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Amino Acid and Sugar Contents of Wild and Cultivated Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) Pods Collected in Different Harvest Periods
... The protein content of the pulp was determined chiefly by the ripening stage and location, with the genotype controlling just 3.2% of the variance ( Table 2). The protein content declined with the progressive ripening, following an analogous pattern that was previously reported for Greek and Turkish carobs [17,40]. The most substantial reduction (30.8%) was observed between RS1 and RS3, signaled by the onset of external fruit coloration. ...
... Variation may stem from agroenvironmental and genotypic differences, particularly between wild and select genotypes and, possibly, from the alternate bearing pattern common to carob trees that usually results in a yield and sugar depression in the "off year" [17,19,41]. It is worth noting that total sugars in the present study increased up to the late ripe stage (RS6-end of August), whereas, in overripe Turkish carobs collected at the end of October, the sugar content decreased with respect to earlier harvests [40]. However, a lack of genotype identification and established maturity indices humpers the drawing of reliable conclusions from the above studies as opposed to the present. ...
Six critical stages corresponding to major morphophysiological events in carob fruit ripening were defined, and changes in the primary and secondary metabolome and in vitro antioxidant capacity were examined in two genotypes collected at low (15 m) and high (510 m) altitudes from genetically identified and georeferenced trees. Soluble carbohydrates were analyzed by HPLC-RI, macro-minerals by ion chromatography coupled to conductivity detection and polyphenols by UHPLC-Q-Orbitrap-HRMS. spectroscopy facilitated assays for condensed tannins and in vitro free-radical scavenging capacity of 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and ferric-reducing antioxidant power (FRAP). The fruit respiration rate and moisture content declined sharply during the transition from the breaker to green pedicel stage. Sugar accumulation spiked at the onset of fruit coloration and culminated at 498.7 ± 8.4 mg g−1 dry weight (dw) in the late ripe stage, while the ratio of reducing sugars to sucrose decreased from 3.45 ± 0.32 to 0.41 ± 0.02. The total phenolic compounds and condensed tannins declined with ripening, particularly during the transition from the breaker to green pedicel stage. Eighteen polyphenols were identified and quantitated, with catechins and hydrolyzable tannins being dominant until the onset of fruit coloration. The transition to the green pedicel stage signaled a precipitous decline (90.9%) in catechins, hydrolyzable tannins (60.2%) and flavonol glycosides (52.1%) concomitant to the rise in gallic acid, which was putatively fueled by the enzymatic hydrolysis of gallotannins in immature fruit. Catechins, hydrolyzable tannins and flavone glycosides were more abundant at higher altitudes and gallic acid at lower altitudes. An antioxidant capacity was also favored by higher elevations and declined with ripening, particularly after the breaker stage. Correlations with FRAP and DPPH assays were significant for the total phenolic content, condensed tannins, catechins and hydrolyzable tannins. The highest correlation factors were obtained for epigallocatechin-gallate (r = 0.920 and r = 0.900; p < 0.01). Although the sharp drop in hydrolyzable and nonhydrolyzable tannins and catechins compromised the in vitro antioxidant capacity at physiological maturity, it also reduced the astringency and configured a palatable organoleptic fruit profile. These changes unraveled significant episodes in the ripening-related secondary metabolism of the carob fruit. They further highlighted the value of immature carob as a potent source of gallotannins, with putative in vivo anti-inflammatory action, and of catechins beneficial in preventing and protecting against diseases caused by oxidative stress.
... The chemical composition of carob pods can vary with genetic, environmental, climatic factors, geographical origin, and harvesting season. The plant type and cultivar significantly influence chemical composition and biological activities of the carob pod [22]. Generally, it is characterized by high content of dietary fiber, hence classifying it as fibrous resource. ...
