Article

"Hay-bags" and "Slow feeders": Testing their impact on horse behaviour and welfare

September 2017
Applied Animal Behaviour Science

DOI:10.1016/j.applanim.2017.09.019

Authors:

Céline Rochais

Université de Rennes 1

Séverine Henry

Université de Rennes 1

Martine Hausberger

French National Centre for Scientific Research

The temporal distribution of feeding behaviour is of primary importance in grazing herbivores. Many domestic horses are managed under conditions far removed from the natural environment. For example, restricted access to roughage may induce health problems such as gastric ulceration, but also be a source of emergence of stereotypic behaviours, revealing an altered welfare. Devices such as hay-nets/bags and 'slow-feeders' have been developed and aimed to increase the time horses spend feeding on roughage. To assess the impact of these devices on horse welfare we observed the behaviour of 38 domestic horses in their home stall environment. Horses were subjected to different hay-provisioning treatments; 1) hay on the stall ground (usual situation); 2) hay-bags hung at one of the stall walls; 3) hay in a slow-feeder positioned in the corner of the stall. All horses were submitted in a random order to the three conditions for three weeks each time. We found that horses increased their time feeding on hay in both the hay-bag and the slow-feeder treatments compared to the hay on the stall ground treatment. While the hay-bag distribution was associated with an increase of frustration behaviours, the slow-feeder reduced "undesirable" behaviours, such as stereotypic behaviours, and increased "friendliness" towards humans. These results emphasize the importance of identifying feeding strategies and/or devices that improve feeding distribution and improve horse welfare.

Behavioural Homeostasis, Daily Rhythms and Advances in Monitoring

Chapter

May 2022

Barbara Padalino

Short Communication: Round bale hay net effects on agonistic behaviors of group fed horses

Article

Aug 2022
J VET BEHAV

Hay nets are often used while feeding horses in order to reduce hay waste and slow consumption. While feeder style affected agonistic behavior in group fed horses in prior studies, little work has evaluated the effect of round bale hay nets on horse aggression. Fifteen horses were split into three groups (n = 5 per group), balanced for sex and age. Following a two-week acclimation to pastures and groups, horses were evaluated over three weeks using a 3×3 Latin Square experimental design. Horses were given a round bale within a ring feeder (B&W Farm and Ranch, Humboldt, KS) via each treatment for one week: (1) without a hay net (no net; control), (2) surrounded with a hay net with small diameter openings (small opening; 4.445 cm diameter; Texas Haynet, LLC. Tulepo, MS) or (3) surrounded with a hay net with large diameter openings (large opening; 7.62 cm diameter, Texas Haynet, LLC. Tulepo, MS). Horse behavior around the feeder was recorded and video was continuously analyzed from 0800 to 1100 hours twice per week during the three treatment weeks. Agonistic threats (head threats and kick threats), aggression (bite, kick, chase), and avoidance behavior of horses within a 3 m x 3 m area surrounding the feeder were recorded. The total frequency of agonistic threats was greater in horses fed using the small opening net compared to the large opening net or no net (P ≤ 0.026). No difference in total frequency of agonistic threats between the large opening net and no net were observed (P = 0.908). Net provision or opening size did not affect the total frequency of aggressive behaviors observed (P = 0.187). Frequency of avoidance behavior was greater in horses fed using the small opening net compared to no net (P = 0.005) but did not differ from avoidance frequency of large opening nets (P = 0.173). No difference in avoidance frequency was observed between large opening or no net treatments (P = 0.114). In conclusion, horses fed using round bale hay nets with small openings were observed to have increased agonistic threats and avoidance behavior. Therefore, round bale hay nets with large openings may be a better choice for group fed horses.

Equine Activity Time Budgets: The Effect of Housing and Management Conditions on Geriatric Horses and Horses with Chronic Orthopaedic Disease

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021

Housing and management conditions strongly influence the health, welfare and behaviour of horses. Consequently, objective and quantifiable comparisons between domestic environments and their influence on different equine demographics are needed to establish evidence-based criteria to assess and optimize horse welfare. Therefore, the present study aimed to measure and compare the time budgets (=percentage of time spent on specific activities) of horses with chronic orthopaedic disease and geriatric (≥20 years) horses living in different husbandry systems using an automated tracking device. Horses spent 42% (range 38.3–44.8%) of their day eating, 39% (range 36.87–44.9%) resting, and 19% (range 17–20.4%) in movement, demonstrating that geriatric horses and horses suffering from chronic orthopaedic disease can exhibit behaviour time budgets equivalent to healthy controls. Time budget analysis revealed significant differences between farms, turn-out conditions and time of day, and could identify potential areas for improvement. Horses living in open-air group housing on a paddock had a more uniform temporal distribution of feeding and movement activities with less pronounced peaks compared to horses living in more restricted husbandry systems.

A preliminary study of the effects of enrichment on stereotypic and non-stereotypic stabled horses

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2021

Our preliminary study investigated: 1) differences of general behaviors between stereotypic (male, n=2, ST) and non-stereotypic (male, n=2, NST) stabled horses 2) the different reactions to enrichment items (hay nets, bedding straw and yoga ball) between ST and NST horses. The frequency of general behaviors, stereotypic behaviors and the reactions to enrichment items were recorded. The results showed that there was a significantly different frequency of ingestion, locomotion, standing alert, investigation and social interactions between ST and NST horses during 24 hours of observation (P<0.05). The ST horses performed weaving and wind sucking. There were significant differences in reactions, such as sniffing, watching and rolling when using enrichment items (P<0.05). The frequency of sniffing was the highest when bedding straw was used. The horses displayed watching behaviors when using yoga ball (P <0.05) and rolling (P <0.05) when using bedding straw. The frequency of sniffing straw bedding in NST horses was greater than that of ST horses (P=0.006). The NST horses preferred watching the ball (P<0.001). Only ST horses performed rolling when provided with straw bedding. In conclusion, the differences in general behaviors between ST and NST horses were established. Different reactions to enrichment items also occurred between ST and NST horses. A more extensive study with a larger sample size and a continuous recording of behavior for a longer period is recommended.

A preliminary study of the effects of enrichment on stereotypic and non-stereotypic stabled horses

Article

Jun 2021

A preliminary study of the effects of enrichment on stereotypic and non-stereotypic stabled horses

Article

Jun 2021

UK Horse Carers’ Experiences of Restricting Grazing When Aiming to Prevent Health Issues in Their Horses

Article

Jun 2021
J EQUINE VET SCI

Laminitis and obesity are leading welfare issues for UK leisure horses. Limiting grass intake is a common preventative measure but may result in other aspects of welfare being compromised. This study aimed to determine how commonly different restricted grazing methods are used in the UK, barriers limiting their accessibility, and the potential benefits and welfare issues associated with each. A cross-sectional online survey was distributed with questions relating to horse carers’ opinions of different restricted grazing practices, which methods they used, and how they implemented these. Closed questions were analysed using descriptive statistics and non-parametric tests. Free text questions underwent content analysis. 503 respondents completed the questionnaire, 468 (93.0%) had practiced restricted grazing. Strip grazing was the most commonly tried method (67.7% of restricted grazers), followed by grazing muzzles (61.3%), starvation paddocks (57.4%), stabling (49.9%), crew yards (27.5%) and track systems (15.3%). Perception of welfare impact differed significantly between methods for both those who had (P<0.001) and had not (P<0.001) restricted grazing. Both groups considered strip grazing best for welfare and stabling worst. Barriers (including ease of implementation [52.0%], yard restrictions [24.0%], cost/affordability [23.7%]) prevented some from using their preferred methods. Respondents had similar priorities when choosing a restricted grazing method but did not agree which methods met these criteria. Strip grazing was favoured by the greatest proportion of respondents whilst grazing muzzles and stabling polarised opinion. This study has provided initial insights into the challenges faced by horse carers when aiming to restrict grazing to combat equine health issues.

Studying the Shape Variations of the Back, the Neck, and the Mandibular Angle of Horses Depending on Specific Feeding Postures Using Geometric Morphometrics

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2021

The effects of specific feeding positions upon the horse’s shape variations of the back and neck postures as well as the variations of the mandibular angle have never been objectively studied. For this reason, geometric morphometrics was applied. Six horses, aged 14 ± 8 years (mean ± standard deviation, SD), were video-recorded while using three different feeding positions: on the ground—control position (CP); neck held 15 ± 3° below withers height with low hay net position (LP); neck held 15 ± 3° above withers height with high hay net position (HP). Data were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA), multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA), and partial least squares (PLS). A mixed model procedure was applied to evaluate differences in the magnitude of the mandibular angle. Whilst differences between individual horses were confirmed by canonical variate analysis (CVA), PCA analysis showed that a characteristic feeding position could also be identified on a group level. During the HP hay net position, the back and neck postures as well the mandibular angle were different compared to those exhibited by horses feeding from CP. In LP hay net position, the back posture more closely resembled those exhibited while feeding from CP; however, no similarity between LP and CP was found for neck posture and mandibular angle. Since only a few degrees of variation of the feeding position can influence back and neck postures, this aspect should be further investigated. The right compromise between horse welfare, horse safety, and management practices need to be further explored and long-term effects should be investigated.

Determinants of Undesirable Behaviors in American Quarter Horses Housed in Box Stalls

Article

Jul 2019
J EQUINE VET SCI

Physiological outcomes of calming behaviors support the resilience hypothesis in horses

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2018

To manage a stressful stimulus animals react both behaviorally and physiologically to restore the homeostasis. In stable horses, a stressful stimulus can be represented by social separation, riding discomfort or the presence of novel objects in their environment. Although Heart Rate Variability is a common indicator of stress levels in horses, the behavioral mechanisms concurrently occurring under stressful conditions are still unknown. The sudden inflation of a balloon was administered to 33 horses. Video-recording of self-directed behaviors (snore, vacuum chewing, snort, head/body shaking) and monitoring of heart activity (HR and SDRR) were conducted for five minutes before (Pre-test) and after the stimulus administration (Stress-test). During the Stress-test, only snore and vacuum chewing increased and a significant increase was also recorded in both HR and SDRR. Moreover, the snore variation between the two conditions showed a significant correlation with the variation of both HR and SDRR. With the snore acting as stress-releasing behavior to restore basal condition, the homeostasis recovered via the enactment of such behavior could be physiologically expressed by an increasing vagal activity. Hence, the capacity to maintain homeostasis (resilience) could correspond to a prevalence of parasympathetic control on heart activity, intervening when certain behaviors are performed.

Comportamento de equinos adultos da raça quarto de milha alojados em estábulos individuais: análise multivariada

Conference Paper

Oct 2018

Activity Time Budgets—A Potential Tool to Monitor Equine Welfare?

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2021

Horses’ behavior can provide valuable insight into their subjective state and is thus a good indicator of welfare. However, its complexity requires objective, quantifiable, and unambiguous evidence-based assessment criteria. As healthy, stress-free horses exhibit a highly repetitive daily routine, temporal quantification of their behavioral activities (time budget analysis) can assist in equine welfare assessment. Therefore, the present systematic review aimed to provide an up-to-date analysis of equine time budget studies. A review of the literature yielded 12 papers that fulfilled the inclusion criteria: assessment of equine time budgets for eating, resting and movement for a minimum of 24 continuous hours. A total of 144 horses (1–27 years old), 59 semi-feral and 85 domesticated horses, are included in this review. The 24 h time budgets for foraging or eating (10–6.6%), resting (8.1–66%), lying (2.7–27.3%), and locomotion (0.015–19.1%) showed large variance between studies, which can largely be attributed to differences in age and environmental conditions. Management interventions in domesticated horses (ad libitum access to food, increased space, decreased population density) resulted in time budgets similar to their (semi-)feral conspecifics, emphasizing the importance of environmental conditions and the ability of time budgets to assist in monitoring horses’ welfare.

