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Time course of recovery following resistance training leading or not to failure

Authors:
Ricardo Morán-Navarro at Public University of Navarre
Ricardo Morán-Navarro
Carlos E. Pérez
Carlos E. Pérez
Carlos E. Pérez
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Ricardo Mora-Rodriguez at University of Castilla-La Mancha
Ricardo Mora-Rodriguez
Ernesto de la Cruz-Sánchez
Ernesto de la Cruz-Sánchez
Ernesto de la Cruz-Sánchez
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Abstract and Figures

Purpose: To describe the acute and delayed time course of recovery following resistance training (RT) protocols differing in the number of repetitions (R) performed in each set (S) out of the maximum possible number (P). Methods: Ten resistance-trained men undertook three RT protocols [S × R(P)]: (1) 3 × 5(10), (2) 6 × 5(10), and (3) 3 × 10(10) in the bench press (BP) and full squat (SQ) exercises. Selected mechanical and biochemical variables were assessed at seven time points (from - 12 h to + 72 h post-exercise). Countermovement jump height (CMJ) and movement velocity against the load that elicited a 1 m s(-1) mean propulsive velocity (V1) and 75% 1RM in the BP and SQ were used as mechanical indicators of neuromuscular performance. Results: Training to muscle failure in each set [3 × 10(10)], even when compared to completing the same total exercise volume [6 × 5(10)], resulted in a significantly higher acute decline of CMJ and velocity against the V1 and 75% 1RM loads in both BP and SQ. In contrast, recovery from the 3 × 5(10) and 6 × 5(10) protocols was significantly faster between 24 and 48 h post-exercise compared to 3 × 10(10). Markers of acute (ammonia, growth hormone) and delayed (creatine kinase) fatigue showed a markedly different course of recovery between protocols, suggesting that training to failure slows down recovery up to 24-48 h post-exercise. Conclusions: RT leading to failure considerably increases the time needed for the recovery of neuromuscular function and metabolic and hormonal homeostasis. Avoiding failure would allow athletes to be in a better neuromuscular condition to undertake a new training session or competition in a shorter period of time.
Schematic representation and timeline of study design
Schematic representation and timeline of study design
… 
Time course of bar mean propulsive velocity against the V1 reference load in the BP (a) and SQ (b) exercises, and CMJ height (c) at the seven time points established for the assessment of neuromuscular recovery (Basal PM, Basal AM, Post 0 h, Post 6 h, Post 24 h, Post 48 h and Post 72 h) following each of the three RT protocols under study [3 × 5(10), 6 × 5(10) and 3 × 10(10)]. Values are mean ± SD. Statistically significant differences: *p < 0.05 when comparing 3 × 5(10) vs. 3 × 10(10) at the corresponding time point, #p < 0.05 when comparing 6 × 5(10) vs. 3 × 10(10) at the corresponding time point, βp < 0.05 when comparing the value at a given time point to its respective basal value (AM or PM)
Time course of bar mean propulsive velocity against the V1 reference load in the BP (a) and SQ (b) exercises, and CMJ height (c) at the seven time points established for the assessment of neuromuscular recovery (Basal PM, Basal AM, Post 0 h, Post 6 h, Post 24 h, Post 48 h and Post 72 h) following each of the three RT protocols under study [3 × 5(10), 6 × 5(10) and 3 × 10(10)]. Values are mean ± SD. Statistically significant differences: *p < 0.05 when comparing 3 × 5(10) vs. 3 × 10(10) at the corresponding time point, #p < 0.05 when comparing 6 × 5(10) vs. 3 × 10(10) at the corresponding time point, βp < 0.05 when comparing the value at a given time point to its respective basal value (AM or PM)
… 