The ever-increasing human population, the problem associated with climate change and recent crises—COVID-19 disease and trade conflicts—all impacted on the availability and cost of animal feed raw materials. This is clearly visible in realities which heavily rely on importation such as islands and small states, where producers involved in the agricultural sector were strongly affected by the sharp increase in prices. To deal with these global issues, alternative resources are perceived to replace conventional ingredients. This work aimed at assessing the nutritive value of different resources (sheep feed, mature carob, Maltese bread, wild asparagus, prickly lettuce, and loquat) for small ruminants present in the Maltese Islands, analyzing their chemical composition, gas production kinetics and antioxidant properties. In general, the variation in chemical composition resulted in different rumen fermentation kinetics (p < 0.007). The ratio between GP-24 h and GP-48 h was higher in Maltese bread than other substrates; loquat, prickly lettuce and wild asparagus showed lower fermentation kinetics in accordance with their high NDF and ADF contents. The antioxidant activity may be partially related to the polyphenolic content that was higher in wild asparagus, prickly lettuce and loquat. All feed characteristic confirmed their potential to be included as ingredients in ruminant diets and as a source of fiber.
... Furthermore, carob is low in fat (0.2-1.0%) [27][28][29] and contains appreciable amounts of protein, i.e., 2-7% [28], which is mostly present in seeds and particularly in the seed germ [36]. Depending on the harvest season, the total protein content and amino acid composition vary [37]. The carob pod contains significant amounts of minerals as well, including potassium (970-1089 mg/100 g), calcium (266-319 mg/100 g), phosphorous (76-79 mg/100 g) and magnesium (55-56 mg/100 g) [38,39]. ...
Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is an evergreen tree that belongs to the Leguminosae family and grows in the arid and semi-arid regions of the Mediterranean basin. The carob tree is resistant to droughts and salinity, while its deep root systems allow CO2 to sink, mitigating global warming effects. Traditionally, carob has been used to produce animal feed, but for many years, it was excluded from the human diet. Nowadays, agricultural and industrial sectors exploit carob fruit, also referred to as carob pod, and its primary products (i.e., flour, powder and syrup) to develop a variety of foods and beverages. The nutritional composition varies depending on the carob part but also on genetic, cultivar, seasonal and environmental factors. Despite the high sugar content, the carob pod is rich in insoluble fiber and microconstituents including phenolic compounds, inositols (mainly d-pinitol) and vitamins. In the present review article, we aimed to (a) highlight the role of carob cultivation in addressing climate change challenges and the need for sustainability, and (b) summarize the effects of carob consumption on obesity and related metabolic disorders.
... The lower protein content in the WCP as compared to the results of previous findings might be attributed to the variants of carob studied since most of the studies used cultivated carob. This result was supported by a study on amino acid and sugar contents of wild and cultivated carob done by [47], who reported that the protein content of wild carob (4.76 g/100 g DW) was significantly lower than cultivated carob but was 3.1% higher than the WCP. On the other hand, the reason behind the 31.4% less protein content of the WCP than the control sample might be attributed to a lower protein content of the raw carob pods (range of 2.0-7.6 g/100 g DW) than cocoa beans (range of 10.0-16.0 ...
This study used Cypriot Wild Carob Powder to serve as an alternative for cocoa powder. The study conducted various physiochemical experiments, encompassing milling yield, water activity, colour analysis and proximate analysis. We noted that the milling yield, water activity, and dietary fibre content of WCP are higher than cocoa powder. Conversely, cocoa powder had moisture content (2.1 ± 0.37), ash (3.42 ± 0.05), protein (4.66 ± 0.78), fat (not detected), carbohydrate (46.7 ± 0.87) and energy (205 Cal), that were higher than WCP (6.56 ± 0.24), (4.63 ± 0.03), (24.3 ± 0.66) & (14.5 ± 0.15), (426 Cal) respectively. Hence, it is evident that the high dietary fibre and low energy values of WCP make it a suitable substitute for cocoa powder-based products to alleviate the concern of obesity.
... The plant type (male, female, or hermaphrodite) and cultivar significantly influence carob pulp's chemical composition and biological activities. Simsek et al. (2017) collected the carob fruits (wild and cultivated) from Mersin in Turkey at different harvest periods (May to August) and analysed the amino acid and sugar contents. Protein content ranged from 6.09% (cultivated) to 9.08% (wild), depending on the harvest periods. ...
