Survey, Wetland and Aquatic Research Center, La-

fayette, Louisiana 70506, USA.

ALLIGATOR MISSISSIPPIENSIS (American Alligator). FEED-

ING AGGREGATION AND BEHAVIOR. Because crocodilians are

largely nocturnal, often wary, and turbidity may obscure under-

water activity, observing predation events in the wild is difficult

(Thorbjarnarson 1993. Copeia 1993:1166–1177; Platt et al. 2006.

Herpetol. J. 16:281–290), and hunting strategies are in general

poorly documented, even for some relatively well-studied spe-

cies (Dinets 2015. Ethol. Ecol. Evol. 27:244–250). On occasion,

feeding crocodilians aggregate into groups (defined here as ≥ 2

individuals) in which cooperative hunting may occur; however,

these behaviors remain under-reported in the literature and

consequently are not well understood (Doody et al. 2013. Ethol-

ogy 119:1–9; Dinets, op. cit.). Given the paucity of information on

feeding aggregations and cooperative hunting among crocodil-

ians, field observations are particularly noteworthy and essen-

tial for understanding these behaviors (Dinets, op. cit.). We here

describe a large feeding aggregation and associated behaviors of

A. mississippiensis as seen in a video clip and described in a per-

sonal communication provided by Thomas M. Braquet to RME.

The cellphone video (86 sec; https://youtu.be/VGx6F9l5nRc)

was filmed where Dupont Outflow Canal debouches into the Sa-

bine River in Orange County, Texas, USA, circa August 2009. The

surrounding habitat is freshwater marsh (sensu Chabreck 1972.

Bull. 664, Louisiana State Univ., Agric. Exp. Stat., Baton Rouge.

72 pp.), which in general supports high densities of A. mississip-

piensis (McNease et al. 1994. In Crocodiles: Proceedings of 12th

Working Meeting, Crocodile Specialist Group, pp. 108–120. IUCN

Publ., Gland, Switzerland). According to Braquet, who observed

Fig. 1. Viscera of harvested adult Alligator mississippiensis, with the

stomach opened to expose Pomacea maculata (Giant Applesnail)

parts.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 629

the feeding aggregation for about 45 minutes before departing, a

large school of mullet (Mugil sp.) were attempting to swim into

the canal from the Sabine River. In the video, at least 50 alliga-

tors can be seen clustered around the mouth of the canal feeding

on the schooled fish. The aggregation appears to be composed

almost exclusively of adult alligators (total length ≥ 1.8 m). Four

egrets (probably Ardea alba) are also in view, perched in low

shrubs and along a fence, seemingly attracted by the schooling

fish. One alligator lunged out of the water in an unsuccessful at-

tempt to capture an egret perched in a shrub about 0.5 m above

the surface; the bird immediately took flight and then landed in

nearby shrub.

Braquet stated the foraging alligators approached the

schooled fish while swimming on the surface. The alligators

would then submerge, swim rapidly into the school, and resur-

face, often with a fish. Several alligators frequently approached

the school simultaneously, swimming side-by-side, before mak-

ing an underwater run at the fish, a behavior evident in the video

clip. Because mullet often school at or just below the surface, we

assume alligators were diving below the fish and then attempting

to capture them just before surfacing. According to Braquet, af-

ter consuming captured fish, individual alligators often repeated

this behavioral sequence several times before moving to the pe-

riphery of the feeding aggregation. Other alligators would then

swim forward and approach the school in the manner described

above. Numerous alligators can be seen in the video clip milling

about the periphery of the aggregation while others are actively

attempting to capture fish.

Also evident in the video are at least 19 (averaging one ev-

ery 4.5 seconds) instances of what Thorbjarnarson (op. cit.) de-

scribed as “leaping” behavior; alligators can be seen floating on

the surface and then suddenly propelling themselves upwards

and forward, partially emerging from the water with the body

arched, and rear- and fore-limbs clasped closely against the body,

which is then rotated to one side to avoid a mid-ventral (“belly”)

landing. Several leaping alligators appear to emerge from the be-

low the surface, perhaps the result of being propelled upwards

by their forward momentum when making an underwater rush

at schools of fish. In one instance, three or four mullet jump out

of the water immediately followed by an alligator leaping from

below the surface. Thorbjarnarson (op. cit.) characterized leap-

ing by foraging Caiman crocodilus as a high energy behavior with

a low success rate (0.8–1.0%).

Our report compliments a handful of previous accounts

that describe feeding aggregations of A. mississippiensis (Van

Doren 1928. Travels of William Bartram. Dover Publications,

New York. 414 pp.; Harper 1930. Sci. Monthly 31:56–67; Dinets

2010. Herpetol. Bull. 111:4–11; Dinets, op. cit.). As noted by

King et al. (1998. Cooperative feeding, a misinterpreted and

under-reported behavior of crocodilians. Available: http://www.

flmnh.ufl.edu/herpetology/links/cooperative-feeding) several

commonalities emerge from these accounts, the foremost being

that aggregations assemble in response to dense concentrations

of fish. Second, feeding aggregations consist of unusually large

numbers of alligators concentrated within a relatively small

area, typically where one waterbody empties into another. Third,

intraspecific conflict over prey is rare to infrequent, probably

because the resource is so abundant that defending it from

conspecifics would prove energetically costly and yield few if

any benefits (e.g., Heinrich 1989. Ravens in Winter. Summit

Books, New York. 379 pp.). Fourth, individuals appear to rotate

in and out of the aggregation, i.e., when one alligator moves

away from the aggregation, another quickly takes its place. And

fifth, as seems to be the case in our video clip, feeding alligators

appear to disregard the presence of humans and other forms of

disturbance.

Feeding aggregations of crocodilians are frequently described

as cooperative behavior, an inclusive term encompassing

both coordinated (individuals relate in time and space to each

other) and more rarely, collaborative (individuals preforming

complimentary actions focused on same prey) hunting

strategies (Dinets 2015, op. cit.; Grigg and Kirshner 2015. Biology

and Evolution of Crocodylians. Cornell University Press, Ithaca,

New York. 649 pp.). As seen in the video clip, alligators appear

to be relating to each other, although nothing indicates that

complementary actions are being directed towards the same

prey. Therefore, our report could be described as an example of

coordinated hunting behavior. That said, Dinets (2015, op. cit.)

points out that evaluating putative examples of coordinated

or collaborative hunting behaviors is difficult because the

intentions of the participating animals can never be known with

certainty, echoing the earlier concerns of Gans (1989. Amer. Zool.

29:1051–1054) that such reports might describe nothing more

than accidental events rather than representative behaviors.

Indeed, Grigg and Kirshner (op. cit.) question whether feeding

aggregations should even be described as cooperative behavior

and called for additional research into these behaviors. Finally,

our report highlights the valuable role that citizen scientists

can play in recording rarely observed behaviors of crocodilians,

especially given the widespread availability of inexpensive digital

tools (Cohen 2008. Bioscience 58:192–197; O’Donnell and Durso

2014. Herpetol. Rev. 45:151–157).

We thank Thomas Braquet for providing the video clip and

describing his observations, and Deb Levinson, Thomas Rainwa-

ter, and Kent Vliet for obtaining literature.

STEVEN G. PLATT, Wildlife Conservation Society - Myanmar Pro-

gram, No. 12, Nanrattaw St., Kamayut Township, Yangon, Myanmar (e-mail:

sgplatt@gmail.com); RUTH M. ELSEY, Louisiana Department of Wildlife

and Fisheries, Rockefeller Wildlife Refuge, 5476 Grand Chenier Highway,

Grand Chenier, Louisiana 79643, USA (e-mail: relsey@wlf.la.gov).

CROCODYLUS MORELETII (Morelet’s Crocodile). CANNIBA-

LISM. Cannibalism is a common phenomenon among farmed

and wild crocodilians that generally constitutes larger individu-

als preying upon smaller crocodilians (Somaweera et al. 2013.

Herpetol. Monogr. 27:23–51). Its significance as a mechanism

to regulate population density remains unclear given that can-

nibalism has not been thoroughly investigated in the wild, be-

cause of its difficulty to assess (Delany et al. 2011. Herpetologica

67:174–185). Yet, perhaps cannibalism is simply a response to the

lack of other food sources, or the consequence of intraspecific

competition for various resources among wild populations, such

as space (territory), food, or nesting habitat (Cedeño-Vázquez

et al. 2016. Mesoamer. Herpetol. 3:470–472). Competition for

resources could heighten the frequency of cannibalism among

conspecifics, especially during the breeding or nesting season.

Here, we report three occurrences of cannibalism observed in

wild Crocodylus moreletii during a field excursion in Chiquibul

Forest, Belize.

Chiquibul Forest is classified as lowland tropical broad-

leafed rainforest, and is the largest tropical rainforest remain-

ing in North America. It is home to a rich biodiversity of flora

and fauna, and is the largest protected area in Belize. In 2016,

co-managers of Chiquibul Forest Friends for Conservation and

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

630 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

Development (FCD) partnered with the Crocodile Research Co-

alition (CRC) to initiate research and a crocodile management

program for the population of C. moreletii in Chiquibul Forest.

During our initial nocturnal eyeshine survey of the Macal River

on the night of 23 June 2016, we observed a large crocodile (ca.

2.5 m in length) consuming a crocodile carcass at 1911 h. After

the crocodile discarded the carcass as we approached, we col-

lected the dead crocodile, a 1.8-m female. We observed a sec-

ond case of cannibalism 59 min later (2010 h), 3.7 km from the

first observation. The feeding crocodile (2.5 m in length) quickly

abandoned the carcass of a smaller crocodile upon our arrival

(ca. 5 m sighting distance). The dead crocodile was identified as

a 1.6-m female.

The third observation of cannibalism was observed at 2345 h

on 24 July 2016 on the Macal River during the capture and tagging

portion of the 2016 population survey in Chiquibul Forest. Inter-

estingly, this 1.7-m female was preyed upon in the same location

as the first observation the previous night. We confirmed that this

carcass was not the same individual from the night before as the

lower jaw of the crocodile was intact, whereas the lower jaw from

the crocodile the previous night was already removed. We sug-

gest that the larger crocodile observed predating on this carcass

was the same individual that consumed the smaller crocodile the

night before in the same location; the size appeared similar, and

the behavior upon our approach was comparable. Identification

of reproductive organs verified sex of all dead crocodiles, and we

approximated total length of dead crocodiles by measuring rear

of cranial plate–vent length (on the dorsal side). We returned all

3 crocodile carcasses immediately to the water once we recorded

GPS coordinates, length, and sex.