Time course of the selected biochemical markers at the seven time points established for the assessment of neuromuscular recovery (Basal PM, Basal AM, Post 0 h, Post 6 h, Post 24 h, Post 48 h and Post 72 h) following each of the three RT protocols under study [3 × 5(10), 6 × 5(10) and 3 × 10(10)]. Values are mean ± SD. Statistically significant differences: *p < 0.05 when comparing 3 × 5(10) vs. 3 × 10(10) at the corresponding time point, #p < 0.05 when comparing 6 × 5(10) vs. 3 × 10(10) at the corresponding time point, ψp < 0.05 when comparing 3 × 5(10) vs. 6 × 5(10) at the corresponding time point, βp < 0.05 when comparing the value at a given time point to its respective basal value (AM or PM)
Time course of the selected biochemical markers at the seven time points established for the assessment of neuromuscular recovery (Basal PM, Basal AM, Post 0 h, Post 6 h, Post 24 h, Post 48 h and Post 72 h) following each of the three RT protocols under study [3 × 5(10), 6 × 5(10) and 3 × 10(10)]. Values are mean ± SD. Statistically significant differences: *p < 0.05 when comparing 3 × 5(10) vs. 3 × 10(10) at the corresponding time point, #p < 0.05 when comparing 6 × 5(10) vs. 3 × 10(10) at the corresponding time point, ψp < 0.05 when comparing 3 × 5(10) vs. 6 × 5(10) at the corresponding time point, βp < 0.05 when comparing the value at a given time point to its respective basal value (AM or PM)
… 
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Vol.:(0123456789)
1 3
Eur J Appl Physiol (2017) 117:2387–2399
DOI 10.1007/s00421-017-3725-7
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Time course ofrecovery followingresistance training leading
ornotto failure
RicardoMorán‑Navarro1,2· CarlosE.Pérez3· RicardoMora‑Rodríguez2·
ErnestodelaCruz‑Sánchez1· JuanJoséGonzález‑Badillo4· LuisSánchez‑Medina5·
JesúsG.Pallarés1,2
Received: 18 June 2017 / Accepted: 20 September 2017 / Published online: 30 September 2017
© Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany 2017
3 × 5(10) and 6 × 5(10) protocols was significantly faster
between 24 and 48h post-exercise compared to 3 × 10(10).
Markers of acute (ammonia, growth hormone) and delayed
(creatine kinase) fatigue showed a markedly different course
of recovery between protocols, suggesting that training to
failure slows down recovery up to 24–48h post-exercise.
Conclusions RT leading to failure considerably increases
the time needed for the recovery of neuromuscular function
and metabolic and hormonal homeostasis. Avoiding failure
would allow athletes to be in a better neuromuscular condi-
tion to undertake a new training session or competition in a
shorter period of time.
Keywords Muscle strength· Weight training· Hormonal
response· Bench press· Back squat
Abbreviations
ANOVA Analysis of variance
Basal AM The same morning of the resistance training
protocol at 8:00h
Basal PM The day before the resistance training proto-
col at 18:00h
BP Bench press
CK Creatine kinase
CMJ Countermovement jump
ES Effect size
GH Growth hormone
MPV Mean propulsive velocity
Post 0h Immediately following each resistance train-
ing protocol (11:00h)
Post 6h Same evening of resistance training, at
18:00h
Post 24h 24h after the resistance training protocol
Post 48h 48h after the resistance training protocol
Post 72h 72h after the resistance training protocol
Abstract
Purpose To describe the acute and delayed time course of
recovery following resistance training (RT) protocols differ-
ing in the number of repetitions (R) performed in each set
(S) out of the maximum possible number (P).
Methods Ten resistance-trained men undertook three
RT protocols [S × R(P)]: (1) 3 × 5(10), (2) 6 × 5(10), and
(3) 3 × 10(10) in the bench press (BP) and full squat (SQ)
exercises. Selected mechanical and biochemical variables
were assessed at seven time points (from − 12h to + 72h
post-exercise). Countermovement jump height (CMJ) and
movement velocity against the load that elicited a 1ms−1
mean propulsive velocity (V1) and 75% 1RM in the BP and
SQ were used as mechanical indicators of neuromuscular
performance.
Results Training to muscle failure in each set [3 × 10(10)],
even when compared to completing the same total exercise
volume [6 × 5(10)], resulted in a significantly higher acute
decline of CMJ and velocity against the V1 and 75% 1RM
loads in both BP and SQ. In contrast, recovery from the
Communicated by William J. Kraemer.