Welfare Benefits Following The Implementation Of Slow-Feeder Hay Bags For Stabled Horses

Article

May 2020
J VET BEHAV

Horse confinement is a common practice worldwide. However, preventing horses from grazing and denying them social interaction can compromise their welfare and lead to undesirable consequences. Considering the hypothesis that increasing the forage consumption time can lead to improved welfare, the objective of this study was to verify the effect of the implementation of a slow-feeder hay bag on the ethogram, motor activity, heart rate, and cortisol circadian rhythm (CCR) of stabled horses. Seven healthy horses were kept exclusively in individual stalls and fed pelleted feed, alfalfa hay, and Tifton hay. Horses were evaluated before the experiment and for 10 days foraging through a slow-feeder hay bag. The horses were monitored for 24 hours for ethogram and forage consumption time evaluations. The CCR was calculated by the percent variance between the morning and afternoon serum concentration. A variation of 30% or less was indicative of poor welfare. The effect of time over the variables was verified by paired Student's t or Student-Newman-Keuls tests (P < 0.05). The inclusion of hay bags increased the alfalfa ingestion time by 87% (P = 0.006). At the end of the study, coprophagia stopped in three out of four horses and the mean (± SD) time spent performing abnormal behaviors decreased from 130.6 (± 168.8) to 86 (± 140) min (P = 0.02). The mean CCR variation increased from 26% (± 24) to 58% (± 9) (P = 0.006), with an incidence of four horses with abnormal CCR at baseline and none at the end of the experiment. The motor activity was reduced from 574 (± 126) to 306 (± 167) steps per day (P = 0.05) and the heart rate did not vary. In conclusion, the adoption of a slow-feeder bag, an available and low-cost device, was effective in improving the welfare of stabled horses.

Free movement: A key for welfare improvement in sport horses?

Article

Feb 2020
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Horses, and in particular sport horses, remain housed predominantly in single stalls. One of the main reported reasons is the fear that they will become agitated and injure themselves and thereby impair their performance if released in paddocks. The hour spent daily at work is also assumed to be sufficient to satisfy the horses’ needs for locomotion. Growing scientific evidence shows that single stall housing has negative consequences on horses’ welfare and that time for free movement is necessary. Our aim was to assess the feasibility of allowing sport horses used to staying permanently in their stall (except for 1 hour riding/day) daily free time in a paddock and to evaluate its potential impact on their welfare using two behavioural reliable indicators (stereotypic behaviours and ear position), as well as selected blood parameters (blood cell count, oxytocin and serotonin concentrations). Two experiments were conducted on the same site. The first experiment evaluated sport horses’ habituation to the novel situation of daily sessions in a paddock, and recorded welfare indicators in their stall before and during the experiment, comparing horses that were taken outdoors (experimental) and those that stayed in their stall (control). The second experiment evaluated the impact of this daily free time in a paddock on horses’ welfare and its durability, focusing on positive indicators.. Behavioural observations in paddocks showed that even horses that had never experienced free movement outside their stall habituated rapidly to this situation. The presence of hay in the paddock, may have speeded up habituation. Their restricted living conditions were associated with abnormalities in blood cell count that were not overcome during the time of daily paddock sessions but behavioural indicators showed that their welfare improved. In the second study, the experimental horses’ welfare improved during the paddock release period, in particular their stereotypic behaviours decreased and oxytocin levels increased. No effects on serotonin concentrations could be evidenced. These effects were directly associated with being in paddock, as the indicators returned rapidly to their previous levels indicating compromised welfare when the paddock release sessions stopped. In conclusion, it can be recommended to release sport horses for free movement in paddocks as welfare is improved and subjective assessment by caretakers indicated minimal risks.

Snort acoustic structure codes for positive emotions in horses

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2018
NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN

While the vocal coding of human and animal internal states has been widely studied, the possible acoustic expression of "positive" emotions remains poorly known. Recent studies suggest that snorts (non-vocal sounds produced by the air expiration through the nostrils) appear to be reliable indicators of positive internal states in several ungulate species. Here, we hypothesised in horses that the acoustic structure of the snort could vary with the subjects' current emotional state. Indeed, a preliminary sound analysis of snorts let us suggest structure variations related to the presence of pulsations. We recorded snorts from 20 horses living in a riding center. Auditory playbacks run with 20 humans first confirmed the existence of two snort subtypes, i.e. one pulsed and one non-pulsed. Observations were then conducted to compare the distribution of these two subtypes according to the location (stall/pasture) of the signaller as a contextual determinant of its internal state and to its ears' position as a reflection of its emotional state. We found that both subtypes were preferentially observed in positive contexts, but that pulsed snorts were even more associated with highly appreciated situations (in pasture and with ears forward). This study is a step further in the identification of indicators of positive emotions in horses and more generally in the understanding of the acoustic emotions' coding.

Which animal-to-feeding-place ratio at time-controlled hay racks is animal appropriate? Preliminary analysis of stress responses of horses

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2023

Introduction Automated feeding systems offer numerous advantages for animals and humans, but the associated benefits and risks can often only be seen under practical conditions. The space allowance (~80 cm per horse) at time-controlled hay racks for horses in group housing, unlike at partitioned feeding stands or transponder-controlled feed stations, currently falls below the required individual distance between the horses, which can result in a high level of aggression between the horses due to the lack of partitions between them. Hence, a feed-through at a time-controlled hay rack cannot be equated with a feeding place. In this preliminary study, we therefore aimed to determine the minimum animal-to-feeding-place ratio (AFR) at time-controlled hay racks that would provide adequate individual distances between the horses. Methods To do so, we assessed behavioral and physiological parameters (via video behavioral observations and salivary cortisol measurements) of up to 28 horses in a loose housing system. Over 2 observation days per treatment, four AFRs were investigated in a balanced sequence: 1:1.2, 1:2, 1:3, and C (single feeding in familiar surroundings as a control). Results We found that the horses expressed less aggressive behavior, especially those behaviors with a high risk of injury such as biting and kicking, when there were three times as many openings as there were horses at time-controlled hay racks, as compared with only 20% more openings or twice as many openings as there were horses [lineal mixed model: F (3, 4) = 7.411; adjusted R ² = 0.733; p (AFR_1:2) = 0.06, p (AFR_1:3) = 0.02, p (AFR_C) = 0.01]. The salivary cortisol levels during feeding decreased more strongly with more generous AFRs [ p (AFR_metric) = 0.02]. The factors hierarchy and individual showed no influence. In contrast, the day of the experiment and the associated weather conditions, despite randomized selection, influenced both the behavioral and the physiological parameters. Discussion The results of this preliminary study indicate that the investigated time-controlled hay racks must provide at least three times as many feeding places as there are horses to ensure that neighboring horses can keep their individual distance and stress-free feeding is possible. Further studies on more farms and different types as well as arrangement of hay racks are proposed.

Supering Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera, Apidae) beehives impairs honey production and biomarker genes

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2022

For honey production, beekeepers add one or more supers to the hives to allow honeybees to store their products. However, the increase in hive space can affect the social and health organization in the colony, promoting stress. This study assessed the management of honey production, physicochemical honey properties, population development, and forages immune system gene expression patterns to be used as biomarker for monitoring beekeeping welfare. The treatments comprised 40 beehives divided in four treatments. Treatment 1 - control, supers added according to storage necessity. Treatments 2, 3, and 4 presented two, three, and four supers at the beginning of the experiment, respectively. T1 presented greater honey production (39.4 % increased). No difference in open brood area in the colonies was observed and honey properties and only T2 showed closed brood area higher than the other treatments. Foragers from T4 showed higher catalase and defensin gene expression at the middle-end experiment. Thus, the increasing internal space at the beginning of honey season can affect honey production and immune system of foragers. Catalase and defensin can be used as biomarkers for monitoring honey production welfare.

Detecting Welfare in a Non-Verbal Species: Social/Cultural Biases and Difficulties in Horse Welfare Assessment

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2021

Horses were domesticated for more than 5000 years and have been one of the most emblematic species living alongside humans. This long-shared history would suggest that horses are well known and well understood, but scientific data raise many concerns about the welfare state of most domestic horses suggesting that many aspects have been largely misunderstood. In the present review, we will examine some of the possible human factors that may explain the huge prevalence of welfare problems, despite horses being of special importance to humans. First of all, as horses are non-verbal, current management practices rely upon what one thinks is good for them, which opens the way to subjective interpretations and projections, based on one’s own subjective experience but probably still more on cultural/social norms and influences, traditions and beliefs. The lack of recognition, identification, or even the misinterpretation of signals are other potential reasons for welfare issues. Lastly, the over-exposure to animals with expressions of compromised welfare may lead to lower sensitivity of owners/professionals. That is why we lastly suggest that instead of simply providing information on what to do, we should promote validated visible indicators that leave less room for personal interpretation.

How Can Nutrition Help with Gastrointestinal Tract–Based Issues?

Article

Apr 2021
VET CLIN N AM-EQUINE

Many horses are fed differently than their wild ancestors. They often have limited access to pasture and are fed conserved forage and concentrates rich in starch and sugars, in only 2 meals per day. Feeding practices in contrast to natural feeding behavior can lead to gastrointestinal issues. Standard nutritional evaluation is warranted because of its important role in prevention and in treatment and management of diseases. When medical and nutritional treatments are combined, success rates are higher. New techniques to characterize equine microbiota have been used, allowing for microbiota manipulation to prevent and treat intestinal diseases.

Effects of a temporary period on pasture on the welfare state of horses housed in individual boxes

Article

May 2020
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Domesticated horses mainly live in individual boxes, a housing system reported as compromising animal welfare. A common practice in riding schools involves offering a temporary period on pasture with conspecifics to alleviate the impact of long-term deprivation triggered by boxes. The aim of this study was to assess the influence of this practice using four behavioural indicators reflecting a compromised welfare state: stereotypies; aggressive behaviours towards humans; the “withdrawn posture” reflecting unresponsiveness to the environment; and the “alert posture” indicating hypervigilance. A group of 31 horses was monitored before, during and after a period of 1.5 months on pasture (intra-group comparisons) and their behaviours were compared to those of 29 horses kept in individual boxes during the study (inter-group comparisons). On pasture, no stereotypies and aggressive behaviours towards humans were observed, and the occurrence of the “alert posture” decreased, although the results were not significant. An increase in the expression of natural behaviours such as locomotion, exploration and social behaviours was observed. However, the expression of the “withdrawn posture” increased during the first five days on pasture (Friedman: P < 0.001; Wilcoxon signed-rank: P < 0.001) before a decrease was observed after 20 days, returning to the level previously observed when horses were in boxes (Wilcoxon signed-rank: P < 0.01). These results suggest that going out to pasture can positively influence the welfare state of horses, but also that several days of adaptation are needed, probably due to the novelty of the environmental and social conditions. The most noticeable result occurred when horses returned to individual boxes. A sharp increase in the occurrence of stereotypies (Cochran test: P < 0.001; Chi² of homogeneity: P = 0.05), of the “withdrawn” (Friedman: P < 0.001; Wilcoxon rank-sum: P < 0.05) and the “alert” postures (Friedman: P < 0.01; Wilcoxon rank-sum: P < 0.001) was observed during the first five days of returning to confinement. The expression of the majority of natural behaviours immediately returned to the level observed during the pre-pasture period. After three months, the expression of the four welfare indicators was not different from that in the pre-pasture period. These results demonstrate that the beneficial effects likely to be induced by the pasture do not last when horses return to individual boxes and that the environmental change causes deleterious short-term effects on the animals’ welfare state. It would thus be recommended to keep domestic horses permanently on pasture when possible.