We thus report the first incidence of C. moreletii cannibalism

observed in Belize, as well as the second account of cannibal-

ism among wild C. moreletii (Cedeño-Vázquez et al., op. cit.).

Furthermore, most reports of cannibalism among wild croco-

diles witness a single observation. Here, we report three observa-

tions of cannibalism among C. moreletii in about a 29-h period.

In general, the magnitude and frequency of cannibalism among

crocodilians is unknown; however, we suggest that this type of

predation may be common among the population of C. moreletii

in Chiquibul, particularly in the Macal River during the breeding

season. Rangers of the FCD observed a fourth crocodile carcass

in the Macal River about three months prior to our survey. All

cannibalized females were of breeding size, and it would seem

unlikely that males would kill potential mating females. Fur-

thermore, good habitat for nesting sites along the Macal River is

limited. Thus, it is possible the cannibalized females were killed

by larger females as a consequence of territory and intraspecific

competition for quality nesting habitat, as our observations were

in close proximity to nests (ca. 238 m). Therefore, we suggest that

the larger males we witnessed preying upon the small-bodied

crocodiles were scavenging the remains of crocodiles killed by

females. Because we did not witness crocodiles killing other

crocodiles, it is also possible, but unlikely, that the carcasses were

crocodiles that died from some other cause (e.g., disease).

We thank the Belize Wildlife and Referral Clinic, Friends for

Conservation and Development, and the Belize Forest Depart-

ment for their support and assistance in this project. We also

thank the organizers of Canada CrocFest 2015 for funding this

field excursion and research.

MARISA TELLEZ, Crocodile Research Coalition, Maya Beach, Stann

Creek, Belize (e-mail: marisa.tellez@crcbelize.org); SHAWN K. HEFLICK,

Crocodile Conservation International, Inc. (e-mail: sheick@aol.com); MI-

RIAM BOUCHER, School of Forestry and Natural Resources, West Virginia

University, Morgantown, West Viriginia, USA; ANDREW AUSTIN, Houston

Community College, Houston, Texas, USA.

CROCODYLUS POROSUS (Saltwater Crocodile). DIET. Croco-

dylus porosus is the most widely distributed crocodilian species

in the world (Webb et al. 2010. In Manolis and Stevenson [eds.],

Crocodiles. Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. Third

Edition, pp. 99–113. Crocodile Specialist Group, Darwin). In Sri

Lanka, it is found mainly in tidal rivers and marshlands outside

protected areas along the coastal wet zone and some parts of the

dry zone (Samarasinghe 2014. The Human-Crocodile Conflict in

Nilwala River, Matara [phase 1]. Young Zoologists’ Association

Publications, Sri Lanka. 118 pp.). Crocodylus porosus is an op-

portunistic ambush predator that is known to have the broadest

range of prey species in their diet (Ross and Garnet [eds.] 1989.

Crocodiles and Alligators. Facts On File, New York. 240 pp.). Juve-

niles hunt smaller prey such as insects, crustaceans, small fish,

amphibians, and reptiles. In adults, the significance of small in-

vertebrate prey fades in favor of vertebrates (Taylor 1979. Austr.

Wildl. Res. 6:347–359). Adult C. porosus are known to feed on very

large prey, including buffalo, wild boar and monkeys. Here, we

report an adult C. porosus preying upon a previously unrecorded

prey, an Indian Porcupine (Hystrix indica).

The observation was made at 2130 h on 21 November 2015

in the Nilwala River in Matara District, Southern Province of Sri

Lanka, while conducting annual spotlight surveys on C. porosus.

The observation was made in mid-river, on a 4 m-long motor

boat using a 12 v, 400,000 candlelight glare free spot light, ca. 6.5

km upstream (5.96353°N, 80.5551°E). The observation lasted for

two minutes. An adult C. porosus, 2.6 m in total length, was spot-

ted in open water approximately 3.5 m away from the river bank.

The crocodile was swimming slowly along a straight line paral-

lel to the river bank. As we approached the animal to estimate

its size, we observed an adult Indian Porcupine in its jaws. Upon

encounter, the engine was turned off to reduce disturbance, and

the observation was made ca. 1.5 m away from the animal. We

did not detect any movement by the porcupine. The crocodile

had the neck and pectoral region of the porcupine secured in its

jaws, and the rest of the body was outside. We observed quills

intact in the body and tail region of the porcupine. After about

two minutes of observation, the crocodile dove underwater with

the carcass in its jaws.

Records of porcupine predation among crocodilians are rare.

The presence of quills and associated possibility of injury would

seem to make porcupines an unlikely prey item for crocodilians.

However, several crocodile species are known to prey on porcu-

pines: C. moreletii preying on Coendou bicolor (Platt et al. 2006.

Herpetol. J. 16:281–290), Paleosuchus trigonatus preying on Co-

endou mexicanus (Ortiz et al. 2013. Herpetol. Rev. 44:135), and

Crocodylus niloticus preying on Hystrix sp. (Piennar 1969. Koe-

doe 12:1). Magnusson et al. (1987. J. Herpetol. 21:85–95) observed

a specimen of P. trigonatus regularly feeding on porcupines, de-

spite having quills embedded in its jaws. Ortiz et al. (2013, op.

cit.) also reports a stressed P. trigonatus individual having quills

covering the head and jaws after a predation attempt on a porcu-

pine. Magnusson et al. (1987, op. cit.) considered porcupines to

be not hazardous to P. trigonatus. Because our observation was

brief, we were unable to conclude if the adult C. porosus we ob-

served was unharmed. However, we did not observe any quills

embedded around the head and jaws region of the crocodile.

Despite being one of the most well-studied crocodilians in the

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 631

world, ours is the first record of C. porosus preying on a porcu-

pine (Grigg and Kirshner 2015. Biology and Evolution of Croco-

dylians. CISRO Publishing, Clayton, Victoria, NSW. 672 pp.).

DINAL J. S. SAMARASINGHE, Environmental Foundation (Guaran-

teed Limited) 3A, 1st Lane Kirullapone, Colombo 5, Sri Lanka (e-mail: dinal.

salvator@gmail.com); DILIP ALWIS, University of Ruhuna, Tangalle Road,

Matara (e-mail: dalwis66@gmail.com).

SQUAMATA — AMPHISBAENIANS

AMPHISBAENA VERMICULARIS (Wagler’s Worm Lizard). PAR -

ASITISM. The amphisbaenians are currently represented by

approximately 196 species (Uetz and Hošek 2016. http://www.

reptile-database.org; accessed 6 November 2016), belonging to

six families. The family Amphisbaenidae is the most diverse and

abundant in South America (Gans 2005. Bull. Amer. Mus. Natur.

Hist. 289:1–130; Vidal et al. 2008 Biol. Lett. 4:115–118; Uetz and

Hošek, op. cit.). Amphisbaena vermicularis is a medium-sized

amphisbaenid occurring from Brazil to Bolivia (Dirksen and De

La Viva 1999. Graellsia 55:199–215; Almeida et al. 2008. Braz. J.

Biol. 69:1183–1186). Here, we report on the helminth endopara-

sites in the gastrointestinal tracts of A. vermicularis in an area

of Caatinga vegetation in Exu, Pernambuco State, northeastern

Brazil.

In November 2013, a specimen of A. vermicularis (SVL: 16.2

cm; weight: 7.0 g) was collected at Colonia, Exu municipality

(7.5741°S, 39.7525°W, SAD 69; 456 m elev.), Pernambuco, north-

eastern Brazil. The animal was euthanized with 2% lidocaine hy-

drochloride. The gastrointestinal tract was removed for desicca-

tion and analysis of parasites using a stereomicroscope.

We found 137 endoparasites identified as Physaloptera sp., in

larval stage in the large intestine of A. vermicularis. Previously,

A. vermicularis had a record of infection by a single species of

Pentastomida (Raillietiella gigliolli, prevalence of 55.5%) (Al-

meida, et al., 2008. Braz. J. Biol. 69:1183–1186). Nematodes of

the genus Physaloptera Rudolphi, 1819 have been recorded in

amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles (Pereira et al. 2012. J.

Parasitol. 98:1227–1235). Physaloptera spp. have been reported

parasitizing the following lizards, Ameiva ameiva, Cercosaura

argulus, Cnemidophorus litoralis, C. ocellifer, Hemidactylus

mabouia, Hoplocercus spinosus, Mabuya agilis, M. macrorhyn-

cha, Polychrus acutirostris, Tropidurus etheridgei, T. torquatus,

Tupinambis merianae, Tupinambis teguixin, and Dicrodon gut-

tulatum (Ávila and Silva 2010. J. Venomous Animals and Tox-

ins including Tropical Diseases 16:543–572). The intermediate

hosts of Physaloptera are arthropods such as crickets, locusts,

cockroaches, and beetles (Gray and Anderson 1982. Can. J. Zool.

60:2134–2142). To our knowledge, this is the first record of Physa-

loptera sp. infecting A. vermicularis.

ÉRICA GOMES DA SILVA (e-mail: ericagomesdasilva127@gmail.

com), CICERO LEONARDO DE MORAIS PINTO, MONIQUE CELIÃO DE

OLIVEIRA, Laboratório de Zoologia/Parasitologia, Universidade Regional

do Cariri –URCA, Campus Pimenta, CEP 63100-000, Crato, Ceará, Brazil;

DIÊGO ALVES TELES, JOÃO ANTONIO DE ARAUJO FILHO, Programa

de Pós-Graduação em Ciências Biológicas (Zoologia), Laboratório/Coleção

de Herpetologia, Universidade Federal da Paraíba – UFPB , Cidade Univer-

sitária, Campus I, CEP 58059-900, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil; ANTONIO

MARCOS ALVES PEREIRA, WALTÉCIO DE OLIVEIRA ALMEIDA, Depar-

tamento de Química Biológica, Campus Pimenta, Universidade Regional

do Cariri – URCA, Rua Cel. Antônio Luiz, 1161, CEP 63105-100, Crato, CE,

Brazil.