* Jesús G. Pallarés
jgpallares@um.es
1 Human Performance andSports Science Laboratory,
University ofMurcia, C/Argentina, s/n, Santiago de la
Ribera, Murcia, Spain
2 Exercise Physiology Laboratory, University ofCastilla-La
Mancha, Toledo, Spain
3 Sports Medicine Centre, University ofMurcia, Murcia, Spain
4 Faculty ofSport, Pablo de Olavide University, Seville, Spain
5 Centre forStudies, Research & Sports Medicine, Government
ofNavarre, Pamplona, Spain
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... Colored circles represent the effect size of each observation included in the analysis, with the size of each circle representing its weight determined by inverse variance weighting. The main effect for estimated RIR is presented at the mean of continuous fixed effects (i.e., load and intervention duration) and proportionally marginalized across categorical fixed effects (i.e., method of volume equating and training status) acute studies have demonstrated that training closer to failure results in greater indices of neuromuscular and perceptual fatigue compared with training farther from failure [24,104,105]. Since resistance training interventions often do not employ a formal tapering period in which training stress is reduced temporarily to allow for an improvement in acute performance [106], training farther from failure may allow participants to perform strength assessments in the absence of training-related fatigue compared with conditions training closer to failure. ...
... It is unclear why our findings suggest a linear increase in changes in muscle size while terminating sets closer to failure. While training to or close to failure is associated with increased acute fatigue [104,105] and performance decrements [121,122], there is a paucity of studies that examine fatigue longitudinally. It could be that the repeated bout effect strongly diminishes the fatigue associated with training to or close to failure as one habituates to the stimulus [123]. ...
... While training closer to failure resulted in superior muscle hypertrophy outcomes, these results may change if participants could modify the number of sets performed to align with their recovery capacity. As training to failure results in greater acute fatigue [104,105], training with a greater number of RIR could allow for more weekly sets and could impact longitudinal strength and muscle hypertrophy outcomes. Finally, many studies did not provide the necessary data for the analysis, so much of it had to be estimated (e.g., pre-to post-test correlation coefficients). ...
Exploring the Dose–Response Relationship Between Estimated Resistance Training Proximity to Failure, Strength Gain, and Muscle Hypertrophy: A Series of Meta-Regressions
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2024
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Background The proximity to failure in which sets are terminated has gained attention in the scientific literature as a potentially key resistance training variable. Multiple meta-analyses have directly (i.e., failure versus not to failure) or indirectly (e.g., velocity loss, alternative set structures) evaluated the effect of proximity to failure on strength and muscle hypertrophy outcomes categorically; however, the dose–response effects of proximity to failure have not been analyzed collectively in a continuous manner. Objective To meta-analyze the aforementioned areas of relevant research, proximity to failure was quantified as the number of repetitions in reserve (RIR). Importantly, the RIR associated with each effect in the analysis was estimated on the basis of the available descriptions of the training interventions in each study. Data were extracted and a series of exploratory multilevel meta-regressions were performed for outcomes related to both strength and muscle hypertrophy. A range of sensitivity analyses were also performed. All models were adjusted for the effects of load, method of volume equating, duration of intervention, and training status. Results The best fit models for both strength and muscle hypertrophy outcomes demonstrated modest quality of overall fit. In all of the best-fit models for strength, the confidence intervals of the marginal slopes for estimated RIR contained a null point estimate, indicating a negligible relationship with strength gains. However, in all of the best-fit models for muscle hypertrophy, the marginal slopes for estimated RIR were negative and their confidence intervals did not contain a null point estimate, indicating that changes in muscle size increased as sets were terminated closer to failure. Conclusions The dose–response relationship between proximity to failure and strength gain appears to differ from the relationship with muscle hypertrophy, with only the latter being meaningfully influenced by RIR. Strength gains were similar across a wide range of RIR, while muscle hypertrophy improves as sets are terminated closer to failure. Considering the RIR estimation procedures used, however, the exact relationship between RIR and muscle hypertrophy and strength remains unclear. Researchers and practitioners should be aware that optimal proximity to failure may differ between strength and muscle hypertrophy outcomes, but caution is warranted when interpreting the present analysis due to its exploratory nature. Future studies deliberately designed to explore the continuous nature of the dose–response effects of proximity to failure in large samples should be considered.