Determining a Welfare Prioritization for Horses Using a Delphi Method

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2020

Equine welfare issues are receiving increasing attention in the UK, but welfare problems can arise from a wide range of causes. In order to identify the most important welfare concerns for horses, we used a Delphi method with 19 equine welfare experts. An initial list of 84 equine welfare issues was generated using an online discussion board and NVivo thematic analysis. Subsequently, experts ranked these welfare issues for perceived prevalence, severity and duration of suffering associated with each issue on a 6-point Likert scale. All issues with a mean score of 3 or above (n = 37) were included in subsequent rounds. Finally, a subset of experts attended a two-day workshop to determine the final priority list of welfare issues. The welfare issues perceived to be most prevalent were lack of biosecurity, delayed euthanasia, lack of owner knowledge of equine welfare needs, fear and stress from use, and obesity. The issues considered to cause greatest suffering for individual horses were delayed euthanasia, lack of recognition by owners of pain behaviour, large worm burdens, obesity and being fed unsuitable diets for equine feeding behaviour. These outcomes can help to focus research and education interventions on the most pressing welfare issues for horses.

Indicators of Horse Welfare: State-of-the-Art

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2020

Clémence Lesimple

Animal welfare is defined as a chronic state reflecting an individual's subjective perception of its situation. Because it is possible to be in a good welfare state and nevertheless experience acute fear or pain, and conversely, short-term positive emotions can be experienced during impaired welfare states, welfare as a chronic state has to be clearly distinguished from temporary states related to emotions, pain or stress. The evaluation of non-verbal individuals' welfare state, particularly in interspecific situations, is a real challenge that necessarily implies animal-based measures and requires multidisciplinary scientifically validated measures. In the last decade, studies investigating horses' welfare flourished together with new measures that were not always scientifically tested before being used. At a time were legal decisions are made on animal welfare, it is crucial to rely on reliable welfare indicators in order to prevent false evaluation. The aim of this review is to identify the scientifically tested and reliable indicators of horses' welfare (e.g., body lesions, apathy, aggressiveness, stereotypic behaviours) from signals of temporary states related to acute pain emotions or stress and from popular beliefs, in order to give the scientific community and the horse industry accurate evaluation tools.

Horses Failed to Learn from Humans by Observation

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2020

Animals can acquire new behavior through both individual and social learning. Several studies have investigated horses’ ability to utilize inter-species (human demonstrator) social learning with conflicting results. In this study, we repeat a previous study, which found that horses had the ability to learn from observing humans performing an instrumental task, but we include a control for stimulus enhancement. One human demonstrator and thirty horses were included, and the horses were randomly assigned to one of three treatments: (A) full human demonstration, (B) partial human demonstration, and (C) no human demonstration. The task was for the horses to touch an object situated 1 m away from a feed box, to open this feed box, and thereby obtain a food reward. The success of each horse, the behavior directed towards the apparatus and the human, and behaviors indicative of frustration were observed. The results showed that horses observing a full and partial human demonstration were not more successful in solving the instrumental task than horses not observing any demonstration. Horses that did not solve the task expressed more box- and human-oriented behavior compared to successful horses, which may be an indication of motivation to solve the task and/or frustration from being unable to solve the task.

Housing Horses in Individual Boxes Is a Challenge with Regard to Welfare

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2019

Horses are mainly housed in individual boxes. This housing system is reported to be highly detrimental with regard to welfare and could trigger the expression of four behavioural indicators of a compromised welfare state: stereotypies, aggressiveness toward humans, unresponsiveness to the environment, and stress-related behaviours. The aim of this study was to identify housing and management factors that could alleviate the detrimental effects of individual boxes on welfare. A total of 187 horses were observed over 50 days by scan sampling. The impact of 12 factors was investigated on the expression of the four behavioural indicators in three different analyses. The results show that the majority of factors tested did not influence the expression of the behavioural indicators. Only three (straw bedding, a window opening onto the external environment, and a reduced quantity of concentrated feed) would have beneficial, although limited, effects. Furthermore, the longer the horses spent in individual boxes, the more likely they were to express unresponsiveness to the environment. To preserve the welfare of horses, it seems necessary to allow free exercise, interactions with conspecifics, and fibre consumption as often as possible, to ensure the satisfaction of the species’ behavioural and physiological needs.

An unexpected acoustic indicator of positive emotions in horses

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2018
PLOS ONE

Indicators of positive emotions are still scarce and many proposed behavioural markers have proven ambiguous. Studies established a link between acoustic signals and emitter’s internal state, but few related to positive emotions and still fewer considered non-vocal sounds. One of them, the snort, is shared by several perrisodactyls and has been associated to positive contexts in these species. We hypothesized that this could be also the case in horses. In this species, there is a clear need for a thorough description of non-vocal acoustic signals (snorts, snores or blows are often used interchangeably) but overall this sound produced by nostrils during expiration has up to now been mostly considered as having a hygienic function. However, observations revealed that snorts were produced more in some individuals than in others, without relationship with air conditions. We observed 48 horses living in two “extreme” conditions: restricted conditions (single stall, low roughage diet) and naturalistic conditions (stable groups in pasture). The immediate place (e.g. stall/pasture) and the behavioural/postural (behaviour performed/ears positions) contexts of snort production were observed. We additionally performed an evaluation of the welfare state, using validated behavioural (e.g. stereotypies) and postural (e.g. overall ears positions) welfare indicators. The results show that 1) snort production was significantly associated with situations known to be positive for horses (e.g. feeding in pasture) and with a positive internal state (ears in forward or sidewards positions), 2) the riding school horses produced twice as many snorts when in pasture than in stall, 3) the naturalistic population emitted significantly more snorts than riding school ones in comparable contexts, 4) the frequency of snorts was negatively correlated with the composite total chronic stress score (TCSS, reflecting compromised welfare based on the horse’s rank on the different indicators): the lower the TCSS, the higher the snort rate. Snorts therefore appear as reliable indicators of positive emotions.

Evaluer le bien-etre du cheval: quels indicateurs?

Conference Paper

Apr 2015

Très tôt dans l’histoire de la domestication du cheval par l’homme, les relations entre ces deux parties se sont centrées sur l’utilisation du premier par le second et sur des relations de travail, attelé ou monté. Ainsi, les premières estimations de l’utilisation de chevaux pour l’équitation remonteraient à 2500 ans avant JC. Ces estimations sont principalement basées sur l’examen de dents et de vertèbres présentant des traces d’usure caractéristiques de la présence d’un mors dans la bouche ou d’un cavalier sur le dos du cheval. Ainsi, le travail a un impact sur l’architecture du corps du cheval, mais la question de son impact sur le bien-être, à la fois au cours des séances de travail et / ou d’une manière plus chronique en dehors de ces séances reste à déterminer. Dans cette présentation, nous passerons en revue les preuves existantes d’un potentiel effet du travail sur le bien-être du cheval. Nous listerons également les indicateurs comportementaux fiables de douleur ou d’inconfort visibles au cours des séances de travail et/ou reliés à des problèmes de travail, mais identifiables en dehors des séances. Plusieurs études convergent par exemple sur le fait qu’une émotivité accrue, la présence de comportements anormaux ou encore une augmentation de l’agressivité hors travail peuvent résulter des conditions de travail auxquelles les chevaux sont soumis. La forte prévalence de problèmes vertébraux chez les chevaux de sport, mise en évidence par plusieurs auteurs, pourrait expliquer en partie ces problèmes de bien-être. Nous tenterons ici de déterminer les potentiels mécanismes reliant travail et altération du bien-être chez le cheval. Nous proposerons également des solutions simples d’améliorations permettant non seulement d’éviter l’altération du bien-être mais également de rendre le travail agréable pour le cheval.

Providing long hay in a novel pipe feeder or a bucket reduces abnormal oral behaviors in milk-fed dairy calves

Article

Jan 2023
J DAIRY SCI

Many milk-fed dairy calves are not provided forage. In these settings, calves often perform abnormal repetitive behaviors (ARBs), including tongue rolling and nonnutritive oral manipulation (NNOM), which, based on their form, seem similar to movements used when processing feed. Feeding hay, typically presented as a short chop (≤5 cm) in a bucket, reduces ARBs. Our objective was to evaluate whether altering the presentation method of long hay (∼19 cm), by providing it in a bucket or a novel polyvinyl chloride (PVC) pipe feeder, could reduce ARBs. Holstein heifer calves were housed individually on sand and fed ad libitum starter grain and limited milk replacer (5.7–8.4 L/d step-up) via a bottle (Control, n = 9) or given access to mountaingrass hay in a bucket (Bucket, n = 9) or in a PVC pipe feeder (Pipe, n = 9). The 56 × 10.2 cm (length × diameter) PVC pipe feeder had 4 openings that were 6.35 cm wide, which required the calf to insert her tongue into the pipe and curl her tongue to extract hay. Treatments were applied from birth through 50 d of age, when step-down weaning began and TMR was provided to all calves. Calves were fully weaned at d 60. At wk 4 and 6, oral behaviors (eating, ruminating, drinking water, sucking milk, self-grooming, NNOM, tongue rolling, tongue flicking, and panting) were recorded by direct observation for 24 h using 1–0 sampling during 5-s intervals. Feeding long hay, regardless of presentation method, increased overall DMI, grain intake, and ADG compared with Control calves. Hay provision also increased rumination (25 vs. 15% of 24-h observations in Control) and eating time (5.5 vs. 2% in Control). Abnormal behaviors were seen in all calves. Hay provision reduced some of these, including NNOM (5 vs. 9% in Control). There was no difference in NNOM between calves fed hay in a pipe or bucket, even though Bucket calves consumed more hay (178 vs. 129 g/d in wk 6) and tended to spend more observations eating hay than Pipe calves (4.5 vs. 3%). Hay provision did not affect other behaviors: drinking water (0.5%), grooming (3%), or tongue flicking (3%). We also found evidence of other abnormal oral behaviors that have received less attention. Calves showed signs of polydipsia, and displayed excessive grooming, the latter indicated by overall duration, number of bouts per day, and duration of individual bouts (up to 25 min). Tongue rolling was expressed at low levels (up to 0.4% of intervals) but by 85% of calves. Feeding hay, both in a bucket and using novel methods, was not enough to counteract the welfare challenges associated with individual housing and limited ability to suck milk (<1% of time). Provision of long hay, regardless of presentation method, promotes rumination, improves performance (higher grain intake and ADG) and reduces at least some, but not all, of the considerable abnormal oral behaviors these calves performed.