SQUAMATA — LIZARDS

AMEIVULA NIGRIGULA. CANNIBALISM. Ameivula nigrigula

is a recently described species of the Ameivula ocellifera group,

found in the Caatinga lowlands of Bahia state, Brazil (Arias et

al. 2011. Zootaxa 3022:1–21). There is little known of the natural

history of this lizard, and nothing known of its diet. Consider-

ing other species of the A. ocellifera group, the diet is composed

mainly of arthropods, with one case of cannibalism reported

(Sales et al. 2010. Herpetol. Rev. 41:217–218). Here, we report the

first recorded case of cannibalism for A. nigrigula from the Caat-

inga of northeast Bahia.

On 5 March 2015, we captured a male A. nigrigula (SVL = 63.9

mm, mass = 9 g before regurgitation) in a semi-arid area of the

Lipari Mineração LTDA near Nordestina in the state of Bahia,

Brazil (10.9026°S, 39.4227°W; SAD69). In this specimen’s stomach

we found an undigested juvenile A. nigrigula (SVL = 33.8 mm,

mass = 1 g) (Fig. 1).

Our survey was part of the fauna rescue program of Lipari

Mineração LTDA (license INEMA nº 8598). The specimen was

deposited in the herpetological collection of the Centro de Eco-

logia e Conservação Animal, Universidade Católica do Salvador,

Salvador, Bahia. (CHECOA 3657).

MAGNO LIMA TRAVASSOS DE OLIVEIRA (e-mail: magnotravassos@

gmail.com), ANDRÉ KAUFER LEITE, and MOACIR SANTOS TINÔCO, Lac-

erta Consultoria, Projetos & Assessoria Ambiental LTDA, Av Tancredo Neves,

939 - s-1305, Caminho Árvores, Salvador, Bahia , Brazil; Centro de Ecologia e

Conservação Animal, Universidade Católica do Salvador, Av. Prof. Pinto de

Aguiar, 2589, 41740-090, Pituaçu, Salvador, Bahia, Brazil.

AMEIVULA OCELLIFERA (Spix’s Whiptail). SAUROPHAGY.

Saurophagy by other lizards is considered common in semi-

arid environments such as in Australia (Pianka 1973. Annu. Rev.

Ecol. Syst. 4:53–74), and may also be common in the semi-arid

Caatinga of northeastern Brazil (Vitt 1995. Occas. Pap. Oklahoma

Mus. Nat. Hist. 1:1–29). Ameivula is a teiid genus that includes

species widely distributed from northeastern Brazil to northern

Fig. 1. Cannibalism in Ameivula nigrigula: A) stomach being remo-

ved; B) predator and prey.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

632 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

Argentina (Arias et al 2011. Zootaxa 2787:37–54; Arias et al 2011.

Zootaxa 3022:1–21). Ameivula ocellifera is a terrestrial species

that actively forages during the day (Mosque and Colli 2003. J.

Herpetol 37:498–509). Its diet is generalized, mainly composed

of adult insects and larvae (Sales and Freire 2015. J. Herpetol.

49: 579–585); however, adults can be cannibalistic on juveniles

(Sales et al 2010. Herpetol. Rev. 41:217–218). Tropidurus hispidus

(Peter’s Lava Lizard, family Tropiduridae) is a habitat and dietary

generalist distributed throughout South America. It is common

in Caatinga regions where it is easily observed in rocky outcrops

(Kolodiuk et al. 2010. South Am. J. Herpetol. 5:35–44). Herein, we

report an observation of an A. ocellifera preying upon Tropidurus

hispidus.

Our observation occurred during a survey of the herpeto-

fauna in the Caatinga, on a rocky outcrop at Sítio Cacimbas,

municipality of Itapetim, state of Pernambuco, Brazil (7.4053°S,

37.1868°W, WGS 84; elev. 647 m). At 1437 h on 28 July 2015, we

observed an adult A. ocellifera (SVL ~ 70 mm) subduing a juvenile

T. hispidus (SVL ~ 31 mm) on the ground near a cluster brome-

liad (Encholirium spectabile). At that time the A. ocellifera held

the T. hispidus firmly within its mouth, with only the head and

forelimbs exposed (Fig. 1). The predator then moved approxi-

mately 0.5 m towards the adjacent herbaceous vegetation, where

it continued to try and swallow its prey. The A. ocellifera moved a

second time into vegetation (approximately 0.3 m) and, when it

stopped, completely swallowed its prey. The total duration of the

predation event was approximately one minute.

Teiid lizards are active foragers, and they capture mainly

sedentary prey using a well-developed visual and chemorecep-

tion system (Huey and Pianka 1981. Ecology 62: 991–999). Both

A. ocellifera and T. hispidus share dimensions of the ecological

niche including activity period and various food items, and they

use similar habitats (Andrade et al 2013. Biota Neotrop. 13:199–

209). This can result in increased competition, although there are

segregation mechanisms that can enable the co-occurrence of

species (Huey and Pianka 1977. Ecology 58:119–128). In our case,

the predation event might be explained by 1) the fact that a large

prey item like a lizard is a high-energy food item that can reduce

the need to feed for several days (Vitt 2000. Herpetol. Monogr.

14:388–400); and/or 2) the elimination of potential competitors.

We are grateful to Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pes-

soal de Nível Superior (CAPES) for financial support, and to Sítio

Cacimbas owner for assistance during fieldwork.

ROBSON V. TAVARES (e-mail: rvictor13@gmail.com), ÍTALO T. F.

SOUSA (e-mail: ítalo-91@hotmail.com), ÂNDERSON B. P. ARAÚJO (e-

mail: brennerbiologia@gmail.com), and MARCELO N. C. KOKUBUM,

Laboratório de Herpetologia and Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciên-

cias Florestais, Centro de Saúde e Tecnologia Rural, Universidade Federal

de Campina Grande, Caixa Postal 61, Santa Cecília, CEP 58708-110, Patos,

Paraíba, Brazil (e-mail: mnckokubum@gmail.com).

ANADIA BOGOTENSIS (Bogota Anadia). COMMUNAL NESTING

and ANT INVASION. Some of the highland gymnophthalmid

lizard species share the behavior of communal nesting (Swain

et al. 1980. J. Herpetol. 14:321–326; Ramos-Pallares et al. 2013.

Herpetol. Rev. 44:226–229). Anadia bogotensis is a Colombian

endemic that has been recently designated as Vulnerable in

the national threatened reptile species list. This species is

likely to be threatened by cattle grazing expansion, agriculture,

fire, urbanization, and unsustainable ecotourism (Morales-

Betancourt et al. 2015. Libro Rojo de Reptiles de Colombia.

Instituto de Investigación de Recursos Biológicos Alexander

von Humboldt, Universidad de Antioquia, Colombia. 258

pp.). Records of communal nesting in A. bogotensis include

the descriptions of nests composed of 26–578 eggs in different

development stages, and the presence of old eggshells next to

new eggs demonstrated that nests are continuously used. The

number of eggs laid under the same rock during a breeding

season varied from 2–60; these eggs incubate for 6–7 months.

Communal nests from this species are typically found under

flat rocks and under low necromass on highlands (paramos)

near Bogotá reaching elevations of up to 3900 m. Nesting in

this species has been observed from July to November 2006 and

from March to May 2009 (Medina-Rangel. 2013. Herpetol. Rev.

44:312–313). Here we further describe communal nesting in A.

bogotensis, and the subsequent invasion of ants into those nests.

During 2012 and 2015 we monitored seven A. bogotensis

nests located in the eastern mountains of Bogotá near La

Calera (4.6827139°N, 74.0123167°W, WGS84; 3109 m elev.).

Communal nests were observed from May to November (Fig.

1). During monitoring in 2014, we noticed that Carpenter Ants

(Camponotus cf. nitens) had built colonies on six of the nests

initially utilized by the lizards (Fig. 2). Ants persisted throughout

2014 and 2015, suggesting that once ant colonies are established

they will prevail for more than two years under the same rock.

Since these six nests were not used by lizards again (Fig. 2), it

Fig. 1. Adult Ameivula ocellifera preying on a juvenile Tropidurus his-

pidus on a rocky outcrop.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 633

is likely that the ants are interfering with nesting behavior and

hatchling development by driving adults away, or consuming

eggs or hatchlings. Communal nesting can result from limited

nest sites (Doody et al. 2009. Quart. Rev. Biol. 84:229–251); thus, in

paramo habitats, humidity and temperature gradients may limit

the availability of places suitable for egg laying and successful

incubation. Moreover, communal nesting has been suggested to

increas fitness in hatchlings of other lizard species (Radder et al.

2007. J. Anim. Ecol. 76:881– 887).

Climate change has been identified as one of the drivers that

have caused ecological shifts in reproductive phenology and

high extinction rates of native species, caused by abrupt chang-

es in distribution (Parmesan et al. 2003. Nature 421:37–42). Ant

populations have shown different responses to global warming

such as increasing their altitudinal range and abundance (Kwon

et al. 2015. J. Asia-Pacific Biodivers. 8:49–65). However, studies

on high altitude ants in the neotropical region are scarce, and the

dynamics of their range and population trends influenced by cli-

mate change remain unknown. We note that prior to 2010, nests

without ants were common. The invasion by these ants suggests

that Camponotus cf. nitens are expanding to higher elevations

(showing an increase in the number of colonies), a trend that

may threaten Andean lizards that lay communally. Nest displace-

ment by ant colonization is thus an environmental stressor for A.

bogotensis that could cause significant behavioral changes in this

species, affecting survival and recruitment. Finally, we suggest

further research on this interaction since it might be an emergent

threat brought by climate change, affecting this vulnerable and

endemic high altitude lizard.

JUAN SALVADOR MENDOZA R., Universidad de los Andes, Bogotá,

Colombia (e-mail: js.mendoza122@uniandes.edu.co); CAMILA A. RODRI-

GUEZ-BARBOSA, University of Florida (e-mail: camila.rodriguez@u.edu)

ANNIELLA GRINNELLI (Bakersfield Legless Lizard). PREDA-

TION. Anniella grinnelli is a recently described species of angui-

morph lizard known only from Kern and San Luis Obispo counties

in south-central California, USA (Papenfuss and Parham 2013.

Breviora 536:1–17). Due to the secretive nature and recent recog-

nition of this species, information on the predators of A. grinnelli

is absent from the literature. On 26 March 2017 we conducted

surveys for Anniella at the Pixley National Wildlife Refuge in Tu-

lare County, California, USA. During these surveys, we encoun-

tered a dead adult A. grinnelli (Fig. 1) which had been impaled by

Lanius ludovicianus (Loggerhead Shrike) on a barbed wire fence

at the edge of the property (35.90635°N, 119.33169°W; WGS 84).