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... This is why the athlete trained at approximately 0-2 RIRs. Despite all these, accompanying muscle fatigue should not be neglected as it can impact recovery [30]. In addition, the phase angle appears to be positively associated with muscle mass, strength, and physical fitness [31,32], but studies that assess this parameter during a diet are limited. ...
Assessment of Body Composition, Bone Density, and Biochemical Markers of a Natural Bodybuilder During Contest Preparation
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Citation: Michailidis, K.; Zaras, N.; Balampanos, D.; Avloniti, A.; Stampoulis, T.; Protopapa, M.; Pantazis, D.; Retzepis, N.-O.; Smilios, I.; Chatzinikolaou, A. Assessment of Body Composition, Bone Density, and Biochemical Markers of a Natural Bodybuilder During Contest Preparation. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 79. Abstract: This case study aimed to evaluate the body composition and several biochemical markers during a 7-month pre-competition training period of a natural male bodybuilder. The athlete monitored his nutrition, training variables, and daily physical activity during the preparation phase. At the beginning (W31), in the middle (W18), and one week before the contest (W1), measurements included body composition via DEXA, testosterone and cortisol hormonal concentrations, and lipid, blood, and liver biochemical markers via an automated hematology analyzer. A gradual decrease in energy intake (−27.6%) and increased daily activity (169.0%) was found. Fat mass decreased from 17.9 kg (W31) to 13.1 kg (W18) and 4.2 kg (W1), while lean body mass decreased from 69.9 kg (W31) to 68.2 kg (W18) and 66.7 kg (W1). Bone density decreased linearly, and bone mass decreased from W31 to W1 by 1.7%. Testosterone decreased from 5.4 ng·mL −1 (W31) to 5.3 ng·mL −1 (W18) and 4.4 ng·mL −1 (W1), while cortisol increased from 21.3 µg·dL −1 (W31) to 20.3 µg·dL −1 (W18) and 24.4 µg·dL −1 (W1). In conclusion, a slow rate of weight loss and training with repetitions nearly to failure, combined with weekly monitoring of training and nutrition, may significantly improve body composition. However, hormone concentration and bone mass will experience mild negative effects.
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... Additionally, improvements in tasks where maximal power and rate of force development (RFD) are crucial, such as vertical jumps, sprints, and changes of direction, seem to favor non-failure training (Grgic et al. 2022). Furthermore, training to failure may be less efficient as it significantly increases fatigue extending the time required for recovery both between sets (Vieira et al. 2022) and between sessions (Morán-Navarro et al. 2017). There is also considerable evidence that training adaptations are superior when mechanical performance during RT is maximized either by instructing individuals to lift at maximal intended velocity (González-Badillo et al. 2014), or by increasing their motivation and competitiveness through the provision of real-time velocity feedback . ...
Comparative effects of caffeine, beta-alanine, and their combination on mechanical, physiological, and perceptual responses to upper-body superset resistance training
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  • Oct 2024
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Caffeine and beta-alanine are widely used in multi-ingredient pre-workout supplements believed to enhance resistance training, but their specific role in driving this effect remains unclear. The current study employed a randomized, triple-blinded, placebo-controlled and crossover experimental design to explore the acute effects of caffeine (200 mg), beta-alanine (3 g), or their combination (200 mg caffeine and 3 g beta-alanine; C+B-A) administered 30 min prior to resistance training (RT) on mechanical, physiological, and perceptual variables. Twenty-one young resistance-trained males (age = 23.5 ± 4.5 years, body mass = 82.1 ± 10.2 kg) visited the laboratory on six occasions: one familiarization session, one preliminary testing session for load determination, and four experimental sessions which differed only in supplementation condition and involved four supersets of bench press and bench pull exercises. The supplement condition did not significantly affect any mechanical variables (p ≥ 0.335), except for the velocity of the last repetition of the set, where beta-alanine produced lower values (0.383 m/s) compared to placebo (0.407 m/s; p < 0.05), with no differences observed for C+B-A (0.397 m/s) and caffeine (0.392 m/s). Heart rate was consistent across the different supplement conditions with the exception of the higher values observed immediately before the start of the RT session for placebo compared to caffeine (p = 0.010) and C+B-A (p = 0.019). Post-RT blood lactate concentration (p = 0.384), general and local ratings of perceived exertion (p = 0.177 and 0.160, respectively), and readiness (p = 0.281–0.925), did not differ significantly between supplement conditions. Selected supplements have minimal effects on performance and physiological responses in agonist–antagonist upper-body superset RT not leading to failure.