Optimising the welfare of equids on box rest: thinking outside the box

Article

Nov 2022

Kayna Prescott

Restriction of equids to a stable for box rest is advisable for the management of acute physiological conditions. Confinement to a single stable is not an optimal environment for a horse and can create frustration and the expression of abnormal behaviours, which can indicate a reduced welfare state. Expression of aggression towards handlers or rebound behaviours when released from the stable can be a safety concern for handlers and gives the potential for reinjury. By reviewing the literature, we can consider what aspects of the environment can be adjusted to allow optimal expression of natural behaviour within the stable, subsequently reducing frustration and stress which will improve the welfare of the equine on box rest and potentially improve the safety of handlers.

A Survey of Pennsylvania Horse Management: Part One - Nutrition

Article

Oct 2022
J EQUINE VET SCI

Various aspects of nutritional management can impact both a horse's gastrointestinal (GI) health and caretaker costs. The objective of this study was to characterize the feeding management and GI issues of horses in Pennsylvania (PA). An online survey was distributed from February 27th to August 31st, 2020. Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests were used to analyze the data. Nonparametric statistics were used when data were not normally distributed. From 470 responses collected, the average horse age was 15.7 ± 7.5 years, and the most common breeds were the Quarter Horse and Thoroughbred. Of the 345 horses who received pre-mixed feed, 81% were fed on a volume basis. Most horses (95%) received hay on a volume basis, and 57% of horses were fed hay on the ground rather than in a feeder. No difference was detected in the number of scoops of pre-mixed feed (median=2; P=0.284) or the flakes of hay per day (median=5.7; P=0.765) between horses in different exercise categories. The frequency of reported GI issues was 10% (46/470). Owner perceived, veterinary perceived, and veterinary diagnosed ulcers were found in 2.3%, 4%, and 2.3 % of horses, respectively. No statistical difference was detected in the number of scoops of pre-mixed feed fed per day between horses with or without GI issues (P=0.536). Horses were provided the same amount of pre-mixed feed and forage regardless of reported exercise category. Most equine caretakers fed concentrates on volume rather than weight, a common practice despite most feeding requirements being based on feed weights.

Feeding time in horses provided roughage in different combinations of haynets and on the stable floor

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2022
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Restrictions in forage availability lead to short eating or foraging times which could contribute to reduced welfare in horses. Strategies to maximise foraging time are therefore of interest. One such strategy is to feed forage in small-holed haynets to restrict eating rate, but it can also induce frustrating behaviours in the horse. Other strategies are therefore of interest. The effect of adding straw to a forage-based diet, with and without the use of haynets, on eating and feeding time in horses was examined in this study. Combinations examined were: haylage on the floor and no straw; haylage in haynet and no straw; haylage and straw in the same haynet; and haylage in haynet and straw on the floor. Eight horses were used in a complete change-over study where each treatment lasted for three consecutive days and horses were observed for 2 h during each treatment day. Measurements included forage eating time (minutes per kg dry matter forage), forage eating rate (kg dry matter forage per h), and total feeding time (in minutes per observation period, including effective eating time and feed searching time). Average forage eating time was shorter (P = 0.0004) and average forage eating rate was faster (P = 0.0001) when haylage was fed on the floor with no straw available, compared to all other treatments. Average total feeding time was longer (P < 0.03) for treatments where straw was included compared to treatments without straw. Results showed that feeding forage in haynets prolonged forage eating time and slowed down forage eating rate compared to feeding forage on the floor. The total feeding time was extended by providing straw on the floor in addition to forage in a haynet, or together with the forage in the same haynet. In conclusion, providing straw in addition to forage with or without using a small-holed haynet increased total feeding time and feed searching time compared to treatments without straw

A review on the effects of part-time grazing herbaceous pastures on feeding behaviour and intake of cattle, sheep and horses

Article

Jun 2022
LIVEST SCI

Part-time grazing (PTG) is the grazing technique based on the time-restricted access to pasture of farmed herbivores, usually supplemented indoors. This review evaluates the effects of the duration of access to pasture on the functional responses of grazing time and herbage intake rate in cattle, sheep and horses and the implications of these responses on diet selection, diet digestibility, energy expenditure, animal welfare, the performance of ruminants and the quality of their products (milk and meat). Ruminants with restricted access time to pasture display compensatory behaviour through increased intake rate, achieving similar levels of intake and performance compared with 24 h-grazing ruminants, particularly if access time is in the range 6-8 h/d. This can depend on the reduction of locomotion energy expenditure, and, sometimes, on the selection of a better quality diet than that on offer. Nevertheless, due to lower ingestive fibre trituration, fibre digestibility could be reduced, particularly with access time <4 h/d. Moreover, milk content of FA regarded as beneficial for consumers'health, such as n-3 PUFA and rumenic acid, is usually higher in PTG than stall-fed ruminants, with a minimum access to grass pasture of 6 h/d in cows supplemented with total mixed rations or 4 h/d in sheep supplemented with concentrate and hay. Timing the grazing session of ruminants in the afternoon and evening hours is a good strategy to match pasture quality and animal attitude to forage intensively and efficiently, favouring intake, performance and produce quality. Horses show on average lower intake rates scaled to metabolic weight than ruminants, probably due to their lower energy requirements but also for the need to spend part of the time outdoor performing physical activity and social behavior. Therefore, they probably need longer access time than ruminants. However, access should be time restricted or avoided during periods of the year and day hours (from midday to evening) when herbage content of non structural carbohydrates (sum of starch and water soluble carbohydrates) is high (> 15 % DM) since it can be conducive to equine metabolic syndrome and laminitis. In general, PTG can improve ruminant and horse welfare as compared with stall-feeding with reference to appropriate behavior and freedom from some pathologies, although further research is needed to quantify these effects on a wider range of animal species and welfare indicators. To conclude, PTG in ruminants and horse offers some benefits when properly managed, compared to 24 h-grazing and stall-feeding.

Nutritional management of equine gastric ulcers

Article

May 2022

Briony Witherow

Over the last 10 years there has been increasing awareness and subsequently recorded cases of equine gastric ulcer syndrome and with this comes an increased interest in appropriate nutrition and feed management. This review presents a systematic approach to assessing the ration of a horse at risk or diagnosed with equine gastric ulcer syndrome and demonstrates the ample evidence upon which to base nutritional recommendations for horses with equine squamous gastric disease, and to a lesser extent, equine glandular gastric disease, with an emphasis on forage. Careful selection and management of the forage ration should be the first step in designing a suitable ration, followed by selection of an appropriately low starch and sugar (less than 2g per kg body weight per day and 1g per kg body weight per meal) complementary feed. There is still more to learn about the role of supplements in the prevention and treatment of equine gastric ulcer syndrome, thus these should currently be viewed as an adjunct to an appropriate base diet and not as an isolated solution.

A new approach to horse welfare based on systems thinking

Article

Jan 2022
ANIM WELFARE

Globally, calls for change in the horse industry to prioritise the health and well-being of domestic horses (Equus caballus) are reaching a critical threshold. Horse behaviour deemed undesirable or inconvenient by owners (henceforth referred to as undesirable behaviour) is reported across all aspects of a horse’s life and may indicate a welfare issue. This study proposes a reconceptualisation of undesirable horse behaviour as a complex challenge based on systems thinking. Emerging from the natural sciences, systems thinking is an interdisciplinary approach to complex challenges (such as undesirable behaviour) as dynamic, highly interconnected networks of components and feedback relationships. This critical literature review examined the undesirable behaviours studied, the disciplines conducting research and their underpinning assumptions to identify opportunities for approaching research differently. Four themes emerged from the literature: undesirable behaviour is typically studied with unarticulated assumptions and in individual disciplines; behaviours are typically studied in isolation with the complexity of horse-human interactions generally not considered; management of behaviour typically has an anthropocentric linear ‘cause and effect’ focus; and solutions to undesirable behaviour are often short-term ‘fixes’ resulting in poor horse outcomes. From these, we outline the opportunities that each provide the next generation of horse research in terms of interdisciplinarity, systems thinking and management. Undesirable horse behaviour in a horse-human system is conceptually mapped in terms of factors associated with the behaviour (eg housing, stress, diet), and the relationships between them. Systems thinking offers a way to integrate multiple disciplines and identify and navigate new solutions to promote horse welfare.

Nutritional considerations for the management of equine pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction

Article

Nov 2021
EQUINE VET EDUC

Pituitary pars intermedia dysfunction (PPID) is a common endocrine disorder affecting equids. To help achieve and maintain healthy body condition, whilst reducing the risk of dietary associated laminitis, appropriate nutritional management is key. This review proposes a stepwise approach to building an individual nutritional plan for equines with PPID. Starting with considerations relating to current and desired body condition and muscle mass, it highlights the importance of providing appropriate amounts and forms of energy, carbohydrate and protein, with further practical considerations regarding the feeding of animals that are often aged and may have particular clinical sequelae to PPID. The next important step is to determine the degree of insulin dysregulation (ID), as this is a major factor associated with an increased risk of laminitis. Animals with ID should be fed low non‐structural carbohydrate (NSC) providing feeds/feedstuffs as well as fresh or preserved forage with NSC content <10‐12% on a DM basis. Finally, adjustments need to be made according to life stage and activity level.

The role of nutrition and feeding in equine weight management

Article

Nov 2021

Briony Witherow

Increasing awareness of the prevalence of overweight and obese horses has shed light on to the importance of appropriate nutrition and feed management within weight loss programmes. The review presents a basic approach to weight loss programme design and appropriate feeding and shows that while there is sufficient information upon which to base weight loss programmes, the findings of recent research into compliance and communication is likely to improve future success. Further education for livery yards and establishments is also a pivotal piece of the weight loss puzzle. There is still ground with regard to the most appropriate conserved forage, and a shift in responsibilities and mindset when it comes to forage analysis may be required. Ultimately, success may lie in a multidisciplinary team approach to weight recognition and management, and the development of a framework for fostering and maintaining communication across paraprofessionals and owners is an essential first step.

Investigating Equestrians’ Perceptions of Horse Happiness: An Exploratory Study

Article

Jun 2021
J EQUINE VET SCI

Happiness is a subjective feeling and associated with positive affective states that can indicate good welfare. It is becoming increasingly agreed that equestrians’ ability to recognise indicators of positive emotions has the potential to enhance overall horse wellbeing, but research in this area is limited. Therefore, this study investigated equestrians’ perceptions of horse happiness. A survey comprising 25 questions was distributed through equestrian-related social media (internationally) and yielded 332 valid responses. Frequency analysis was conducted within each factor category (e.g., rider type). Pearson chi-squared and Fisher's exact test determined if differences occurred between the tested factor categories (significance level: p<.05). The majority of respondents believed that they were able to recognise when their horses were happy (94%, n=332;p<.0001) whilst 92.8% (n=332;p<.0001) believed that their horses could be described as happy. The majority of participants who indicated that they were able to recognise when their horses were happy also believed that their horses were: happy when they interacted with them (98.3%, n=295;p<.001); when they rode them (83%,n=270;p<.0001); when they worked them (i.e., unmounted work) (82.7%, n=312;p<.0001). The largest respondent proportion believed that horses who were very ‘forward’/energetic every time they were being ridden could be best described as “rather happy” (36.4%,n=332). Owners more frequently believed that horses were “rather happy” if they did not react to loud noises/scary objects (30.9%, n=285;p<.013). These results suggest that some equestrians may have overconfidence in interpreting equine affective states. Furthermore, some respondents may have incorrectly perceived behaviours potentially indicating negative emotions as indicators of happiness.