The specimen was collected and deposited in the Museum of

Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, Berkeley, California,

USA (MVZ 272791) along with a Uta stansburiana (MVZ 272790)

found similarly impaled on the same stretch of fence. Lanius

ludovicianus is a known predator of reptiles including A. pulchra,

a more widely distributed relative of A. grinnelli (Clark 2011. Son.

Herpetol. 24:20–22). However, to our knowledge this observation

represents the first confirmed predator of A. grinnelli in the lit-

erature. Additionally, this specimen represents the first record of

A. grinnelli in Tulare County, CA (Papenfuss and Parham, op. cit.).

This research was conducted under a California Scientific

Collection Permit issued to T. J. Papenfuss. The work was suppor-

ted by the Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of Califor-

nia, Berkeley and a grant from the California Department of Fish

and Wildlife.

MARK W. HERR, Department of Herpetology, University of Kansas

Natural History Museum, 1345 Jayhawk Blvd., Lawrence, Kansas 66045,

USA (e-mail: mwherr@gmail.com); THEODORE J. PAPENFUSS, Museum

of Vertebrate Zoology and Department of Integrative Biology, 3101 VLSB,

University of California Berkeley, California 94720-3160, USA.

ANOLIS CAROLINENSIS (Green Anole). DIET. Anolis carolinen-

sis is native to the coastal plain of the southeastern United States

and is considered a dietary generalist, feeding on a variety of in-

sects, spiders, and other arthropods (Conant and Collins 1998.

Reptiles and Amphibians of Eastern and Central North America.

Fig. 1. A communal nest site of Anadia bogotensis, showing eggs and

hatched eggshells.

Fig. 2. A former Anadia bogotensis communal nest site, now colo-

nized by carpenter ants.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

634 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

3rd Ed. Houghton Mifflin, New York. 616 pp.). As generalists, their

diet is apparently only restricted by size. Herein, we report on a

rare observation of A. carolinensis feeding on a vertebrate. Our

observation also represents what we believe to be the first record

of an A. carolinensis regurgitating another lizard.

On 13 October 2016, between 1200–1215 h, an adult female

A. carolinensis (SVL = 49 mm, total length = 139 mm, weight =

2.1 g) was detected inside an upright PVC pipe set up as part of a

sampling array for a long-term study of amphibian use of upland

Longleaf Pine ephemeral sinkhole ponds in the Ocala National

Forest (29.32391°N, 81.74823°W). Skies were sunny and the tem-

perature was approximately 27°C. While weighing this individu-

al, it regurgitated about half of an adult Scincella lateralis (Little

Brown Skink), and, after a few minutes, the complete body. With

a body girth (~6–8 mm) more than a quarter that of its predator

and a total length (~80 mm) over half that of its predator, the S.

lateralis was an exceptionally large prey item for A. carolinensis.

The S. lateralis had not yet lost any coloration, although some

exterior scales were partially digested. We have captured dozens

of A. carolinensis during each of the last 24 years in the field, but

this was the first time that we witnessed one regurgitating prey

upon capture, suggesting that prey size and (or) species was a

contributing factor to this behavior. This observation occurred

under Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission per-

mit # LSSC–12-00021A.

SKY T. BUTTON, Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation,

University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (e-mail: skybutton@

u.edu); CATHRYN H. GREENBERG, USDA Forest Service, Upland Hard-

wood Ecology and Management RWU-4157, 1577 Brevard Rd., Asheville,

North Carolina 28806, USA (e-mail: kgreenberg.fs.fed.us); JAMES D. AUS-

TIN, Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation, University of Flori-

da, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA (e-mail: austinj@u.edu).

ANOLIS EQUESTRIS (Knight Anole). TAIL TRIFURCATION.

Anolis equestris is native to Cuba and established in southern

Florida (Meshaka 2011. Herpetol. Conserv. Biol. 6:1–101). Regen-

eration of multiple tails is thought to be due to tail injury without

tail breakage (Bellairs and Bryant 1985. In Gans and Billett [eds.],

Biology of the Reptilia, Volume 15, Development B, pp. 301–410.

Wiley-Interscience, New York). Tail trifurcation has been report-

ed in the lizard genera Ctenosaura (Iguandiade; Ariano-Sanchez

and Gil-Escobedo 2016. Herpetol. Rev. 47:463–464), Cyclura

(Iguanidae; Hayes et al. 2012. Biodivers. Conserv. 21:1893–1899),

Lacerta (Lacertidae; Graper 1909 In Bellairs and Bryant, op. cit.),

Hemidactylus (Gekkonidae; Evans and Bellairs 1983 In Bellairs

and Bryant, op. cit.), Gekko (Gekkonidae; Das 1933 In Bellairs and

Bryant, op. cit.), and Mabuya (Scincidae; Brindley 1898 in Bellairs

and Bryant, op. cit.).

At 2045 h, 22 May 2016 we found an adult male A. equestris

(Fig. 1; 157 mm SVL, 175 mm tail length, 80 g) sleeping on a thin

branch ~3 m aboveground in second growth forest adjacent to an

avocado orchard (25.425483°N, 80.501383°W, WGS 84; 22 m elev.)

southwest of Florida City, Miami-Dade County, Florida, USA. The

trifurcation (Fig. 1) was 113 mm posterior to the cloaca and con-

sisted of a split on the ventral side of the tail resulting in two new-

ly regenerated tail tips, a left prong (27.2 mm) and right prong

(36.4 mm) that projected from beneath the central axis of the tail

which extended 61.7 mm beyond the split. The right prong was

the same color as the proximal part of the tail and may have rep-

resented the original portion of the tail. To our knowledge this is

the first report of tail trifurcation in this species.

BENJAMIN T. CAMPER, 723 Sidney Ave., Florence, South Carolina

29505, USA (e-mail: Bcamper@g.clemson.edu); JEFFREY D. CAMPER, De-

partment of Biology, Francis Marion University, Florence, South Carolina

29506, USA.

ANOLIS EQUESTRIS (Cuban Knight Anole). DIET. Anolis eques-

tris is native to Cuba and present as a nonindigenous species

Fig. 1. Anniella grinnelli (MVZ 272791) impaled on a barbed wire

fence by Lanius ludovicianus.

Fig. 1. Adult male Anolis equestris with a trifurcated tail. Inset show-

ing that the central axis of the tail is yellow.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 635

in Florida, California, Hawaii, central Mexico, and coastal Bra-

zil. Previous studies have indicated the diet of A. equestris to

be principally insectivorous and to a lesser degree frugivorous

(Brach 1976. Copeia 1976:187–189; Dalrymple 1980. J. Herpe-

tol. 14.4:412–415). Individuals within Florida will also consume

smaller congeners, A. sagrei and A. porcatus (Meshaka et al. 2004.

Exotic Amphibians and Reptiles of Florida. Krieger Publishing

Company, Malabar, Florida. 61 pp.). While cannibalism is well

documented in some other species of anoles, the possible oc-

currence, prevalence, and age classes involved in cannibalism

among A. equestris are unknown. At 2214 h on 10 March 2015,

while surveying for exotic species in Homestead, Florida, USA

(25.447488°N, 80.533897°W; WGS 84) we captured by hand a

juvenile A. equestris (SVL = 7.35 cm). A prey item was readily vis-

ible protruding from the animal’s throat as it gaped defensively

(Fig. 1A). The item was gently removed and identified as a small-

er juvenile A. equestris (SVL = 5.2 cm). While the posterior end

of the prey item was intact, the anterior had been digested. This

exposed a skull and clear dentition with blunt, conical teeth (Fig.

1B,C). The cannibalizing anole was in good body condition and

not presenting any obvious negative effects from the large size

of this prey item. This observation demonstrates cannibalism

among the A. equestris juvenile age class in the introduced range

of this species and demonstrates the selection by an A. equestris

juvenile of an extraordinarily large prey item relative to current

dietary accounts.

HOLLIS DAHN, University of Toronto, 27 King’s College Cir, Toronto,

Ontario M5S, Canada (e-mail: h.dahn@mail.utoronto.ca); JEFF SHARPE,

University of Central Florida, 4000 Central Florida Blvd, Orlando, Florida

32816, USA.

ANOLIS FUSCOAURATUS (Slender Anole). PREDATION. Anolis

fuscoauratus is an iguanid (Polychrotinae) lizard that is widely

distributed in northern South America east of the Andes and in

the Atlantic Forest in eastern Brazil. This species is commonly

found in dense forests and exhibits predominantly arboreal

Fig. 1. Juvenile Anolis equestris captured in Homestead, Florida. A)

Animal gaping defensively after capture. B) Animal and prey item

size comparison. C) Anterior end of prey item showing dentition

consistent with A. equestris.

Fig. 1. Whipscorpion (Heterophrynus longicornis) preying on Anolis

fuscoauratus.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

636 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

habits. It is usually found on trunks, vines, and leaves, generally

within a few meters of the ground (Vitt et al. 2008. Guide to the

Frogs of Reserva Adolpho Ducke, Central Amazonia. Áttema De-

sign Editorial, Manaus. 176 pp.). Here we report on observation

of predation on A. fuscoauratus by a whipscorpion.

At 0215 h on 1 April 1 2012, a specimen of Heterophrynus

longicornis (Amblypygi: Phrynidae) was observed preying on an

adult A. fuscoauratus (Fig. 1) in an ombrophilous forest in the

Amazonian Federal University (UFAM) Experimental Farm, lo-

cated in Manaus city, Amazonas, Brazil (2.65885°S, 60.06603°W;

WGS 84). The predation event occurred on a tree trunk approxi-

mately 1.6 m above ground. The lizard was a male (SVL = 44 mm,

TL = 70 mm). The whipscorpion was holding the lizard by the

head and thoracic region with its pedipalps (Fig. 1). Ingestion

had begun on the lateral region of the lizard’s head, and a large

part of the head and neck there were already partially digested,

probably due to the action of the whipscorpion’s digestive en-

zymes.