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... This means that the neuromuscular status of the participants could be wholly recovered 48 h after the training. Study has shown that muscle fatigue in trained individuals cloud be recovered within 48 h after resistance training (Morán-Navarro et al., 2017). Kawamura et al. (2020) suggested that short-term intake of HRW, an alternative recovery procedure, is unlikely to reduce inflammation and oxidative stress effectively after high-intensity exercise. ...
Effects of 8 days intake of hydrogen-rich water on muscular endurance performance and fatigue recovery during resistance training
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Full-text available
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Background Exercise-induced oxidative stress and inflammation can impair muscular function in humans. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of molecular hydrogen (H2) highlight its potential to be as an effective nutritional supplement to support muscular function performance in healthy adults. However, the effects of H2 supplementation on muscular endurance performance in trained individuals have not been well characterized. This study aimed to assess the effects of intermittent hydrogen-rich water (HRW) supplementation before, during, and after resistance training on muscular endurance performance, neuromuscular status, and subjective perceptual responses after a 48-h recovery period. Methods This randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled cross-over study included 18 trained men aged 19.7 ± 0.9 years. Participants in this study were instructed to consume 1,920 mL of HRW or pure water (Placebo) daily for 7 days. Additionally, participants were required to supplement with HRW or pure water five times during the training day (1,260 mL total). This included drinking 210 mL 30 min and 1 min before training, 210 mL between training sets, 210 mL immediately after training, and 420 mL 30 min into the recovery period. Participants performed half-squat exercises with the load set at 70% of one repetition maximum for six sets (half-squat exercise performed to repetitions failure each set). We measured the power output and number of repetitions in the free barbell half-squat used to assess muscular endurance performance in participants. The countermovement jump (CMJ) height, total quality recovery scale (TQRS), and muscle soreness visual analog scale (VAS) scores were measured to assess fatigue recovery status after training, as well as at 24 and 48 h of recovery. Results The total power output (HRW: 50,866.7 ± 6,359.9W, Placebo: 46,431.0 ± 9,376.5W, p = 0.032) and the total number of repetitions (HRW:78.2 ± 9.5 repetitions, Placebo: 70.3 ± 9.5 repetitions, p = 0.019) in the H2 supplemented group were significantly higher than in the placebo group. However, there was no statistically significant difference (p< 0.05) between the H2 and placebo groups in CMJ, TQRS, and VAS. Conclusion Eight days of intermittent HRW intake could significantly improve muscular endurance performance in trained individuals, making it a promising strategy for athletes or fitness enthusiasts looking to boost muscular endurance during resistance training or competitions. However, it should be noted that HRW intake alone may not be adequate to accelerate recovery from muscle soreness or fatigue following high-intensity training.
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... However, in the weight room, it may be nearly impossible for athletes to accomplish this when using a conventional strategy called traditional sets (TSs) in which repetitions are performed with iso-inertial eccentric/concentric load in a consecutive fashion (133,142). In TS, stimuli and fatigue most likely increase together (50,91). Accentuated eccentric loading (AEL) and alternative set structures (AS) are 2 unconventional tactics that could alleviate this limitation by introducing eccentric overload in coupled eccentric/concentric movements (142) and intraset rests between each or multiple repetitions in a set (133), respectively. ...