Optimising the welfare of equids on box rest: thinking outside the box

Article

May 2021

Kayna Prescott

Nutritional Considerations When Dealing with an Obese Adult Equine

Article

Apr 2021
VET CLIN N AM-EQUINE

Equine obesity is common, reducing quality of life and requiring dietary energy restriction. Equine obesity is identified using subjective body condition scoring. Considerations are given for life stage and health status when managing obese equines. Every effort should be made to maximize feeding duration, and minimize time spent without feed while meeting all essential nutrient requirements. Limiting total daily dry matter intake to 2% of current bodyweight per day of a low caloric, forage-based diet may result in adequate body weight loss. Weight loss and weight management plans should be monitored for success and potential gastrointestinal, metabolic, and/or behavioral complications.

Brain activity reflects (chronic) welfare state: Evidence from individual electroencephalography profiles in an animal model

Article

Feb 2021
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Assessing the animal welfare state is a challenge given the subjective individual cognitive and emotional processing involved. Electroencephalography (EEG) spectrum analysis has proved an ecologically valid recording situation to assess the link between brain processes and affective or cognitive states in humans: a higher slow wave/fast wave ratio has been associated with a positive internal state. In particular, a high production of theta power (3-8 Hz) has been related to positive emotions. On the other hand, it has been hypothesized that a left hemisphere (LH) dominance may be associated with a better welfare state. Here, we test the hypothesis that individual differences in the resting-state quantitative EEG power spectrum of adult horses (N = 18) and its lateralization pattern may reflect individual subjective perception of their conditions of life and welfare state. The results show clear individual differences in the proportions of the different waves and their inter-hemispheric distribution. Three different EEG power spectrum profiles were highlighted, from a bilateral predominance of theta waves in horses in a more positive welfare state to a bilateral predominance of beta waves in horses with clear expressions of compromised welfare. Interestingly, particular correlations were found between wave power activity and welfare parameters. We found a negative correlation between the number of stereotypic behaviours per hour and the median proportion of theta waves in the left hemisphere. and between the overall state (total chronic stress score) of welfare and gamma production in the right hemisphere (RH). These findings go along the hypothesis of a particular involvement of the left hemisphere for positive processing and of the right hemisphere for negative processing. However, the pattern of laterality did not appear as the most important feature here as both extreme clusters in terms of welfare showed bilateral predominance of one wave type. It is possible that hemispheric specialization makes more sense during acute emotion-inducing conditions rather than in this resting-state context (i.e. in absence of any high emotion-inducing stimulation), although the opposition gamma versus theta waves between both hemispheres in the horses with an intermediate welfare state is noticeable and intriguing. It seems that bilateral but also LH theta activity is a promising neurophysiological marker of good welfare in horses, while a bilateral or RH high production of gamma waves should alert about potential welfare alterations. Quantitative resting-state EEG power spectrum appears as a highly promising tool for exploring the brain processes involved in the subjective perception of chronic welfare, as a useful complementary tool for welfare assessment.

Wybrane zagadnienia produkcji zwierzęcej t.1

Book

Nov 2020

The changing seasons

Article

Mar 2020

Briony Witherow

Briony Witherow MSc RNutr. Practical Equine Nutrition, looks at recent exceptional weather conditions and the possible impact on horses when transitioning from winter to spring

Mutual interactions between cognition and welfare: The horse as an animal model

Article

Sep 2019
NEUROSCI BIOBEHAV R

Research in cognitive psychology has repeatedly shown how much cognition and emotions are mutually related to one another. Psychological disorders are associated with cognitive (attention, memory and judgment) biases and chronic pain may affect attention, learning or memory. Laboratory studies have provided useful insights about the processes involved but observations about spontaneous animal models, living in different stress/welfare conditions may help understand further how cognition and welfare are interrelated in the « real world ». Domestic horses constitute such a model as they live in a variety of conditions that impact differently their welfare state. In the present review, we try and provide an overview of the scientific literature on cognition and welfare of domestic horses and their interrelationship. We address how emotions and welfare may affect cognitive processes in horses and impact the way they perceive their environment (including work). We propose new methods for assessing the relationship between welfare and cognition and open up the discussion on the evolution of the brain and the part domestication may have played.

O COMPORTAMENTO DOS ANDAMENTOS EM DIFERENTES PISOS DO PICADEIRO

Research

Full-text available

May 2018

Feeding Behavior of Mangalarga Marchador Weanlings Fed Sorghum Silage Versus Grass Hay

Article

Feb 2019
J EQUINE VET SCI

Mangalarga Marchador foals in Minas Gerais, Brazil, are usually weaned during the dry season, when there is a scarcity of forage. Although sorghum silage has been used to feed weanlings, the effect on their feeding behavior in comparison with grass hay has not been reported. Twelve Mangalarga Marchador weanlings were randomly assigned to two groups of six animals: SS: sorghum silage; VH: Vaquero hay. Both groups received commercial concentrate in the proportion of 1.2 kg.100 kg ⁻¹ of the live weight and forage ad libitum. The animals were filmed for 48 hours, being timed: forage intake time, water intake time (WIT), concentrate intake time, and leisure time (LT). Tukey's test was used to compare the parameters between SS and VH groups. Forage intake time and WIT were higher (P <.05) in VH group because the hay had low moisture content, stimulating water intake. Feeding behavior of weanlings kept in individual stalls and consuming sorghum silage was different than those consuming grass hay, providing less forage intake time and longer LT spent in comparison with VH.

Do horses with poor welfare show ‘pessimistic’ cognitive biases?

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2017
NATURWISSENSCHAFTEN

This field study tested the hypothesis that domestic horses living under putatively challenging-to-welfare conditions (for example involving social, spatial, feeding constraints) would present signs of poor welfare and co-occurring pessimistic judgement biases. Our subjects were 34 horses who had been housed for over 3 years in either restricted riding school situations (e.g. kept in single boxes, with limited roughage, ridden by inexperienced riders; N = 25) or under more naturalistic conditions (e.g. access to free-range, kept in stable social groups, leisure riding; N = 9). The horses’ welfare was assessed by recording health-related, behavioural and postural indicators. Additionally, after learning a location task to discriminate a bucket containing either edible food (‘positive’ location) or unpalatable food (‘negative’ location), the horses were presented with a bucket located near the positive position, near the negative position and halfway between the positive and negative positions to assess their judgement biases. The riding school horses displayed the highest levels of behavioural and health-related problems and a pessimistic judgment bias, whereas the horses living under more naturalistic conditions displayed indications of good welfare and an optimistic bias. Moreover, pessimistic bias data strongly correlated with poor welfare data. This suggests that a lowered mood impacts a non-human species’ perception of its environment and highlights cognitive biases as an appropriate tool to assess the impact of chronic living conditions on horse welfare.

Detecting and Measuring Back Disorders in Nonverbal Individuals: The Example of Domestic Horses

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2016

Back disorders are amongst the major health-related disorders associated to working conditions in our society. Horses share with humans the exposure to potential physically harmful working conditions leading to back disorders. However, despite their high prevalence, these problems are often unacknowledged in the horse industry, mostly because their diagnosis remains difficult, particularly in field conditions. In the present review, we review the current scientific knowledge on back vertebral, muscular and musculoskeletal disorders. We will first present the existing knowledge about their prevalence and the tools available for diagnosis. Then, the different potential sources of back pain, including anatomical implications, the effect of emotionality and working conditions will be discussed. We finally present the existing behavioral, postural and physiological indicators of back pain that could help an early detection of back disorders.

How accurate are we at assessing others’ well-being? The example of welfare assessment in horses

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2014

Healthcare practitioners such as physicians or nurses often underestimate patients' well-being impairment (e.g., pain, anxiety) which may lead to undesirable consequences on treatment decisions. Lack of recognition/identification of signals and over-exposure are two reasons invoked, but a combination of factors may be involved. Studying human decoding of animals' expressions of emotions showed that "identification" to the subject was necessary to decode the other's internal state. In the present study we wanted to compare caretakers' reports on the prevalence of stereotypic or abnormal repetitive behaviors, to ethological observations performed by an experienced observer on the same horses in order to test the impact of these different factors. On the first hand, a questionnaire was given hand to hand to the caretakers. On the other hand, the experienced observer spent 18 h observing the horses in each stable. Here we show that caretakers strongly underestimate horses' expressions of well-being impairment. The caretakers who had a strong concern about their horses' well-being were also those who reported the more accurately SB/ARB's prevalence, showing that "identification" to the subject is a primary factor of bad-being signal's detection. Over-exposure also appeared to be involved as no SB/ARB was reported in stables where most of the horses were performing these abnormal behaviors. Being surrounded by a large population of individuals expressing clear signals of bad-being may change professionals' perceptions of what are behaviors or expressions of well being. These findings are of primary importance as (1) they illustrate the interest of using human-animal relationships to evaluate humans' abilities to decode others' states; (2) they put limitations on questionnaire-based studies of welfare.

Cooccurrence of Yawning and Stereotypic Behaviour in Horses (Equus caballus)

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2011

Determinants of yawning are still uncertain. As yawning seems to be triggered by stress and emotional contexts, we investigated specific correlates of yawning and stereotypic behaviours in horses. Study 1 investigated correlations in time between yawning and stereotypic behaviour in stereotypic horses from the same facility; study 2, involving riding school horses, investigated the cooccurrence of yawning and stereotypic behaviour at the individual level and in response to environmental factors (feeding time). Results showed that (1) stereotypic horses yawned more than the nonstereotypic horses, (2) yawning increased at the same time periods as stereotypic behaviours did, and (3) yawning frequency was positively correlated with stereotypic behaviour frequencies (study1). Different hypotheses are discussed: direct/indirect causal relationship and other factors susceptible to trigger both yawning and stereotypies. This study, underlining for the first time a cooccurrence of yawning and stereotypic behaviour, opens a promising line of investigation of this puzzling behaviour.

Temporal Feeding Pattern May Influence Reproduction Efficiency, the Example of Breeding Mares

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2013
PLOS ONE

Discomfort in farm animals may be induced by inappropriate types or timing of food supplies. Thus, time restriction of meals and lack of roughage have been shown to be one source of emergence of oral stereotypies and abnormal behaviour in horses which have evolved to eat high-fibre diets in small amounts over long periods of time. This feeding pattern is often altered in domestic environment where horses are often fed low fibre meals that can be rapidly consumed. This study aimed at determining the effect of the temporal pattern of feeding on reproductive efficiency of breeding mares, One hundred Arab breeding mares were divided into two groups that differed only in the temporal pattern of roughage availability: only at night for the standard feeding pattern group (SFP mares), night and day for the "continuous feeding" group (CF mares). The total amount of roughage provided was the same as the CF mares received half of the hay during the day while in paddock (haynets). Mares were tested for oestrus detection by teasing with one stallion and were then examined clinically by rectal palpations and ultrasound before being mated naturally or inseminated by fresh or frozen semen. Multivariate logistic regression was used to analyse data. The treatment affected significantly the reproductive efficiency of the mares with fewer oestrus abnormalities (p = 0.0002) and more fertility (p = 0.024) in CF mares (conception rate = 81% versus 55% in SFP mares). Ensuring semi-continous feeding by providing roughage may be a way of fulfilling the basic physiological needs of the horses' digestive system, reducing stress and associated inhibitors of reproduction. To our knowledge, this study provides the first evidence of an impact of temporal feeding patterns on reproductive success in a Mammal. Temporal patterns of feeding may be a major and underestimated factor in breeding.