Our record corroborates the hypothesis that whipscorpions

remain oriented downward, with their pedipalps raised and out-

stretched, waiting for prey (Dias and Machado 2007. J. Arach-

nol. 34:540–544). When potential prey enters the field of view, it

is caught and immobilized by the raptorial pedipalps and then

consumed at the site in which it was captured. Our observation is

the first record of Heterophrynus preying upon a vertebrate, and

increases the list of invertebrates that can prey on A. fuscoauratus.

DIEGO M. M. MENDES, Laboratório de Entomologia Sistemática Ur-

bana e Forense, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia - Campus II,

Av. André Araújo, 2936, 69080-971 Manaus, AM, Brazil (e-mail: diego.mello.

mendes@gmail.com); ANDRÉ L. BARROS, Departamento de Ecologia, In-

stituto Nacional de Pesquisas da Amazônia – Campus V8, Av. Egênio Sales,

2239, 69060-020, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil (e-mail: andrelima1701@gmail.

com); DIEGO A. PIRES, Departamento de Ecologia, Instituto Nacional de

Pesquisas da Amazônia – Campus V8, Av. Egênio Sales, 2239, 69060-020,

Manaus, AM, Brazil (e-mail: dieguinho.slipknot@hotmail.com); PATRIK F.

VIANA, Laboratório de Genética Animal, Instituto Nacional de Pesquisas

da Amazônia - Campus II, Av. André Araújo, 2936, 69080-971 Manaus, Ama-

zonas, Brazil (e-mail: patrik.biologia@gmail.com).

ANOLIS GEMMOSUS (Gem Anole). SLEEP-SITE FIDELITY.

Sleep-site choice can directly influence survival in many spe-

cies due to their vulnerability to predation (Clark and Gillingham

1990. Anim. Behav. 39:1138–1148). Like many diurnal lizards,

Anolis spp. are commonly observed sleeping at night on fern

fronds and small tree branches, sites that would appear to ex-

pose them to the risk of predation (Singhal et al. 2007. Behaviour

144:1033–1052). To begin to understand why particular sleep-

sites are chosen, we assessed sleep-site choice and fidelity in

Anolis gemmosus in the Andes Mountains of Ecuador.

We conducted our observations at Reserva Las Gralarias

(RLG, Province of Pichincha) (2068 m elev.) and made repeated

nightly observations on 20 anoles at 13 sleep-sites along two

open-canopy trails (each trail approximately 250 m long). Aver-

age temperature during the sampling period was 19.4°C (± 0.05°C

SE) with intermittent light rainfall. We sampled Road Trail, a ru-

ral roadside with limited automobile disturbance, from 2–7 May

2016, and Granny’s Trail, a walking trail with limited human dis-

turbance (foot traffic only), from 3–7 May 2016. We walked the

trails each night during 2000–2300 h to observe anole sleeping

behavior. To limit human interference, we did not mark indi-

vidual lizards, but rather used photographs of each anole for

individual animal identification. The unique skin coloration of

individuals allowed us to recognize previously sighted anoles.

Our results confirmed sleeping site fidelity in A. gemmosus

with 17/20 anoles observed re-sighted at least once within 1 m

of their initial sleeping site (mean ± SE 1.68 ± 0.30 re-sightings). A

Wilcoxon rank sign test indicated that our two trails did not sig-

nificantly differ in their number of re-sighted anoles (W = 79.50,

p = 0.16).

During our survey, we found anoles utilizing several different

types of sleeping perches, typically in an oblique position respec-

tive to the ground. Sleeping perches consisted of herbaceous

plants, fern fronds, and thin branches of woody plants at heights

ranging 1.6–4 m. Unexpectedly, seven of our sites contained

multiple (2 –3) anoles within a 5-m radius, which suggests there

may be competition for sleeping sites, or reduction in individual

predation risk via grouping behavior. Our results indicating that

A. gemmosus exhibit sleep-site fidelity at both disturbed and un-

disturbed sites provides novel natural history information for the

species as we are unaware of any other studies examining this

behavior in the species.

Future investigations into A. gemmosus behavior should ex-

amine whether this species exhibits intraspecific competition

for sleeping sites, and what habitat characteristics (such as perch

diameter, elevation above land, anole density, etc.) may predict

such behavior. If competition for sleeping sites does occur, this

may influence an individual’s fidelity to a particular site.

We are grateful to RLG volunteer, Ray So Lok, and the stu-

dents of the Grand Valley State University study abroad program

for field assistance, and to Jane Lyons and Reserva Las Gralarias,

for hosting our research.

ALEXA S. WAGNER, Department of Biology, Kent State University,

Kent, Ohio 44240, USA (e-mail: awagne21@kent.edu); ALEXANDRIA L. LA-

VALLEY, Department of Biology, Grand Valley University, Allendale, Michi-

gan 49401, USA (e-mail: lavallea@mail.gvsu.edu); KATHERINE L. KRYNAK,

Department of Biological and Allied Health Sciences, Ohio Northern Uni-

versity, Ada, Ohio 45810, USA (e-mail: k-krynak@onu.edu); TIM J. KRYNAK,

Natural Resources Department, Cleveland Metroparks, Cleveland, Ohio

44109, USA (e-mail: tjk@clevelandmetroparks.com); ERIC B. SNYDER, De-

partment of Biology, Grand Valley University, Allendale, Michigan 49401,

USA (e-mail: snydeeri@gvsu.edu).

ANOLIS GUNDLACHI (Yellow-chinned Anole). CANNIBALISM.

Anolis gundlachi is an endemic Puerto Rican anole, classified as

a forest-interior “trunk-ground” ecomorph (sensu Williams 1972.

In Dobzhansky et al. [eds.], Evolutionary Biology, Volume 6, pp.

47–89. Meredith Corporation, New York, New York; Reagan 1996.

In Reagan and Waide [eds.], The Food Web of a Tropical Rain For-

est, pp. 321–345. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois). It

is distributed throughout montane areas in Puerto Rico and has

an adult mean snout–vent length range of 42–72 mm, (Reagan

1996, op. cit.). It has a generalist diet that includes a wide vari-

ety of invertebrates (mostly associated with the forest litter) and

vertebrate prey that includes treefrogs (Eleutherodactylus sp., E.

wightmanae) and other lizards (A. stratulus, A. krugi, Sphaero-

dactylus klauberi) (reviewed in Henderson and Powell 2009. Nat-

ural History of West Indian Reptiles and Amphibians. University

Press of Florida. Gainesville, Florida. 528 pp.; Ríos-López et al.

2014. LEB 3:137–148). Cannibalism has been reported in 19 West

Indian anoles, including A. evermanni and A. cristatellus from

Puerto Rico (reviewed in Powell and Watkins 2014. IRCF Reptiles

and Amphibians 21:136–137). Herein we document the first ac-

count of cannibalism in A. gundlachi, an event observed as part

of a long-term survey of malarial parasites in anoles.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 637

On 13 January 2017, in El Verde Field Station, Luquillo Ex-

perimental Forest in northeastern Puerto Rico (18.3213°N,

65.8194°W, WGS 84; 357.9 m elev.), we observed and collected a

male A. gundlachi (mass = 7.2 g; SVL = 65 mm) that consumed

a juvenile A. gundlachi (mass = 1.0 g; SVL 35 mm), head first.

Three quarters of the tail of the prey was visible protruding from

the mouth of the predator; it regurgitated the prey when we ap-

proached. Both individuals were identified as A. gundlachi by a

combination of characters: blue-eye coloration and the distinc-

tive yellow-colored chin. This is, to our knowledge, the first re-

port of cannibalism by A. gundlachi.

Cannibalism in reptiles is believed to be an opportunistic re-

sponse to high conspecific densities or starvation (Polis and My-

ers 1985. J. Herpetol. 19:99–107). At El Verde, population density

of A. gundlachi reaches 2000 individuals ha-1, with relative abun-

dance fluctuation from a mean 86.5% (± 2.6% SD, N = 4 census

transects) sighting at ground level during the wet season (May to

end of year) to a mean 64.0% (± 7.0% SD, N = 4 census transects)

sighting during the dry season (January to April) (Reagan 1996,

op. cit.). Abundance of invertebrate prey available to A. gund-

lachi also varies seasonally, increasing during the wet season

and decreasing during the dry season (reviewed in Reagan and

Waide 1996. The Food Web of a Tropical Rain Forest. University

of Chicago Press, Chicago, Illinois. 616 pp.). Although less food

resources due to the winter dry season and the generalist diet of

A. gundlachi may be hypotheses that explain our observation,

we cannot discard the possibility that this may have been an un-

common behavior in the species.

VIRNALIZ CRUZ-HERNÁNDEZ (e-mail: virnaliz.cruz@upr.edu),

JANELLE PEÑA (e-mail: janelle.alyssa@yahoo.com), DAVID CLARK (e-

mail: drc8892@gmail.com), NICOLE MARTÍNEZ-LLAURADOR (e-mail:

Nicole.martinez14@upr.edu), and MIGUEL A. ACEVEDO, University of

Puerto Rico - Río Piedras, P.O. Box 23360, 00936, San Juan, Puerto Rico (e-

mail: miguel.acevedo7@upr.edu).

ARISTELLIGER GEORGEENSIS (Saint George Island Gecko).

DIET. At 0054 h on 14 December 2015, while conducting

fieldwork in Cozumel Island, Quintana Roo, Mexico, we collected

an adult male A. georgeensis at ca. 0054 h near Puerto de Abrigo,

a marina on the northwest coast of the island (20.52878°N,

86.93867°W, WGS 84; 7 m elev.). The gecko was located on a

chacah tree, Bursera simaruba, in an unkept botanical garden

with both introduced and local flora (Téllez Valdez et al. 1989.

Las Plantas de Cozumel [Guía Botánico-Turística de la Isla de

Cozumel, Quintana Roo]. Instituto de Biología, Universidad

Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. 75 pp.). The

specimen’s stomach contents were later removed and identified

by Rachael Alfaro and Kelly B. Miller to the order Scorpiones (Fig.

1). The gecko was deposited in the Museo de Zoologia “Alfonso L.

Herrera,” Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma

de México, México (MZFC-HE 30638).

Geckos of the genus Aristelliger are known to have a broad

diet that includes a variety of arthropods, hatchling geckos and

eggs, Anolis lizards, berries, and flowers (Cloud 2013. Cryptic

Diversity, Evolution, and Biogeography of Caribbean Croaking

Geckos (Genus: Aristelliger). Master of Science thesis, The Pen-

nsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania. 44 pp.).