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  • Jul 2017
  • EUR J APPL PHYSIOL
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to compare the physiological responses of a high-volume (HV; 8 sets of 10 repetitions) versus high-intensity (HI; 8 sets of 3 repetitions) exercise protocol in resistance-trained men. Methods: Twelve men (24.5 ± 4.2 years; 82.3 ± 8.4 kg; 175.2 ± 5.5 cm) with 6.3 ± 3.4 years of resistance training experience performed each protocol in a counterbalanced, randomized order. Performance [counter movement jump peak power (CMJP), isokinetic (ISOK) and isometric leg extension (MVIC), isometric mid-thigh pull (IMTP), and isometric squat (ISQ)] and muscle morphological [cross-sectional area (CSA) of vastus lateralis] assessments were performed at baseline (BL), 30-min (P-30 min), 24-h (P-24 h), 48-h (P-48 h), and 72-h (P-72 h) post-exercise for each testing session. In addition, endocrine (testosterone and cortisol), inflammatory [interleukin-6 (IL-6) and C-reactive protein (CRP)], and markers of muscle damage [creatine kinase (CK), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), and myoglobin (Mb)] were assessed at the same time points. Results: Significantly greater reductions in CMJP (p < 0.001), and peak torque during both ISOK (p = 0.003) and MVIC (p = 0.008) at P-30 min were detected in HV compared to HI protocol. MVIC was still impaired at P-72 h following the HV protocol, while no differences were noted following HI. Markers of muscle damage (LDH, CK, and Mb) were significantly elevated following both HV and HI (p < 0.05), while cortisol and IL-6 concentrations were significantly elevated at P-30 min following HV only (p < 0.001 and p < 0.05, respectively). Conclusions: Results indicate that high-volume resistance exercise results in greater performance deficits, and a greater extent of muscle damage, than a bout of high-intensity resistance exercise.
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Effect of Training Leading to Repetition Failure on Muscular Strength: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2016
  • SPORTS MED
Background It remains unclear whether repetitions leading to failure (failure training) or not leading to failure (non-failure training) lead to superior muscular strength gains during resistance exercise. Failure training may provide the stimulus needed to enhance muscular strength development. However, it is argued that non-failure training leads to similar increases in muscular strength without the need for high levels of discomfort and physical effort, which are associated with failure training. Objective We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to examine the effect of failure versus non-failure training on muscular strength. Methods Five electronic databases were searched using terms related to failure and non-failure training. Studies were deemed eligible for inclusion if they met the following criteria: (1) randomised and non-randomised studies; (2) resistance training intervention where repetitions were performed to failure; (3) a non-failure comparison group; (4) resistance training interventions with a total of ≥3 exercise sessions; and (5) muscular strength assessment pre- and post-training. Random-effects meta-analyses were performed to pool the results of the included studies and generate a weighted mean effect size (ES). Results Eight studies were included in the meta-analysis (combined studies). Training volume was controlled in four studies (volume controlled), while the remaining four studies did not control for training volume (volume uncontrolled). Non-failure training resulted in a 0.6–1.3 % greater strength increase than failure training. A small pooled effect favouring non-failure training was found (ES = 0.34; p = 0.02). Significant small pooled effects on muscular strength were also found for non-failure versus failure training with compound exercises (ES = 0.37–0.38; p = 0.03) and trained participants (ES = 0.37; p = 0.049). A slightly larger pooled effect favouring non-failure training was observed when volume-uncontrolled studies were included (ES = 0.41; p = 0.047). No significant effect was found for the volume-controlled studies, although there was a trend favouring non-failure training. The methodological quality of the included studies in the review was found to be moderate. Exercise compliance was high for the studies where this was reported (n = 5), although limited information on adverse events was provided. Conclusion Overall, the results suggest that despite statistically significant effects on muscular strength being found for non-failure compared with failure training, the small percentage of improvement shown for non-failure training is unlikely to be meaningful. Therefore, it appears that similar increases in muscular strength can be achieved with failure and non-failure training. Furthermore, it seems unnecessary to perform failure training to maximise muscular strength; however, if incorporated into a programme, training to failure should be performed sparingly to limit the risks of injuries and overtraining.
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Is repetition failure critical for the development of muscle hypertrophy and strength?