A review of the human–horse relationship

Article

Full-text available

Jan 2008
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Despite a long history of human-horse relationship, horse-related incidents and accidents do occur amongst professional and non professional horse handlers. Recent studies show that their occurrence depend more on the frequency and amount of interactions with horses than on the level of competency, suggesting a strong need for specific research and training of individuals working with horses. In the present study, we review the current scientific knowledge on human-horse relationships. We distinguish here short occasional interactions with familiar or unfamiliar horses (e.g. veterinary inspection) and long-term bonds (e.g. horse-owner).

Variables affecting the prevalence of behavioural problems in horses. Can riding style and other management factors be significant?

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2011
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

The effects of riding style and various management factors on the prevalence of stereotypies and other behavioural problems among 346 mixed-breed saddle horses (phase 1) and 101 Arabian horses (phase 2) were analysed through a questionnaire answered by owners. In phase 1, the questionnaire data were partially validated through 20-min observations of 81 (23.3%) of the cases.Results indicate that horses primarily ridden in the English style were reported to be significantly more likely to display stereotypies (p

Towards a Postural Indicator of Back Pain in Horses (Equus caballus)

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2012
PLOS ONE

Postures have long been used and proved useful to describe animals' behaviours and emotional states, but remains difficult to assess objectively in field conditions. A recent study performed on horses using geometric morphometrics revealed important postural differences between 2 horse populations differing in management conditions (leisure horses living in social groups used for occasional "relaxed" riding/riding school horses living in individual boxes used in daily riding lessons with more constraining techniques). It was suggested that these postural differences may reflect chronic effects of riding techniques on the horses' kinematics and muscular development. In the present study, we tried to evaluate the interest of postural measures to assess welfare in horses. This study was separated into 2 parts. First, 18 horses coming from these 2 types of populations (leisure/riding school horses) were submitted to 2 back evaluations by 1) manual examination (experienced practitioner) and 2) sEMG measures along the spine. We then measured neck roundness on 16 of these 18 horses. The results highlighted high correlations between manual and sEMG examinations over the spine. sEMG measures at the different locations were strongly correlated all over the spine. Moreover, neck postures and muscular activities were strongly correlated, horses with concave necks having higher sEMG measures both at precise locations (i.e. cervical sites) but also when comparing neck postures to the whole spine muscular activity highlighting the functioning of horses' back as a whole. Lastly, strong differences appeared between the populations, leisure horses being evaluated as having sounder spines, exhibiting lower sEMG measures and rounder neck than the riding school horses. sEMG measures and neck "roundness" seemed therefore to be reliable indicators of back disorders, easy to evaluate in field conditions. This highlights the accuracy of using postural elements to evaluate the animals' general state and has important implications for animals' welfare evaluations.

Foraging opportunity: A crucial criterion for horse welfare?

Article

Full-text available

Sep 2009

This study aimed at determining the effect of the increase of foraging opportunities on the behaviour and welfare of breeding mares housed in individual boxes but allowed outside 6 h a day in a bare paddock. One hundred Arab breeding mares were divided into two groups of 50 according to the treatment and allowed outside in two bare paddocks at the same density (115 mare/ha) where water and shelter were provided. The treatment consisted in providing the opportunity to forage on hay. Twenty-minute animal focal samplings and scan samplings were used to determine the time budget of the mares during the period from 0900 to 1500 h and study their social behaviour. A total of 300 focal sampling (6000 min), 3300 individual scan sampling (6000 min) and 62 group observations (1240 min) corresponding to the 100 mares were recorded. Non-parametric tests were used to analyse data. Results showed that experimental mares spent more time feeding (65.12% ± 2.40% v. 29.75% ± 2.45%, P < 0.01) and less time in locomotion (11.70% ± 1.31% v. 23.56% ± 1.34%, P < 0.01), stand resting (11.76% ± 2.57% v. 27.52% ± 2.62%, P < 0.01) and alert standing (5.23% ± 1.2% v. 14.71% ± 1.23%, P < 0.01). There was more bonding among experimental mares than control ones (26 v. 14, P < 0.05). Experimental mares showed more positive social interactions (P < 0.01) and less aggression (P < 0.01). These results suggest that giving densely housed mares foraging opportunities improves their welfare.

Partners with Bad Temper: Reject or Cure? A Study of Chronic Pain and Aggression in Horses

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2010
PLOS ONE

Experiencing acute pain can affect the social behaviour of both humans and animals and can increase the risk that they exhibit aggressive or violent behaviour. However, studies have focused mainly on the impact of acute rather than chronic painful experiences. As recent results suggest that chronic pain or chronic discomfort could increase aggressiveness in humans and other mammals, we tested here the hypothesis that, in horses, aggression towards humans (a common source of accidents for professionals) could be linked to regularly reported vertebral problems of riding horses. Vertebral examination and standardized behavioural tests were made independently on the same horses. Here we showed that most horses severely affected by vertebral problems were prone to react aggressively towards humans (33/43 horses, chi-square test, df=1, χ(2)=12.30, p<0.001), which was not the case for unaffected or slightly affected horses (9/16 horses, chi-square test, df=1, χ(2)=0.25, p>0.05). The more affected they were, the fewer positive reactions they exhibited (rs=-0.31, p=0.02). This is to our knowledge the first experimental evidence of such a link between chronic discomfort/potential pain (inferred from the presence of vertebral problems) and aggression, suggesting that chronic painful experiences may act in ways similar to those of acute experiences. Chronic discomfort or pain may often be overlooked when facing "bad tempered" individuals, whether humans or animals. This experimental study confirms the importance of including chronic discomfort or pain as a major factor in interpersonal relations and models of aggression.

Assessing the human-animal relationship in farmed species: A critical review

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2006
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

The present paper focuses on six main issues. First, we briefly explain why an increased understanding of the human¿animal relationship (HAR) is an essential component of any strategy intended to improve the welfare of farmed animals and their stockpersons. Second, we list the main internal and external factors that can influence the nature of the relationship and the interactions between human beings and farm animals. Third, we argue that the numerous tests that have been used to assess the HAR fall into three main categories (stationary human, moving human, handling/restraint), according to the degree of human involvement. Fourth, the requirements that any test of HAR must fulfil before it can be considered effective, and the ways in which the tests can be validated are discussed. Fifth, the various types of test procedures that have been used to assess the HAR in a range of farmed species are reviewed and critically discussed. Finally, some research perspectives that merit further attention are shown. The present review embraces a range of farmed animals. Our primary reasons for including a particular species were: whether or not general interest has been expressed in its welfare and its relationship with humans, whether relevant literature was available, and whether it is farmed in at least some European countries. Therefore, we include large and small ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats), pigs, poultry (chickens), fur animals (foxes, mink) and horses. Although horses are primarily used for sport, leisure or therapy they are farmed as draught, food or breeding animals in many countries. Literature on the HAR in other species was relatively scarce so they receive no further mention here.

Clinical syndrome of gastric ulceration in foals and mature horses

Article

Full-text available

May 1999
EQUINE VET J

Repetitive movement problems in the horse

Article

Jan 2005

D.S. Mills

Nonparametric statistics for the Behavioral Sciences

Article

Jan 1988

Feeding, foraging, and feather pecking behaviours in precision-fed and skip-a-day-fed broiler breeder pullets

Article

Dec 2016
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

How to keep your horse safe? An epidemiological study about management practices

Article

Jun 2016
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

An interpretation of pawing by the horse (Equus caballus Linnaeus), displacement activity and original functions

Article

Jan 1973

Frank Ödberg

The effect of presenting forage in multi-layered haynets and at multiple sites on night time budgets of stabled horses

Article

Oct 2015
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

The aim of this study was to explore the efficacy of multi-layered haynets and multiple presentation of haynets to increase time spent on feed intake behaviour at night (13. h observation). For preliminary assessment two horses performing the oral stereotypy of crib-biting were included. Six horses received the same amount of forage during a 22-day, cross-over study where treatment consisted of either forage presentation in a single small-holed haynet (SH) or the forage was divided between 3 haynet combinations hung up simultaneously. = multiple haynets (MH). The three haynets presented simultaneously consisted of (a) MH single haynet (same as SH), (b) MH double layered haynet and (c) MH triple layered haynet. Multiple haynets were presented, in random order, on three sides of the stable. Horses were filmed using a video surveillance camera with infrared light source. Behaviour was observed for at least 4 nights per treatment (one night during the acclimatisation period [nights 2-4] and three nights during the end period [nights 7-11]). The observation period commenced at 16.30-17.00. h (point of haynets being presented) until 06.00. h (all horses) or 9.00. h (2 crib-biting horses) the next morning. Data were analysed for normal distribution and ANOVA between haynets, paired t-tests between treatments and Pearson correlation were used (SPSS. 17.00; 2012). There was a significant effect of type of haynet (p<. 0.001) on intake time per kg forage (min/kg for SH: 39; MH all (data combined): 51; MH Single: 27; MH Double: 67; MH Triple: 78; overall sem. 8.9). The overall time budget (minutes per observation hour) showed a significant difference between treatments for eating from haynet, standing still, locomotion and drinking. Horses finished eating from SH haynets at around 01.38. am (±1.05. h s.d.), were last observed at the double net at 03.00. am and at the triple net at 05.12. am (±1.25. h s.d.). Based on these results, providing 6. kg of forage in 3 double-layered, 2.5. cm haynets spread around the stable could potentially lead to an increased feeding time of 2. h per night compared to a single 2.5. cm holed haynet containing 6. kg. From the continuous observation data a clear visual difference in crib-biting pattern and therefore motivation to perform crib-biting emerged between the two stereotypic horses.

Detecting horses' sickness: In search of visible signs

Article

Sep 2015
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Pilot study on work load management and feed intake time when feeding horses with small mesh haynets

Article

Jun 2015
LIVEST SCI

Horses are by nature herbivores and graze during the main part of the day. For stabled horses the feeding rations are often restricted and it would be preferred to develop a feeding system that allows long feed intake times. A possible way to lengthen the feed intake time is to hamper the availability of the forage by using a small-mesh haynet. The study had two aims concerning feeding horses with small-mesh haynets; first to investigate how the stable staff’s work load was affected and second to study the horse’s feed intake time. Two parallel studies were carried out at the Swedish National Equestrian Centre Strömsholm. In both studies four split-up portions daily were used as control management. The first study on work load measured the time of feeding routines using 14 horses fed with small-mesh haynets once a day and 17 horses in the control management. The second study focused on the feed intake time using a cross-over design where four horses were filmed during four consecutive days in each feeding system; feeding forage once a day in small-mesh haynets (mesh size 3×3 cm) compared to control management. The data were statistically analysed and the level of significance was set to p<0.05. The horses remained their body condition and no colic occurred.