The diet of Aristelliger includes Arachnida, with previous studies

indicating the orders Araneae and Pseudoscorpiones, but reports

of the order Scorpiones are absent from the literature (Gifford et

al. 2000. Caribb. J. Sci. 36:3–4). Ours is the first record of preda-

tion on Scorpiones by A. georgeensis.

Fieldwork was conducted under the authority of collecting

permit FAUT 0243 issued to Uri O. García-Vázquez by the Secre-

taría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales.

BRITTNEY A. WHITE (e-mail: 24brittwhite@gmail.com) and LEVI N.

GRAY, Department of Biology and Museum of Southwestern Biology, Uni-

versity of New Mexico, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87131, USA; CARLOS

J. PAVÓN-VÁZQUEZ*, Laboratorio de Herpetología, Museo de Zoología,

Departamento de Biología Evolutiva, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Na-

cional Autónoma de México, Apartado Postal 70-153, México 04510, D.F.,

México; URI O. GARCÍA-VÁZQUEZ, Carrera de Biología, Facultad de Estu-

dios Superiores Zaragoza, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ba-

talla 5 de mayo s/n, Ejército de Oriente, México 09230, D.F., México; ALEXIS

S. HARRISON, Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Har-

vard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 01238, USA. *Current address:

Division of Ecology and Evolution, Research School of Biology, Australian

National University, Acton, ACT 2601, Australia.

ASPIDOSCELIS INORNATA (Trans-Pecos Striped Whiptail).

PREDATION. Aspidoscelis inornata is a diurnal, active foraging

teiid lizard native to the southwestern United States and north

central Mexico (Jones and Lovich 2009. Lizards of the American

Southwest: A Photographic Field Guide. Rio Nuevo Publishing,

Tucson, Arizona. 567 pp.). Until recently, information on the

predators of A. inornata was absent from the literature. However,

in recent years we have documented predation on this species by

Fig. 1. Stomach contents of Aristelliger georgeensis (MZFC-HE 30638).

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

638 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

the Coachwhip (Coluber flagellum; Graham and Kelehear 2015.

Herpetol. Rev. 46:267), Western Massasauga (Sistrurus tergemi-

nus; Graham and Kelehear 2015. Herpetol. Rev. 46:107), and Log-

gerhead Shrike (Larius ludovicianus; Graham and Kelehear 2016.

Herpetol. Rev. 47:132). Here we contribute an additional obser-

vation of an avian predator of A. inornata.

On 28 May 2017, in Brewster County, Texas, USA (30.69633°N,

103.21686°W; WGS 84), we observed a Greater Roadrunner (Geo-

coccyx californianus) perched in a shrub feeding upon an indidi-

vual A. inornata (Fig. 1). Close inspection of the interaction with

10x40 binoculars at 35 m confirmed the identity of the lizard. To

our knowledge, this is the first documented instance of G. cali-

fornianus preying upon A. inornata (Clark 2011. Son. Herpetol.

24:20–22).

MARK W. HERR, Department of Herpetology, University of Kansas

Natural History Museum, 1345 Jayhawk Blvd., Lawrence, Kansas 66045,

USA (e-mail: mwherr@gmail.com); LAINE A. GIOVANETTO, Biology De-

partment, New Jersey City University, Jersey City, New Jersey 07305, USA;

SEAN P. GRAHAM, Department of Biology, Geology, and Physical Sci-

ences, Sul Ross State University, Alpine, Texas 79830, USA (e-mail: sean.

graham@sulross.edu).

ASPIDOSCELIS SEXLINEATA SEXLINEATA (Eastern Six-lined

Racerunner). CAPTURE DEVICE AND TECHNIQUE. Several

notable lizard capture techniques are utilized by ecologists when

attempting to collect these animals alive in the field (Fitzgerald

2012. In McDiarmid et al. [eds.], Reptilian Biodiversity: Standard

Methods for Inventory and Monitoring, pp. 77–88. University of

California Press, Berkeley, California; Schemnitz et al. In Silvy

[ed.] The Wildlife Techniques Manual – Research. Vol. 1, 7th ed. pp.

64–117. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, Maryland).

Other than direct hand grabbing, possibly the most common and

most fundamental methods used to collect live lizards are with

funnel and pitfall traps and with the use of a noose. A less well-

known technique that can be especially effective for securing

live, unharmed whiptail lizards of the genus Aspidoscelis (family

Teiidae) involves removing them from their temporary dens

(i.e., activity burrows) by finger probing their burrow system in

conjunction with tool excavation (Trauth 1977. Herpetol. Rev.

8:33). In the following, I provide details regarding a modification

of the finger probing/tool excavation method specifically

designed to easily capture these fast and elusive lizards alive.

During the summer of 1982, I designed a simple capture de-

vice that proved useful in collecting Aspidoscelis sexlineata sex-

lineata in sandy, flat-ground, disturbed (open area and sparsely

vegetated) habitats. This method requires some basic knowledge

about the biology of this species. For example, one must be able

to recognize freshly excavated activity burrows with their char-

acteristic open mouths (Fig. 1), which are normally conspicuous

on the ground surface. Activity burrows constructed by whiptail

Fig. 1. Aspidoscelis inornata preyed upon by Geococcyx californian-

ius.

Fig. 1. Capture device for securing live Aspidoscelis sexlineata sexlin-

eata. A) Device set into the ground on 11 July 1982 in a vacant lot

located in the Temple Terrace subdivision of Tampa, Hillsborough

County, Florida, USA (28.055582°N, 82.312866°W, WGS 84; 25 m

elev.) and approximately 4 km SE of the University of South Florida

campus. B) Trap placement over an activity burrow (end of arrow). C)

The captured lizard (end of arrow) measured 65 mm in snout–vent

length.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 639

lizards have been described elsewhere for A. gularis (Trauth

1987. Southwest Nat. 32:279–281), A. laredoensis (Walker et al.

1986. Southwest. Nat. 31:408–410), and A. sexlineata (Trauth et

al. 2013. Herpetol. Rev. 44:668–669).

The capture device is relatively inexpensive and easily carried

by a researcher in the field. It consists of a piece of sturdy, but

flexible, aluminum flashing (approximately 2.0 m × 0.3 m) and a

coupling “C” clamp (Fig. 1A, B). The trapping technique is as fol-

lows: 1) a freshly constructed activity burrow of the lizard is iden-

tified by its sandy tailings strewn about in a fan-shaped pattern

in a direction away from the burrow mouth (Fig. 1B). This dis-

turbance normally indicates the presence of the lizard within an

individual burrow or within passageways radiating out from the

primary burrow. 2) The aluminum flashing is curled into a circle

with its ends firmly attached together with the clamp. The “cir-

cle” trap is then placed over the burrow site and firmly embed-

ded into the sandy soil (Fig. 1B). 3) A short-handled garden tool,

preferably a four-prong rake is gently plunged into the soil near

the entrance to the burrow. Successive digging a swath through

the soil in the vicinity of the burrow mouth normally induces the

hidden lizard into an escape behavior, at which time the animal

explodes out the distal end of its burrow shelter and runs into

the wall of the enclosure (Fig. 1C). I have successfully used this

device on numerous occasions in flat, sandy habitats in Florida

and in similar habitats throughout this species’ range.

STANLEY E. TRAUTH, Department of Biological Sciences, Arkan-

sas State University, P.O. Box 599, State University, Arkansas, USA; e-mail:

strauth@astate.edu.

ASPIDOSCELIS UNIPARENS (Desert Grassland Whiptail).

REPRODUCTION. Triploid parthenogenetic Aspidoscelis

uniparens is a hybrid-derived species (Reeder et al. 2002. Amer.

Mus. Novitat. 3365:1–61) distributed through parts of Arizona,

New Mexico, and Texas in the USA and states of Chihuahua

and Sonora in Mexico (Wright 1968. J. Herpetol. 1:1–20; Lemos-

Espinal and Smith 2007. Anfibios y Reptiles del Estado de

Chihuahua, México/Amphibians and Reptiles of the State of

Chihuahua, Mexico. UNAM-CONABIO. México, D.F. 613 pp.).

We assessed size and reproductive characteristics in the species

near the southern limits of its range in Mexico based on 54

specimens from a site where it can be readily observed and easily

collected. Data for SVL and clutch size based on measurements

and dissections of lizards in the sample are presented herein by

ranges of variation and/or means (to one decimal place) ± 1 SE.

Statistical analyses were performed at the University of Arkansas

on a PC loaded with institutionally licensed JMP software

(Version 12, SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, North Carolina, Copyright

The sample was collected by JAL-E on 21 July 2002, during

the herpetofaunal study of Chihuahua published by Lemos-Es-

pinal and Smith (op. cit.), from a site at Caseta Galeana, Llanos

de Flores Magón (30.008306°N, 107,253222°W, WGS 84; elev. 1500

m) which is ~189 km due south of a point on the New Mexico

state boundary. This is an extensive plains area surrounded by

high mountains. Most of the plains consisted of gravelly soil

with deposits of sand apparent mostly along rivulets. The do-

minant vegetation consisted of Creosote Bush (Larrea triden-

tata), with interspersed Torrey Yucca (Yucca torreyi) and Honey

Mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa). Aspidoscelis uniparens was the

most common lizard species observed in this area, becoming

active at ~0830 h. Gonochoristic Texas Spotted Whiptail (A. gu-

laris) was also present, but in lesser numbers. Each specimen

of A. uniparens was identified by JMW based on color pattern,

qualitative characters of scutellation, and results of statistical

treatments of meristic characters. These lizards were assigned

the following numbers of Laboratorio de Ecología, Unidad de

Biotecnología y Prototipos (= LEUBIPRO) 9718–9724, 9731–9740,

9744–9748, 9750–9781 (N = 54).