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2015
This investigation sought to determine the effect of resistance training to failure on functional, structural and neural elbow flexor muscle adaptation. Twenty-eight males completed a 4-week familiarization period and were then counterbalanced on the basis of responsiveness across; non-failure rapid shortening (RS; rapid concentric, 2 s eccentric), non-failure stretch-shortening (SSC; rapid concentric, rapid eccentric), and failure control (C, 2 s concentric, 2 s eccentric), for a 12-week unilateral elbow flexor resistance training regimen, 3 × week using 85% of one repetition maximum (1RM). 1RM, maximal voluntary contraction (MVC), muscle cross-sectional area (CSA), and muscle activation (EMGRMS ) of the agonist, antagonist, and stabilizer muscles were assessed before and after the 12-week training period. The average number of repetitions per set was significantly lower in RS 4.2 [confidence interval (CI): 4.2, 4.3] and SSC 4.2 (CI: 4.2, 4.3) compared with C 6.1 (CI: 5.8, 6.4). A significant increase in 1RM (30.5%), MVC (13.3%), CSA (11.4%), and agonist EMGRMS (22.1%) was observed; however, no between-group differences were detected. In contrast, antagonist EMGRMS increased significantly in SSC (40.5%) and C (23.3%), but decreased in RS (13.5%). Similar adaptations across the three resistance training regimen suggest repetition failure is not critical to elicit significant neural and structural changes to skeletal muscle. © 2015 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Neither load nor systemic hormones determine resistance training-mediated hypertrophy or strength gains in resistance-trained young men
Article
  • May 2016
We reported, using a unilateral resistance training (RT) model, that training with high or low loads (mass per repetition) resulted in similar muscle hypertrophy and strength improvements in RT-naïve subjects. Here we aimed to determine whether the same was true in men with previous RT experience using a whole-body RT program and whether post-exercise systemic hormone concentrations were related to changes in hypertrophy and strength. Forty-nine resistance-trained men (mean ± SEM, 23 ± 1 y) performed 12 wk of whole-body RT. Subjects were randomly allocated into a higher-repetition (HR) group who lifted loads of ~30-50% of their maximal strength (1RM) for 20-25 repetitions/set (n=24) or a lower-repetition (LR) group (~75-90% 1RM, 8-12 repetitions/set, n=25), with all sets being performed to volitional failure. Skeletal muscle biopsies, strength testing, DXA scans, and acute changes in systemic hormone concentrations were examined pre- and post-training. In response to RT, 1RM strength increased for all exercises in both groups (p < 0.01), with only the change in bench press being significantly different between groups (HR: 9 ± 1 vs. LR: 14 ±1 kg, p = 0.012). Fat- and bone-free (lean) body mass, type I and type II muscle fibre cross sectional area increased following training (p < 0.01) with no significant differences between groups. No significant correlations between the acute post-exercise rise in any purported anabolic hormone and the change in strength or hypertrophy were found. In congruence with our previous work, acute post-exercise systemic hormonal rises are not related to or in any way indicative of RT-mediated gains in muscle mass or strength. Our data show that in resistance-trained individuals load, when exercises are performed to volitional failure, does not dictate hypertrophy or, for the most part, strength gains.
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Effects of velocity loss during resistance training on athletic performance, strength gains and muscle adaptations
Article
  • Mar 2016
We compared the effects of two resistance training (RT) programs only differing in the repetition velocity loss allowed in each set: 20% (VL20) vs 40% (VL40) on muscle structural and functional adaptations. Twenty-two young males were randomly assigned to a VL20 (n = 12) or VL40 (n = 10) group. Subjects followed an 8-week velocity-based RT program using the squat exercise while monitoring repetition velocity. Pre- and post-training assessments included: magnetic resonance imaging, vastus lateralis biopsies for muscle cross-sectional area (CSA) and fiber type analyses, one-repetition maximum strength and full load-velocity squat profile, countermovement jump (CMJ), and 20-m sprint running. VL20 resulted in similar squat strength gains than VL40 and greater improvements in CMJ (9.5% vs 3.5%, P < 0.05), despite VL20 performing 40% fewer repetitions. Although both groups increased mean fiber CSA and whole quadriceps muscle volume, VL40 training elicited a greater hypertrophy of vastus lateralis and intermedius than VL20. Training resulted in a reduction of myosin heavy chain IIX percentage in VL40, whereas it was preserved in VL20. In conclusion, the progressive accumulation of muscle fatigue as indicated by a more pronounced repetition velocity loss appears as an important variable in the configuration of the resistance exercise stimulus as it influences functional and structural neuromuscular adaptations.