The Effect of Hay Net Design on Rate of Forage Consumption When Feeding Adult Horses

Article

Aug 2014

The Relationship Between Behavioral and Other Welfare Indicators of Working Horses

Article

Jan 2013

This study aimed to investigate the different behavioral responses of working horses toward humans, and to determine whether horses react differently toward an unknown person than toward a familiar one and whether these behavioral reactions are correlated with certain health- or management-related welfare indicators. The noninvasive assessment of 715 working horses included direct observation and clinical examination. Three simple tests were used to assess the horses' behavior toward humans, performed by the assessor and then by the horse owner. The most prevalent behaviors observed in the horses were indifference to human approach and avoidance/fear shown in the walk beside test and chin contact test, respectively. The comparison of the results for each individual test showed significant differences between the horses' reactions to the assessor compared with the owner. The correlation coefficients found between the behavioral indicators and the health-related and descriptive indicators were generally low, yet many of them were statistically significant. The strongest correlation was found between the depressed attitude of the horses and the presence of deep body lesions (r = 0.35, P < .01). Human-related aggressiveness correlated consistently with the presence of swollen tendons/joints, and the horses wearing inadequate horseshoes showed avoidance/fear in almost all of the behavioral tests. The older horses were more prone than the younger ones to be indifferent to their owner's approach, but they showed avoidance/fearfulness in other tests. As the correlations revealed, improper husbandry and handling practices are linked with the occurrence of unwanted behaviors in the assessed working horses.

Ear and tail postures as indicators of emotional valence in sheep

Article

May 2009
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

To date, most studies on animal emotions have focused on the assessment of negative emotional states, and there is a lack of approaches to characterising positive emotional states. The aim of this investigation was to measure differences in ear and tail postures in sheep exposed to situations likely to induce states of negative, intermediate and positive emotional valence.Nineteen female sheep were observed in emotion-eliciting situations in two experiments. In the home-pen experiment, ear and tail postures were observed during separation from group members (negative situation), during rumination (intermediate), and while feeding on fresh hay (positive situation). In the fodder experiment, individual sheep were conditioned to anticipate the delivery of standard feed. Once familiar with this experimental condition, they were offered either the standard feed (control treatment), unpalatable wooden pellets (negative treatment), or energetically enriched feed mixed with preferred feed items (positive treatment). Ear and tail postures of sheep were recorded during the final 6 min preceding feed delivery (anticipation phase) and for 6 min during feed delivery (feeding phase). Data were analysed using linear mixed-effect models.In the home-pen experiment, sheep separated from group members showed a high number of ear-posture changes and a high proportion of forward ears compared to hay feeding, during which ears were mainly passive. In the fodder experiment, the total number of ear-posture changes was generally high during the anticipation phases, slightly lower during delivery of the wooden pellets, and clearly reduced during the delivery of standard and enriched feed. A higher proportion of passive ear postures occurred when standard feed and enriched feed were offered compared to the delivery of wooden pellets. The proportion of asymmetric and axial ear postures was influenced by the sequence of testing of the different feeding treatments, with a higher proportion of asymmetric and a lower proportion of axial ear postures during the first exposure to either the wooden pellets or the enriched feed. A high proportion of the sheep's tails being raised was only observed during separation from group members.In both experiments, frequent ear-posture changes were most clearly associated with situations inducing negative states, and a high proportion of passive ear postures with situations likely to induce positive emotional states. Unfamiliarity influenced emotional reactions towards a more negative appraisal. A raised tail only appears to occur in specific situations, and was not useful for distinguishing emotional valence. Apart from the need for further validation, observations of ear-posture changes seem to be a promising approach for assessing emotional reactions in sheep.

Effects of varying feed provision on behavioral patterns of farmed collared peccary (Mammalia, Tayassuidae)

Article

Jul 2011
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Relationships between behaviour and health in working horses, donkeys, and mules in developing countries

Article

Sep 2010
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Recent studies raise serious welfare concerns regarding the estimated 93.6 million horses, donkeys and mules in developing countries. Most equids are used for work in poor communities, and are commonly afflicted with wounds, poor body condition, respiratory diseases, parasites, dental problems, and lameness. Non-physical welfare problems, such as fear of humans, are also of concern. Interventions to improve working equine welfare aim to prioritise the conditions that cause the most severe impositions on the animals’ subjectively experienced welfare, but data identifying which conditions these may be, are lacking. Here we describe a stage in the validation of behavioural welfare indicators that form part of a working equine welfare assessment protocol. Over 4 years, behavioural and physical data were collected from 5481 donkeys, 4504 horses, and 858 mules across nine developing countries. Behaviours included the animals’ general alertness, and their responses to four human-interaction tests, using the unfamiliar observer as the human stimulus. Avoidance behaviours correlated significantly with each other across the human-interaction tests, with 21% of animals avoiding the observer, but they showed no associations with likely anthropogenic injuries. Over 13% of equids appeared ‘apathetic’: lethargic rather than alert. Measures of unresponsiveness correlated with each other across the five tests, and were associated with poor body condition, abnormal mucous membrane colour, faecal soiling, eye abnormalities, more severe wounds, and older age, depending on the equine species. This suggests that working equids in poor physical health show an unresponsive behavioural profile, consistent with sickness behaviour, exhaustion, chronic pain, or depression-like states.

A note on the time budget and social behaviour of densely housed horses. A case study in Arab breeding mares

Article

Jul 2008
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

We observed a high-density herd (200 mares/ha) of 44 Arab breeding mares, while in a bare paddock in Tunisia. Twenty-minute animal focal samples and scan sampling were used to determine the time budget of the mares during the period from 9a.m. to 3p.m. and study their social behaviour. The data obtained reveal restricted behavioural repertoires with missing behaviour like rolling, allogrooming and lying down; unusual time budgets with a high frequency of locomotion that constitutes the most frequent activity (27.9±19.47%) of the mares. Social interactions were restricted to agonistic interactions but despite the high stocking density, aggressions were not that frequent among mares.

Young horses’ reactions to humans in relation to handling and social environment

Article

Dec 2003
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Forty Danish warmblood colts in two replicates were used to investigate the effect of housing and handling in the rearing period on the reactions to humans. The horses entered the experiment after weaning and were housed either individually (n=16) or in groups of three (n=24). Half of the horses from each housing group were handled three times per week for a period of 10min. Approach tests were performed in the home environment when the horses were 6, 9, 12, 18, 21, and 24 months old, and an Arena and Human Encounter test was performed in a novel environment when the horses were 12 and 24 months old, respectively. In the home environment, single-housed horses approached sooner and were more easily approached by a human than group-housed horses where no effect of handling was observed. Horses approached sooner and were more easily approached with increasing age. In the Arena and Human Encounter test, single-housed horses expressed less restless behaviour, more explorative behaviour, and less vocalisation than group-housed horses. Handled horses showed lower increase in heart rate during the test than non-handled horses. There was no difference between the number of times single or group-housed horses touched an unfamiliar person in the Arena and Human Encounter test but handled horses approached sooner than non-handled horses. It is concluded that the social environment affected the way horses reacted to humans when tested in the home environment but not in a novel environment. In contrast, handling affected the reactions to humans when tested in the novel environment but not in the home environment. However, handled horses also reacted less to the novel environment in general, thus indicating that handling is a mean of avoiding potential dangerous situations.

A brief note on some possible factors involved in the reactions of horses to humans

Article

Apr 2002
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

In order to investigate relationships of adult horses to humans, we developed a simple evaluation test and scores based on observations. The first reactions of 224 adult horses to the presence of an experimenter were observed and scored. All these horses belonged to the same riding school, had the same general housing conditions and were all geldings. The evaluation was based on the horse’s posture. Individual differences that could be related to some extent to the breed but also to human factors emerged clearly. French saddlebreds showed more often friendly behaviour than Angloarabs, whereas thoroughbreds were more indifferent. Clear variations occurred between groups of horses that depended on different caretakers. In this school, one caretaker is responsible for the whole daily management of a group of horses and is probably a very important factor in their well-being. The effects of this daily relation to a human seemed to be involved in the reactions to a strange person. Further studies are required to investigate what, in practice, may be determinant.

The influence of food presentation on the behavior of small cats in confined environments

Article

Jan 1993
ZOO BIOL

Captive small felids frequently pace repetitively and/or spend large amounts of time inactive. Presenting a fishing cat with live-fish resulted in more activity (60% less sleeping), increased behavioral diversity, including previously unobserved hunting behaviors, and greater enclosure utilization. Effects persisted for at least 48 h after presentation of live fish, and up to 8 days. In a second study, four leopard cats were fed: (1) once per day, (2) four times per day and, (3) four times per day with food hidden in small piles of brush. Multiple feedings of hidden food increased daily exploratory behavior from 5.5% to over 14%, and increased the diversity of behaviors observed. It also reduced the total duration, and bout length of stereotyped pacing. These studies suggest that providing food to small cats in a way that minimizes predictability of food availability, while maximizing the functional consequences of foraging behavior, can be an effective enrichment technique. These results are discussed in relation to two models of behavioral motivation, one that focuses on the issue of behavioral needs, and the other that emphasizes the importance of information acquisition. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc

Influence of the presence of seeds and litter on the behaviour of captive red-capped mangabeys Cerocebus torquatus torquatus

Article

Mar 2004
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

The aim of this study was to analyse the influence of the presence of seeds and litter on the time budget of a family group of red-capped mangabeys, to improve animal welfare. Five experimental situations were tested in succession: (1) bare ground (without making any particular modifications of the cage), (2) seeds added to fruits ration (seeds were dispersed over the bare ground), (3) litter on the ground and seed added to food ration, (4) litter added without seed, (5) bare ground as in first situation. Addition of seeds and litter modified to various degrees the behaviour of these animals. The addition of both litter and seeds induced a significant decline in self-directed activities and a significant increase in search for food. The presence of litter, with or without seeds, induced diversification of occupation of space. Behavioural responses to the different modifications of the environment in the cage varied between individuals with females varied more than males.

Observational study of behavior: Sampling methods. Behaviour 49:227-267

Article

Feb 1974
BEHAVIOUR

Jeanne Altmann

Seven major types of sampling for observational studies of social behavior have been found in the literature. These methods differ considerably in their suitability for providing unbiased data of various kinds. Below is a summary of the major recommended uses of each technique: In this paper, I have tried to point out the major strengths and weaknesses of each sampling method. Some methods are intrinsically biased with respect to many variables, others to fewer. In choosing a sampling method the main question is whether the procedure results in a biased sample of the variables under study. A method can produce a biased sample directly, as a result of intrinsic bias with respect to a study variable, or secondarily due to some degree of dependence (correlation) between the study variable and a directly-biased variable. In order to choose a sampling technique, the observer needs to consider carefully the characteristics of behavior and social interactions that are relevant to the study population and the research questions at hand. In most studies one will not have adequate empirical knowledge of the dependencies between relevant variables. Under the circumstances, the observer should avoid intrinsic biases to whatever extent possible, in particular those that direcly affect the variables under study. Finally, it will often be possible to use more than one sampling method in a study. Such samples can be taken successively or, under favorable conditions, even concurrently. For example, we have found it possible to take Instantaneous Samples of the identities and distances of nearest neighbors of a focal individual at five or ten minute intervals during Focal-Animal (behavior) Samples on that individual. Often during Focal-Animal Sampling one can also record All Occurrences of Some Behaviors, for the whole social group, for categories of conspicuous behavior, such as predation, intergroup contact, drinking, and so on. The extent to which concurrent multiple sampling is feasible will depend very much on the behavior categories and rate of occurrence, the observational conditions, etc. Where feasible, such multiple sampling can greatly aid in the efficient use of research time.