We sorted the specimens into subsamples consisting of gra-

vid females and females devoid of clutch development, respecti-

vely. Data for females with either ovarian (N = 28, 84.8%) or ovi-

ductal (N = 5, 15.2%) egg development included: body size range

60–76 mm SVL; mean 65.8 ± 0.64 mm; N = 33 (61.1% of entire

sample). Numbers of clutches of two (N = 22), followed by clut-

ches of three (N = 10), presented by SVL to nearest mm included:

60 (N = 1, 0); 62 (4, 2); 63 (2, 1); 64 (5, 0); 65 (1, 2); 66 (1, 1); 67 (3,

1); 68 (0, 1); 69 (2, 0); 70 (2, 1); 71 (1, 0); 73 (0, 1). Only the largest

lizard in the entire sample, namely a female of 76 mm SVL had a

clutch of four eggs. The sample of 54 A. uniparens included only

five individuals of over 69 mm SVL (70, 70, 70, 73, 76). Data for

females devoid of clutches included: range 55–72 mm SVL; mean

64.3 ± 0.89 mm; N = 21 (38.9%). These specimens presented by

SVL to nearest mm were: 55 (1); 56 (1); 62 (3); 63 (3); 64 (2); 65 (1);

66 (3); 67 (2); 68 (3); 70 (1); 72 (1). Only the two smallest lizards

devoid of clutched were below the minimum size at maturity

based on the smallest gravid female. Based on 33 gravid fema-

les from the study site in Chihuahua the usual clutch sizes were

either two (SVL range 60–71, mean 65.3 ± 0.69 mm; N = 22) or

three (SVL range 62–73, mean 66.1 ± 1.03 mm; N = 10) eggs. Clu-

tch data for the entire sample were: range 2–4; mean 2.4 ± 0.10;

symmetrical clutches N = 16 (48.5%); asymmetrical clutches N

= 17 (51.5%). Linear regression calculated in JMP indicated the

following relationship between SVL and clutch size for the 33

gravid Chihuahua females of A. uniparens (adjusted r2 = 0.1019; P

≤ 0.0393). We offer the hypothesis that many of the lizards devoid

of clutches had already oviposited a minimum of one clutch in

the summer they were collected and that many of the lizards with

clutches had also deposited a previous clutch that year.

Specimens referenced herein were collected in Chihuahua by

JAL-E and imported to the University of Colorado for study by

HMS under authority of permits provided by the government of

Mexico. The specimens were then shipped to the University of

Arkansas for further analyses by JMW. They were subsequently

deposited in the collections of the University of Colorado Mu-

seum of Natural History in Boulder, Colorado, and Laboratorio

de Ecología, Unidad de Biotecnología y Prototipos, Facultad de

Estudios Superiores Iztacala, UNAM, Estado de México, Mexico.

JULIO A. LEMOS-ESPINAL, Laboratorio de Ecología-UBIPRO, FES Izta-

cala UNAM, Av. Los Barrios No. 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, Tlalnepantla, México –

54090 (e-mail: lemos@unam.mx); JAMES M. WALKER, Department of Bio-

logical Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas 72701, USA

(e-mail: jmwalker@uark.edu); HOBART M. SMITH, University of Colorado

Museum of Natural History, Boulder, Colorado 80309, USA.

BASILISCUS VITTATUS (Brown Basilisk). PREDATION. Basilis-

cus vittatus is native to Central and South America, and was

introduced to South Florida in the late 1970s as a result of the

exotic pet trade (Wilson and Porras 1983. The Ecological Impact

of Man on the South Florida Herpetofauna. Special Publication

No. 9, University of Kansas Museum of Natural History and World

Wildlife Fund-US, Lawrence, Kansas. 89 pp.). The species has

since been documented in nine Florida counties (Krysko et al.

2011. Atlas of Amphibians and Reptiles in Florida. Final Report,

Project Agreement 08013, Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

640 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

Commission, Tallahassee, Florida. 524 pp.). Little is known re-

garding the natural history of introduced B. vittatus in Florida.

The only known predators of B. vittatus in Florida are snakes

(Meshaka et al. 2004. The Exotic Amphibians and Reptiles of

Florida. Krieger Publishing Company, Malabar, Florida. 155 pp.),

wading birds, and large fish (Flaherty and Friers 2014. Southeast.

Nat. 13:N57–N58). Here we report an observation of predation on

B. vittatus by a Northern Mockingbird.

In July 2015 a mixed-age group of five B. vittatus were ob-

served basking at the edge of a canal fringed with dense thi-

ckets of Schinus terebinthifolia (Brazilian Pepper) at Homestead

Air Reserve Base, Miami-Dade County, Florida (25.489166°N,

80.371666°W; WGS 84). An adult Mimus polyglottos (Northern

Mockingbird) was observed landing among the group, grasping

a hatching B. vittatus in its beak, and swallowing it whole. The re-

maining adults and sub-adults fled into the adjacent vegetation.

This is the first documented case of M. polyglottos preying

upon B. vittatus. M. polyglottos is a generalist omnivore, known

to feed on native Anolis lizards (Farnsworth et al. 201l. In P. G.

Rodewald [ed.], The Birds of North America. Cornell Lab of Or-

nithology, Ithaca, New York; retrieved from https://birdsna.org/

Species-Account/bna/species/normoc), as well as non-native

Leiocephalus carinatus (Northern Curly-tailed Lizard) (Smith et

al. 2006. Herpetol. Rev. 37:224). Because of this, it is likely that M.

polyglottos is a frequent predator of B. vittatus hatchlings where

the two species co-occur in South Florida.

JAMES P. FLAHERTY, Central Florida Zoo’s Orianne Center for Indigo

Conservation, Eustis, Florida 32726, USA; JOSHUA FRIERS, United States

Department of Agriculture Wildlife Services, Homestead, Florida 33030,

USA (e-mail: joshfriers@gmail.com).

CALOTES MYSTACEUS (Moustached Crested Lizard). DEFEN-

SIVE BEHAVIORS. Calotes mystaceus is a diurnal, arboreal, and

insectivorous agamid common in forested areas throughout

southeast Asia. Adult males can change color (Zug et al. 2010.

Salamandra 46:104–107), notably turning blue during their sum-

mer breeding season (Chan-ard et al. 2015. A Field Guide to the

Reptiles of Thailand. Oxford University Press, New York, New

York. 352 pp.). Herein we report color change and an apparent

ontogenetic shift in the defensive tactics of adult and juvenile C.

mystaceus.

Our five observations occurred between September and

November 2016 in the Sakaerat Biosphere Reserve (SBR), located

in Nakhon Ratchasima Province, in northeastern Thailand

(14.44–14.55°N, 101.88–101.95°E; WGS 84). We located an adult

C. mystaceus (SVL ca. 10.0 cm) about 2 m up a deciduous tree

at 2045 h on 12 November 2016. Ambient temperature was

22.4°C, ground temperature was 22.7°C, and ambient relative

humidity was 100%. We approached within 1–2 m of the lizard

and photographed the individual prior to disturbing it. Upon

closer approach (< 1 m) the individual twitched and became a

blue color, but did not flee. We then took another photograph to

document the animal’s response color (Fig. 1). Subsequently, we

handled the lizard and the blue color became more apparent.

Researchers reported two additional observations of the

same defensive color change by adult C. mystaceus in the SBR

(Cameron Hodges and Sean Laughlin, pers. comm.).

We observed two juvenile C. mystaceus at 1352 h on 25 No-

vember 2016, on a sunny day with few clouds. The lizards were in

the station headquarters parking area on a tree (Shorea obtusa)

surrounded by a 1-m ring of dirt and woody shrubs (Phyllanthus

emblica; Wrightia tomentosa). Ambient temperature was 33.2°C,

ground temperature on the soil was 33.8°C, and ambient relative

humidity was 95%. When approached within 1–2 m, the smaller

juvenile (SVL ca. 3.0 cm) fled towards the brush without chan-

ging color. The larger juvenile (SVL ca. 6.0 cm) displayed dark red

spots on its dorsum (Fig. 2). This individual also fled further up

the tree in short bursts of about 0.5 m, visibly pausing twice. Du-

ring both pauses the animal jerked its head straight backwards

2–3 times.

Individuals in all life stages appeared to first rely on cryptic

defense, but upon approach differed in defensive tactics. The

smaller juvenile, most vulnerable to predation, quickly fled. The

larger juvenile may have used bright red spots and head jerks in

an attempt to deter a predator, whereas the adults initially chan-

ged color and stood their ground. Our observations suggest that

C. mystaceus undergo an ontogenetic shift in defensive strate-

gies, with older individuals utilizing color change. However, it is

also possible that the color change associated with our approach

was an artifact of increased hormone levels (e.g., testosterone)

due to the approach.

EVAN D. AMBER (e-mail: eamber134@gmail.com) and SURACHIT

WAENGSOTHORN, Sakaerat Environmental Research Station, Nakhon

Ratchasima, Thailand; COLIN T. STRINE, Suranaree University of Technol-

ogy, Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand (e-mail: Colin_Strine@sut.ac.th).

Fig. 1. Calotes mystaceus adult before (A) and after (B) approach.

Fig. 2. Calotes mystaceus larger juvenile before (A) and after (B)

approach, and the smaller juvenile (C) after approach.

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

NATURAL HISTORY NOTES 641

COLOBOSAURA MODESTA (Bahia Colobosaura). DIET. The

Gymnophthalmidae currently includes 235 species of small

spectacled lizards (www.reptile-database.org; accessed 23

January 2017). Lizards from this family are widely distributed

in Central and mostly South America, from southern Mexico

to Argentina, including some Caribbean and South American

islands, and exhibit an array of morphological specializations,

with different degrees of body elongation and limb reduction

(Ávila-Pires 1995. Zool. Verhand. 299:1–706; Pellegrino et al.

2001. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 74:315–338).

There is published information on the diet of

gymnophthalmids from different biomes, including the Amazon

forest (Vitt et al. 1998. Can. J. Zool. 76:1671–1680; Vitt et al. 1998.

Can. J. Zool. 76:1681–1688; Caldwell and Vitt 1999. Oikos 84:383–

397), Cerrado (Vitt 1991 J. Herpetol. 25:79–90; Mesquita et al.

2006. Copeia 2006:460–471), Caatinga (Oliveira and Pessanha

2013. Biota Neotrop. 13:193–198), dry forest (Werneck et al. 2009.

Aust. Ecol. 34:97–115), open areas (Vitt and Carvalho 1995. Co-

peia 1995:305–329), Andes (Doan 2008. J. Herpetol. 42:16–21),

and coffee plantations (Anaya-Rojas et al. 2010. Pap. Avulsos

Zool., São Paulo 50:159–166). Data on the diet of Atlantic forest

gymnophthalmids are restricted to few species (Rocha 1991.

Herpetol. Rev. 22:40–42; Teixeira and Fonseca 2003. Bol. Mus.