Background
Carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.) is an evergreen tree that belongs to the Leguminosae family and is typical of the Mediterranean basin. It is well known for its valuable locust bean gum obtained from carob seeds. However, the food industry can obtain different carob products from carob fruit after processing. Carob products are good sources of dietary fibre, sugars, and a range of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols and D-pinitol.
Scope and approach
Bioactive compounds present in carob fruit and its derived products help control many health problems such as diabetes, heart diseases, and gastrointestinal disorders due to their anti-hyperglycaemic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities. So, carob products have a great potential to be used as a functional food ingredient.
Key findings and conclusions
This article focuses on carob characteristics and processing, chemical composition, health benefits, and applications in food formulations to explore the potential of carob in developing a wide variety of health-beneficial food products.
... 43 Chemical composition Proteins, amino acids and sugar contents were determined in pods at different harvesting stages. 44 Leaves were extracted with pressurized hot water and fractionized with various solvents, resulting isolation and characterization of a new natural product, that researchers named siliquapyranone (Figure 2, below table, after note a). 45 Solid-phase microextraction / gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (SPME/GC-MS) analyses of flowers and fruits were performed, and detailed composition of volatile compounds is reported. ...
Carob (Ceratonia siliqua) is one of the important nutritional and medicinal trees of the Middle East and Mediterranean basin, and in recent decades, it has been grown and cultivated in many other regions in the world. Realization and awareness to its unique nutritional and medicinal properties and biological activities are rising rapidly. A great effort of research has been invested and published since our comprehensive review article was published here, in this journal, in 2017. Most recent publications focus on nutrition and efforts to utilize Carob products for numerous food purposes, but medicinal activities of this tree are still drawing major attention, due to their high potential. In this review article, we are presenting a literature update of published research since late 2017. The main objective of this review is to highlight the nutritional applications of Carob products, which many industrial companies in the world, are trying now to convert to commercial food products.
... For example, the major sugars in harvested figs are 0.40% sucrose, 25.5% glucose and 23.40% fructose, in contrast to the pattern of the wild variety Ficus insipida that shows a 0.4% of sucrose, a 0.6% of glucose and a 0.3% of fructose [20]. In this sense, other studies have also identified lower monosaccharides/disaccharides ratios in modified fruits and vegetables [31][32][33]. Compelling evidence in recent years, has shown that, apart from the fructose content, the processing operations of commercial forms of fruit and vegetable food products influence the levels of a myriad of dietary phytochemicals [34]. In addition, additive and/or synergistic role of some flavonols present in culinary plants has been demonstrated and among them, myricetin, fisetin, quercetin, catechin and curcumin seem to inhibit fructose gut transport by glucose transporter 2 (GLUT2) and 5 (GLUT5), as shown in Xenopus laevis oocytes and in human intestinal Caco-2 cells [35,36]. ...
Antioxidant action to afford a health benefit or increased well-being may not be directly exerted by quick reduction-oxidation (REDOX) reactions between the antioxidant and the pro-oxidant molecules in a living being. Furthermore, not all flavonoids or polyphenols derived from plants are beneficial. This paper aims at discussing the variety of mechanisms underlying the so-called “antioxidant” action. Apart from antioxidant direct mechanisms, indirect ones consisting of fueling and boosting innate detox routes should be considered. One of them, hormesis, involves upregulating enzymes that are needed in innate detox pathways and/or regulating the transcription of the so-called vitagenes. Moreover, there is evidence that some plant-derived compounds may have a direct role in events taking place in mitochondria, which is an organelle prone to oxidative stress if electron transport is faulty. Insights into the potential of molecules able to enter into the electron transport chain would require the determination of their reduction potential. Additionally, it is advisable to know both the oxidized and the reduced structures for each antioxidant candidate. These mechanisms and their related technical developments should help nutraceutical industry to select candidates that are efficacious in physiological conditions to prevent diseases or increase human health.