Effects of enrichment items on activity and social interactions in domestic horses (Equus caballus)

Article

Jan 2011
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Foraging enrichment for laboratory rats

Article

Aug 2004
ANIM WELFARE

The provision of foraging opportunities may be a simple way of improving an animal's welfare, but this approach has been neglected for laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus). Standard housing contains little enrichment, and food is often provided ad libitum, which may result in inactivity and obesity, especially in mature males. Foraging enrichments may offer a way to correct these deficiencies. This study compared three potential enrichments — a limited-access hopper, gnawing sticks and a foraging device — to standard housing and feeding conditions, in order to examine their effects on rat body weight, food consumption, behaviour and preferences. The subjects were 12 mature male Wistar rats. Effects were assessed from daily weighing and from video records of the rats' behaviour over 24 h periods. The rats' preferences were determined using a four-way test system in which they could choose between a standard cage and cages offering the three potential enrichments. Compared to the standard housing and feeding, the limited-access hopper had a tendency to reduce food consumption, but the time spent feeding increased. The gnawing sticks provided the rats with the opportunity to gnaw, but did not affect other behaviours or body weight. The foraging device had the benefits of reducing aggression and allowing the rats to search for and manipulate food, but resulted in significant gains in body weight. Additionally, the foraging device was the preferred feeding source. Of the four possible feeding locations, the rats spent the least amount of time in the standard cage. The foraging device provided the most benefits but requires further modification to address problems of obesity.

Deep woodchip litter: Hygiene, feeding, and behavioral enhancement in eight primate species

Article

Int J Stud Anim Probl

67 animals of 8 primate species (moustached guenons, vervets, ring-tailed lemurs, stumptail macaques, squirrel monkeys, black-capped capuchins, red-bellied tamarins, and common marmosets) were used in a study of improved husbandry techniques. The presence of woodchips as a direct-contact litter decreased inactivity and fighting and increased time spent on the ground. Placing food in the deep litter led to further behavioral improvements. The use of frozen foods improved food distribution and reduced fighting in most situations, especially when the food was buried in the litter. With time, the litter became increasingly inhibitory to bacteria. Results suggest that inexpensive ways of increasing environmental complexity are effective in improving housing conditions for primates. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)

Environmental enrichment for zoo bears

Article

Jan 1991
ZOO BIOL

The high incidence of stereotypic behaviors in zoo bears (van Keulen-Kromhout: International Zoo Yearbook 18:177–186, 1978) suggests that the environment of these animals lacks essential stimuli for guiding normal behavior. Three experiments investigated ways in which bear husbandry procedures can be altered to promote normal behavior. In experiments 1 and 2, honey-filled logs were given to a sloth (Melursus ursinus), American black (Ursus americanus), and brown bear (Ursus arctos) to determine 1) the role of food in stimulating investigatory behavior, 2) the rate of habituation to manipulable objects introduced into the exhibit, and 3) effects on locomotory behaviors. Results show specific and general habituation to the introduced objects that can be counteracted by refilling the logs with honey and by providing multiple logs in the exhibit. Investigatory activity directed toward honey-logs replaces pacing and walking in the sloth bear and is most effective in doing so when the log is novel. Experiment 3 examined the behavioral effects of feeding an American black bear in three different ways: 1) once daily in the den, 2) once daily with supplemental food from a mechanical feeder, and 3) once daily with food hidden in the exhibit in manipulatable objects. The latter method reduced stereotypic pacing from a median of 150 min/day to 20 min/day; the mechanical feeder method had no such effect. The results of a survey of 67 zoos concerning the diet and manner of feeding these three species of bears, as well as Asian black bears (Ursus thibetanus) are presented. Results are discussed with respect to the ways in which husbandry procedures can be improved to stimulate functional foraging and feeding behavior in confined bears.

Foraging enrichment for individually housed horses: Practicality and effects on behaviour

Article

Oct 2005
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

The stabled (UK) or stalled (USA) horse is commonly fed a restricted-forage diet in contrast to the varied ad libitum high-fibre diet it evolved to consume. A low-forage diet has been linked to the performance of stereotypical behaviour and health problems including gastric ulceration and impaction colic (in cases where horses are bedded on straw). Provision of a diet closer to that which the horse is adapted to and which enables more natural feeding behaviour warrants investigation.This trial aimed to establish whether the behavioural effects observed in short-term trials when stabled horses were provided with a multiple forage diet persist over longer periods. It also aimed to develop a practical methodology for maintaining stabled horses under forage-enriched conditions.Nine horses (aged 5–20 years, various breeds), acting as their own controls, participated in an 18-day, cross-over, Latin Square designed trial, in which they received comparable weights of two dietary treatments: a Single Forage (SF, hay) diet and a Multiple Forage (MF) diet (three long-chop and three short-chop commercially available forages). Following a 2-day acclimatisation, horses were maintained on the forage treatments for 7 days. Horses were observed on alternate days, morning and afternoon, during the 25 min following forage presentation. Horses then crossed over onto their second treatment and, following a further 2 days’ acclimatisation, the same protocol was followed for a further 7 days. Observations from video were made using The Observer 3.0® and SPPS (version 11).Horses on the MF treatment performed foraging behaviour significantly more frequently and for significantly longer periods than horses on the SF treatment. On the MF treatment horses sampled all forages during observations. However, there were significant differences in the frequency and duration of foraging on individual forages, indicating that horses demonstrated individual preferences for particular forages. Stereotypic weaving behaviour only occurred on the SF treatment.The results indicate that the potentially beneficial behavioural effects of short-term multiple forage provision do persist when horses are managed on a MF diet for a 7-day period. They suggest that a MF diet provides a means of enriching the stabled horse's environment, by offering variety and enabling patch foraging behaviour. The methodology proved practical for maintaining horses under forage-enriched conditions and could easily be adopted by horse owners to facilitate foraging behaviour.

How should we feed horses--and how many times a day?

Article

Mar 2007
VET J

Patricia Harris

The Effect of Feeding Enrichment Methods on the Behavior of Captive Western Lowland Gorillas

Article

Mar 2012
ZOO BIOL

Three feeding enrichment treatments were tested in an outdoor yard used by six Western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). In "Yard-toss," forage was thrown by hand over one third of the yard. In "Set-up," forage and browse were hand-scattered throughout the yard. "Set-up Enriched" was similar with the addition of either a hay- and forage-filled feeder or forage-filled boomer ball(s) suspended from a climbing structure. Each treatment was presented on 5 d. Behavior was recorded for 30 min before (baseline) and 30 min after the start of each treatment. All treatments led to more foraging and less inactivity compared with baseline (P80.05), but Yard-toss was the least effective, likely because resources were clumped and monopolized by dominant animals. In Set-up Enriched, dominant animals had the greatest increase in foraging (P=0.03), partly because they generally monopolized the suspended items, but this allowed others to forage at ground level. This separation of the animals likely explains why Set-Up Enriched led to more foraging than all other treatments (P80.05). Findings show that for these hierarchical animals, enrichment resources are most effective when distributed widely, including vertically, and that enrichment strategies must take social structure into account.

Clinical application and reliability of a post-abdominal surgery pain assessment scale (PASPAS) in horses

Article

May 2011

The aim of this study was to refine a multi-dimensional scale based on physiological and behavioural parameters, known as the post abdominal surgery pain assessment scale (PASPAS), to quantify pain after laparotomy in horses. After a short introduction, eight observers used the scale to assess eight horses at multiple time points after laparotomy. In addition, a single observer was used to test the correlation of each parameter with the total pain index in 34 patients, and the effect of general anaesthesia on PASPAS was investigated in a control group of eight horses. Inter-observer variability was low (coefficient of variation 0.3), which indicated good reliability of PASPAS. The correlation of individual parameters with the total pain index differed between parameters. PASPAS, which was not influenced by general anaesthesia, was a useful tool to evaluate pain in horses after abdominal surgery and may also be useful to investigate analgesic protocols or for teaching purposes.

Management factors associated with stereotypic and redirected behaviour in the Thoroughbred horse

Article

Apr 1995

A greater knowledge of the effect of management factors is required to investigate the ontogeny of abnormal behaviour in the stabled horse. A postal survey of racehorse (flat) trainers yielded information about 22 yard and management factors. The relationship of the factors to the prevalence of abnormal behaviour was analysed by logistic regression. Management factors related to the time spent in the stable showed the strongest associations with stereotypic behaviour. The risk of horses performing abnormal behaviour increased: 1) as the amount of forage fell below 6.8 kg/day, 2) when bedding types other than straw were used, 3) when the total number of horses on the yard was fewer than 75, 4) in association with box designs that minimised contact between neighbouring horses, 5) when hay, rather than other types of forage, was used.

The effect of increasing visual horizons on stereotypic weaving: Implications for the social housing of stabled horses

Article

Sep 2000
APPL ANIM BEHAV SCI

Stabled horses commonly perform stereotypic patterns of weaving, where the horse shifts its weight from side to side often swinging its head. Ten warm-blood types, of which five were known to reliably weave, were housed in similar 12x12 ft wooden loose boxes in a single stable block surrounding a courtyard. Each horse was exposed to each of five stable designs. These were: the conventional front top-half of the door open only with a view of the stable courtyard (F); front half-door open and a similar half-door open at the back of the stable with a view to the surrounding fields (FB); back open only (B); front and one-side panel open with a view into the adjacent stable (FS); and front, back and both sides open (All4). During observation days, horses were brought in from the field at 0830 h, fed concentrate at 0930 h, fed haylage at 1005 h and turned out at 1600 h. Behaviour was recorded from 0900 to 1040 h, 1200 to 1300 h and 1500 to 1600 h. Weaving was most common prior to feeding in the morning and prior to putting out to pasture in the afternoon. There was a significant effect of stable design on weaving, with less weaving in the FS and All4 designs than the F treatment. There was also a significant effect of stable design on repetitive nodding, though in this case, FB, B, FS and All4 designs each reduced nodding compared with the F treatment. The effect of stable design can be explained in a number of ways. Firstly, it could be the novelty of the environmental change, though there was no evidence in this study of an increase in stereotypy with prolonged exposure to the new stable designs. Secondly, opening windows may increase opportunities for environmental interaction, and the expression of new activities may compete with stereotypic behaviour for the horse's time. Thirdly, the open windows may allow expression of specific activities such as environmental monitoring or social interaction that are denied by the conventional stable.

Review of equine feeding and stable management practices in the UK concentrating on the last decade of the 20th Century

Article

May 1999
EQUINE VET J

Patricia Harris

Equine feeding and stable management practices for horses kept in the UK vary greatly and it is probable that almost any permutation of regimen could be found somewhere. Unfortunately, there is uncertainty about the number of horses in the UK and very limited data are available on the ways horses are being fed and managed. This paper reviews some of the information that is available and provides an outline of some of the factors influencing the practices used. To a certain extent, the way UK horses are fed and managed primarily reflects the purpose for which they are kept (e.g. racing Thoroughbred vs. native breeding pony) as well as their location (urban vs. rural); the time of year; their breed/age as well as the owner's financial situation. In very general terms, the various ways that horses can be kept and managed fall between 2 extremes: the professional riders/owners/trainers who tend to keep horses and ponies either in large barns/stable yard

"Hay-bags" and "Slow feeders": Testing their impact on horse behaviour and welfare

Abstract

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