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Acute and delayed response to resistance exercise leading or not leading to muscle failure
Article
  • Mar 2016
This study compared the time course of recovery following two resistance exercise protocols differing in the number of repetitions per set with regard to the maximum possible (to failure) number. Ten men performed three sets of 6 versus 12 repetitions with their 70% 1RM (3 × 6 [12] versus 3 × 12 [12]) in the bench press (BP) and squat (SQ) exercises. Mechanical [CMJ height, velocity against the 1 m s(-1) load (V1 -load)], biochemical [testosterone, cortisol, growth hormone, prolactin, insulin-like growth factor-1, creatine kinase (CK)] and heart rate variability (HRV) and complexity (HRC) were assessed pre-, postexercise (Post) and at 6, 24 and 48 h-Post. Compared with 3 × 6 [12], the 3 × 12 [12] protocol resulted in significantly: higher repetition velocity loss within each set (BP: 65% versus 26%; SQ: 44% versus 20%); reduced V1 -load until 24 h-Post (BP) and 6 h-Post (SQ); decreased CMJ height up to 48 h-Post; greater increases in cortisol (Post), prolactin (Post, 48 h-Post) and CK (48 h-Post); and reductions in HRV and HRC at Post. This study shows that the mechanical, neuroendocrine and autonomic cardiovascular response is markedly different when manipulating the number of repetitions per set. Halving the number of repetitions in relation to the maximum number that can be completed serves to minimize fatigue and speed up recovery following resistance training.
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Short-term Recovery Following Resistance Exercise Leading or not to Failure
Article
  • Dec 2015
  • INT J SPORTS MED
This study analyzed the time course of recovery following 2 resistance exercise protocols differing in level of effort: maximum (to failure) vs. half-maximum number of repetitions per set. 9 males performed 3 sets of 4 vs. 8 repetitions with their 80% 1RM load, 3×4(8) vs. 3×8(8), in the bench press and squat. Several time-points from 24 h pre- to 48 h post-exercise were established to assess the mechanical (countermovement jump height, CMJ; velocity against the 1 m·s(-1) load, V1-load), biochemical (testosterone, cortisol, GH, prolactin, IGF-1, CK) and heart rate variability (HRV) and complexity (HRC) response to exercise. 3×8(8) resulted in greater neuromuscular fatigue (higher reductions in repetition velocity and velocity against V1-load) than 3×4(8). CMJ remained reduced up to 48 h post-exercise following 3×8(8), whereas it was recovered after 6 h for 3×4(8). Significantly greater prolactin and IGF-1 levels were found for 3×8(8) vs. 3×4(8). Significant reductions in HRV and HRC were observed for 3×8(8) vs. 3×4(8) in the immediate recovery. Performing a half-maximum number of repetitions per set resulted in: 1) a stimulus of faster mean repetition velocities; 2) lower impairment of neuromuscular performance and faster recovery; 3) reduced hormonal response and muscle damage; and 4) lower reduction in HRV and HRC following exercise. © Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.
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Resistance Exercise Biology
Article
  • Jul 2008
Recent advances in molecular biology have elucidated some of the mechanisms that regulate skeletal muscle growth. Logically, muscle physiologists have applied these innovations to the study of resistance exercise (RE), as RE represents the most potent natural stimulus for growth in adult skeletal muscle. However, as this molecular-based line of research progresses to investigations in humans, scientists must appreciate the fundamental principles of RE to effectively design such experiments. Therefore, we present herein an updated paradigm of RE biology that integrates fundamental RE principles with the current knowledge of muscle cellular and molecular signalling. RE invokes a sequential cascade consisting of: (i) muscle activation; (ii) signalling events arising from mechanical deformation of muscle fibres, hormones, and immune/inflammatory responses; (iii) protein synthesis due to increased transcription and translation; and (iv) muscle fibre hypertrophy. In this paradigm, RE is considered an ‘upstream’ signal that determines specific downstream events. Therefore, manipulation of the acute RE programme variables (i.e. exercise choice, load, volume, rest period lengths, and exercise order) alters the unique ‘fingerprint’ of the RE stimulus and subsequently modifies the downstream cellular and molecular responses.
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