Carob has been used by humans since antiquity. Its major use is food, but traditional medicines
of many nations used it for treatments of various health disorders. The fruits (pods or kibbles)
were the main source for nutrition and medicinal uses, but decoctions and extracts were prepared
from other parts of the tree, especially leaves. Modern science has analyzed most of the chemical
compositions of the different parts, and among the phytochemicals that were found, antioxidants
play very important roles in Carob nutritional and medicinal activities. So, in addition to having strong
antioxidant activity and due to it, these natural products, their extracts, and foods that contain them,
have anticancer, neuroprotective, hepatoprotective, antiaging, skin care, antidiabetic, and others.
Phenolics and carbohydrates are the strongest antioxidants, but some volatile compounds have
the same activity, to some extent. However, this review will present Carob antioxidants, their major
nutritional and medicinal activities, and suggest future horizons for their use in human wellbeing.
Fresh and dry gluten could not be detected in macaron made by adding carob flour at concentrations of 5, 10 and 15%. The total phenolic and flavonoid contentss of macarons were measured between 39.76 mg GAE/100g (control) and 57.10 mg GAE/100g (5% carob) to 393.21 mg/100g (control) and 833.42 mg/100g (5% carob), respectively. Antioxidant activity values of macaroon samples were found between 18.89% (control) and 76.94% (10% carob). The dominant fatty acids of macaron oils were oleic, linoleic and palmitic acids. The main phenolic components of macaroons were 3.4-dihydroxy benzoic acid, catechin, rutin and syringic acid. The dominant amino acids of macarons were aspartic, glutamine, glycine, arginine, valine, leucine and phenylalanine. The K contents of the macarons changed between 4504.04 mg/1g (control) and 6634.15 mg/1g (15% carob). The phytochemical and nutritional elements of macarons made with the addition of carob flour have increased.
Carob pod, germ, and seed were analyzed for moisture, ash, protein, fat, carbohydrates, and particularly for their tannin content. Recovery of tannins as affected by various solvent extraction systems was investigated. Carob pod meal contained high levels of carbohydrates (45%), appreciable amounts of protein (3%), and low levels of fat (0.6%). Germ and seed meal contained more fat and less carbohydrates compared to the carob pod. Seventy percent acetone was the most effective solvent for the extraction and recovery of tannins. Carob pod contains a mean value of 19 mg of total polyphenols/g, 2.75 mg of condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins)/g, 0.95 mg of hydrolysable tannins (gallo- and ellagitannins)/g. Germ contained higher concentration of total polyphenols (40.8 mg/g) and tannins (16.2 mg of condensed tannins/g and 2.98 mg of hydrolysable tannins/g) while only traces of these compounds were detected in carob seed.
The approximate composition and mineral contents of carob fruit (Ceratonia siliqua), and the traditional foods produced from this fruit, carob flour and carob syrup, were studied. Protein, crude fiber and ash content and energy values of carob syrup were lower than the values of both carob fruit and carob flour. According to the results, the total sugar content, the most important constituents of carob products, were 48.35%, 41.55% and 63.88% for fruit, flour and syrup, respectively. These products contained high amounts of calcium, potassium, magnesium, sodium and phosphorus, which were the most abundant elements in carob fruits (P < 0.05). Among the samples, potassium, phosphorus and calcium had the highest values in carob syrup, respectively. Carob flour also contained these elements in high amounts, with the addition of sodium. We extended the notion that carob fruit, flour and syrup were rich sources of carbohydrates, proteins and minerals.
The aim of the study was to determine the main sugar profiles of the pods, without the seeds, of cultivated and wild types of the carob bean grown in the Mediterranean and Aegean basin of Turkey. The most abundant sugar in the pods was sucrose with smaller amounts of glucose and fructose. The pods of cultivated varieties had a higher (p < 0.05) total sugar concentration of 531 ± 93 g/kg dry weight than the wild type selections which had 437 ± 77 g/kg. However, this difference was due to the greater concentration of sucrose in the cultivated varieties which did not differ from the wild types in their concentrations of fructose or glucose. The ratios of individual sugars to total sugars in the pods were similar in both varieties. There is a need to identify extreme wild types, including high seeds and low pod, and cultivated types, containing low seeds and high pod, rich in sugar for an exhaustive picture of the sugar profiles of the varieties.
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