Biol. Mello Leitão 15:17–28; Eisemberg et al. 2004. Herpetol. Rev.

35:336–337; Maia et al. 2011. Zoologia 28:587–592).

Colobosaura modesta (Reinhardt and Lütken, 1862) is

distributed in Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina (Ávila-Pires 1995.

Zool. Verhand. 299:1–706; Cacciali 2010. Rep. cient. FACEN

1:10–19). In Brazil, it is found in the Cerrado (Brazilian savanna),

Amazon and Atlantic forests and forest enclaves areas across the

states of Bahia, Ceará, Distrito Federal, Goiás, Maranhão, Mato

Grosso, Mato Grosso do Sul, Minas Gerais, Pará, São Paulo, and

Tocantins (Freire et al. 2012. Check List 8:970–972 and references

therein). Biological data on C. modesta are rare. Based on 13

individuals from a Cerrado area, Mesquita et al. (2006. Co-

peia 2006:460–471) found orthopterans as the main food item,

followed by Araneae and other insects (Formicidae, Homoptera,

Mantodea and Solifuga), while Werneck et al. (2009. Aust. Ecol.

34:97–115), based on eight individuals from another Cerrado

area, found only Blattaria in the stomachs. Here we report

additional (new) dietary items for C. modesta.

Between October 2008 and June 2009, we captured 31

individual C. modesta in pitfall traps with drift fences in two areas

of Atlantic rainforest located at Gália (N = 1) and Lupércio (N =

6) municipalities and in three areas of eucalyptus plantations in

Avaí (N = 4), Piratininga (N = 15) and Arealva (N = 5) municipalities

(Brassaloti 2010. M.S. Thesis, Universidade Estadual Paulista,

São José do Rio Preto, São Paulo, Brazil. 135 pp.); all localities

were in the state of São Paulo, southeastern Brazil. Animals

were collected under the ICMBio collection license number

18204-1, euthanized in a CO2 saturated atmosphere, fixed in 10%

formaldehyde and preserved in 70% ethanol. Voucher specimens

were deposited in the herpetological collection of the Escola Su-

perior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade de São Pau-

lo, Brazil (VESALQ 1033–1063).

Gastrointestinal tracts were extracted and analysed under

a stereomicroscope. Three individuals (9.7 %) had empty

stomachs. Food items were identified to the lowest possible

taxonomic level based on arthropod identification keys (spiders:

Kaston et al. 1978. How to Know the Spiders. McGraw-Hill Sci-

ence, Boston, Massachusetts. 288 pp.; isopods: Schmalfuss

2003. World Catalog of Terrestrial Isopods [Isopoda: Oniscidea].

Stuttgarter Beitrage zur Naturkunde, Serie A, Nr. 654, Stuttgart,

Germany. 341 pp.; insects: Rafael et al. 2008. Insetos do Brasil: Di-

versidade e Taxonomia. Holos Editora, Ribeirão Preto, São Paulo,

Brazil. 810 pp.).

The diet of Colobosaura modesta was composed of 30 food

items distributed across eight prey categories (Table 1). The

most abundant and frequent item in the stomachs was Araneae

(spiders), followed by Blattaria (cockroaches). The less abundant

items were Scorpiones, Phthiraptera (lice), insect larvae and

Isopoda.

Based on the variety of taxa found in the stomachs, we

conclude that Colobosaura modesta has a generalist diet with a

major focus on spiders. However, because we did not sample the

available prey, we cannot be certain of this. Our data are similar

to those of Mesquita et al. (op. cit.), although these authors also

found items not present in our sample (e.g., Hymenoptera,

Hemiptera, Orthoptera, and Solifuga). Usually, spiders are an

important part of the diet of gymnophthalmid lizards, such

as Ecpleopus gaudichaudii (Eisemberg et al. 2004. Herpetol.

Rev. 35:336–337; Maia et al. 2011. Zoologia 28:587–592) and

Prionodactylus eigenmanni (Vitt et al. 1998. Can. J. Zool. 76:1681–

1688). Araneae has been considered a secondary prey for other

Gymnophthalmidae, such as Anotosaura vanzolinia (Oliveira

and Pessanha 2013. Biota Neotrop. 13:193–198), Ptychoglossus

bicolor (Anaya-Rojas et al. 2010. Pap. Avulsos Zool., São Paulo

50:159–166), Proctoporus bolivianus, P. pachyurus, P. sucullucu,

and P. unsaacae (Doan, op. cit.). Therefore, the importance of

Araneae in Gymnophthalmidae is probably species-specific.

Phthiraptera is not a common prey item in lizard diets. Some

Phthiraptera have phoretic behavior (Harbison et al. 2009. Int.

J. Parasitol. 39:569–575) using flies, fleas, dragonflies, butterflies,

and beetles as transport vectors. The Phthiraptera found in our

sample belonged to the family Gyropidae, which are typical

rodent parasites (Pedro M. Linardi, pers. comm.). The lizard that

ate Phthiraptera, also ate Blattaria, Isoptera, and larva. However,

there is no record of Phthiraptera using Isoptera or Blattaria for

phoresy. The pitfall traps also captured rodents, which could

potentially transport Phthiraptera.

Our study recorded two new food items (e.g., Isopoda and

Phthiraptera) that were not previously found in C. modesta

table 1. Food items identified in the diet of the lizard Colobosaura

modesta from southeastern Brazil.

Food items Abundance Frequency of

of item (%) stomachs with item

(%)

ARACHNIDA

Araneae 15 (50) 4 (29)

Scorpiones 1 (3.3) 1 (7)

HEXAPODA

Blattaria 6 (20) 4 (29)

Isoptera 3 (10) 1 (7)

Mantodea 2 (6) 1 (7)

Phthiraptera (Gyropidae) 1 (3.3) 1 (7)

Insect larva 1 (3.3) 1 (7)

MALACOSTRACA

Isopoda 1 (3.3) 1 (7)

Total 30 (100) 14 (100)

Herpetological Review 48(3), 2017

642 NATURAL HISTORY NOTES

stomachs. In fact, it was the first time Phthiraptera was found as

a food item for any gymnophthalmid lizard.

We thank Pedro Marcos Linardi (Universidade Federal de

Minas Gerais, Brazil) for the identification of the louse and CNPq

(Conselho Nacional de Pesquisa e Desenvolvimento Tecnoló-

gico) for grants to GAT, CCE and JB (processes 147271/2014-2,

233418/2014-8 and 309017/2016-5, respectively).

GUSTAVO A. TORELLI, Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz,

Universidade de São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil; CARLA C. EISEMBERG,

Research Institute for the Environment and Livelihoods, Charles Darwin

University, Darwin, NT, Australia; RICARDO A. BRASSALOTTI, JAIME

BERTOLUCI, Escola Superior de Agricultura Luiz de Queiroz, Universidade

de São Paulo, Piracicaba, SP, Brazil (e-mail: jaime.bertoluci@usp.br).

CYRTODACTYLUS YOSHII ( Yoshi’s Bow-fingered Gecko). RE-

PRODUCTION. Cyrtodactylus yoshii is endemic to northern Bor-

neo (Das 2004. Lizards of Borneo. Natural History Publications,

Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia. 83 pp.). To my knowledge the reproduc-

tion of this species has not been studied. In this note I report the

initial reproductive information for C. yoshii.

A sample of 39 C. yoshii consisting of 13 adult males (mean

SVL = 87.5 mm ± 6.1 SD, range = 75–98 mm), 23 adult females

(mean SVL = 95.5 mm ± 5.3 SD, range = 82–101 mm) and 3 suba-

dult females (mean SVL = 66.7 mm ± 2.3 SD, range = 64–68 mm)

from Sabah, Malaysia collected from 1986 to 1993 and deposi-

ted in the herpetology collection of the Field Museum of Natu-

ral History (FMNH), Chicago, Illinois, USA was examined: (by

district) Lahad Datu: FMNH 230087–230089, 230105, 235118,

235121, 235125, 235136, 235141, 235144, 235146, 235147, 240622,

246200, 246209, 246212, 246214, 246216, 246217, 246221, 246222,

246225–246228, Ranau: FMNH 249765, 249766, 249768, 251008,

Tawau: FMNH 248069–248071, 248072, 248074–248077, 248978,

248980.

A cut was made in the lower abdominal cavity and the left

testis or ovary was removed, embedded in paraffin, cut into 5-µm

sections and stained by Harris hematoxylin, followed by eosin

counterstain. Enlarged follicles (> 4 mm) or oviductal eggs were

counted. Histology slides were deposited in FMNH.

The only stage noted in the testicular cycle was spermiogene-

sis in which seminiferous tubules are lined by sperm or clusters

of metamorphosing spermatids. Males undergoing spermioge-

nesis were collected in January (N = 1), July (N = 2), August (N

= 2), September (N = 1), October (N = 5), November (N = 2). The

smallest reproductively active male (spermiogenesis) measured

75 mm SVL (FMNH 248071) and was collected in July.

Four stages were observed in the ovarian cycle (Table 1): 1)

quiescent, no yolk deposition; 2) early yolk deposition, basophilic

vitellogenic granules in the ooplasm; 3) enlarged follicles > 4

mm; 4) oviductal eggs. Mean clutch size (N = 19) = 1.99 ± 0.32 SD,

range = 1–2. One female (FMNH 235136) collected in December

contained one oviductal egg and also exhibited concurrent early

yolk deposition in a separate follicle, indicating C. yoshii may

produce multiple clutches in the same reproductive season. The

smallest reproductively active female (2 eggs > 4 mm) measured

82 mm SVL (FMNH 249765) and was collected in December.

Three smaller C. yoshii (SVLs = 64, 68, 68 mm) contained

quiescent ovaries and were considered to be subadults.

While it is clear C. yoshii, like other south Asian Cyrtodactylus

lizards, exhibits an extended reproductive cycle (Goldberg and

Grismer 2014. Herpetol. Rev. 45:327; Goldberg and Grismer 2015.

Herpetol. Rev. 46:89–90; Goldberg and Grismer 2016. Herpetol.

Rev. 47:135–136), examination of additional monthly samples are

needed before all aspects of the reproductive cycle can be known.

I thank Alan Resetar (FMNH) for permission to examine C.

yoshii.

STEPHEN R. GOLDBERG, Whittier College, Department of Biology,

Whittier, California 90608, USA; e-mail: sgoldberg@whittier