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Potential health benefits of natural products derived from truffles: A review
... Truffles are one of the most famous and the most expensive foods in the world, with prices up to 4000 €·Kg -1 (Oliach et al., 2021). Specific growing habitat, unpredictable growth patterns and growing seasons, unique harvesting methods, limited natural resources, distinctive, desirable flavours highly appreciated in culinary and limited shelf life, altogether strongly contribute to the outstanding economic value of truffles and consequently truffle-based food products (Beara et al., 2021;Patel et al., 2017;Wang and Marcone, 2011). At least 180 species of truffles belonging to the genus Tuber (even if only about 13 have any commercial interest) are distributed in Europe, South-East Asia, Australia and North America, while desert truffles (genus Terfezia and Tirmania) grow mostly in the Middle East region (Patel et al., 2017;Reyna and Garcia-Barreda, 2014). ...
... Specific growing habitat, unpredictable growth patterns and growing seasons, unique harvesting methods, limited natural resources, distinctive, desirable flavours highly appreciated in culinary and limited shelf life, altogether strongly contribute to the outstanding economic value of truffles and consequently truffle-based food products (Beara et al., 2021;Patel et al., 2017;Wang and Marcone, 2011). At least 180 species of truffles belonging to the genus Tuber (even if only about 13 have any commercial interest) are distributed in Europe, South-East Asia, Australia and North America, while desert truffles (genus Terfezia and Tirmania) grow mostly in the Middle East region (Patel et al., 2017;Reyna and Garcia-Barreda, 2014). In Europe and Australia, truffles are a multi-million euro industry (Reyna and Garcia-Barreda, 2014), whose importance is demonstrated by the growing diffusion of new activities such as truffle cultivation Reyna and Garcia-Barreda, 2014;Samils et al., 2008), truffle tourism (Buntgen et al., 2017), production of new truffle products (Beara et al., 2021;Patel et al., 2017), technical consulting (Samils et al., 2008), not to mention the capacity to stimulates interdisciplinary research (Garcia- Barreda et al., 2019), and the increase of land value in rural areas (Samils et al., 2008). ...
... At least 180 species of truffles belonging to the genus Tuber (even if only about 13 have any commercial interest) are distributed in Europe, South-East Asia, Australia and North America, while desert truffles (genus Terfezia and Tirmania) grow mostly in the Middle East region (Patel et al., 2017;Reyna and Garcia-Barreda, 2014). In Europe and Australia, truffles are a multi-million euro industry (Reyna and Garcia-Barreda, 2014), whose importance is demonstrated by the growing diffusion of new activities such as truffle cultivation Reyna and Garcia-Barreda, 2014;Samils et al., 2008), truffle tourism (Buntgen et al., 2017), production of new truffle products (Beara et al., 2021;Patel et al., 2017), technical consulting (Samils et al., 2008), not to mention the capacity to stimulates interdisciplinary research (Garcia- Barreda et al., 2019), and the increase of land value in rural areas (Samils et al., 2008). ...
The Basilicata region (South of Italy) is land of truffles where the gastronomic, economic and cultural awareness has developed for this non-timber forest products only in the past decade. Little is known about truffle production and its social, economic and environmental implications. In this article we investigate the Basilicata truffle sector by devoting particular attention to the truffle hunters who gather the truffles from the forests. The data for the analysis were collected through a survey with the aim of describing the gathering activity (people involved, specie and quantities collected, etc.) and assessing its significance as a source of income. Results show that truffles can provide local communities with earning opportunities. However, the truffle sector need to be protected and enhanced.
... In 2010, a single, large (900 g) white truffle was sold to Jeannie Cho Lee, a South Korean wine critic living in Hong Kong, for $144,000 [4]. Gourmet truffles cost so much that they have gained monikers like "underground gold" and "diamonds of the kitchen" [5,6]. One online gourmet site pointed out that truffles now cost more than cocaine [7]. ...
... The shapes of truffles are often potato-like, hence the genus name Tuber. Similarly, the etymological origin of "truffle" comes from the Latin word "tuber" for "lump" derived from tumere, meaning to swell as a reference to its globoid shape [6]. They often look like small, dirty, misshapen potatoes and have been termed "the world's homeliest vegetable" [22]. ...
... Morphologically, truffle colors range through shades of white, brown, and black, depending on the species, while their surface textures can vary widely from wrinkled, warty, and bruised to smooth or reticulate [6]. The rind is a compact layer composed of thick-walled tissue. ...
Truffles are the fruiting bodies of ascomycete fungi that form underground. Truffles are globally valued, culturally celebrated as aphrodisiacs, and highly sought-after delicacies in the culinary world. For centuries, naturalists have speculated about their mode of formation, and in cultures surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, many species have been prized as a delectable food source. Truffle fruiting bodies form underground and emit a variety of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Truffle volatiles are believed to have evolved to attract animals that disperse their spores. The main VOCs identified from truffles include sulfur compounds, such as dimethyl sulfide (DMS) and dimethyl disulfide (DMDS); in addition, 1-octen-3-ol and 2-methyl-1-propanol have been found in most truffle species. Humans use pigs and dogs trained to detect truffle VOCs in order to find these prized subterranean macrofungi. Truffles have pharmacological potential, but until more reliable cultivation methods become available their high price means they are unlikely to see widespread use as medicinals.
... According to Patel et al. (2017) and Wang and Marcone (2011), truffles are reached in free (particularly the sulfur-containing cysteine and methionine) and essential amino acids (methionine, phenylalanine, valine, serine, isoleucine, and threonine), metals (Fe, Ca, K, P, Cu, Zn, and Mn), contain rhamnose, ergosterol (especially in T. melanosporum, 1.90 mg/ g DM), as well as being rich in melanins (up to 15% dry weight). Also important are their volatile organic compounds such as aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, and organic acids (ascorbic acid), responsible for their typical umami and aroma. ...
... Tuber spp. Flavonoids Antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-mutagenic, and anticancer Lee et al. (2020) Ergosterol Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antihyperlipidemic Lee et al. (2020) Oleic acid Antitumor Suppression of overexpression of HER2; induction of cancer cell apoptosis Lee et al. (2020) Hypocholesterolemic L-tyrosine Anti-depressant Patel et al. (2017) properties. Also, A. bisporus powder was evaluated by Kumar and Barmanray (2007) as a supplement for fortified biscuits, that showed a significantly higher protein content with good overall acceptability. ...
... Mushrooms species AntitumorInhibited on angiogenesis of highly invasive and metastatic breast cancer cells;Lee et al. (2020) andPatel et al. (2017) Stimulation of non-apoptotic cell death in COX-2 overexpressed colorectal cancer cells ...
The mushrooms have contributed to the development of active ingredients of fundamental importance in the field of pharmaceutical chemistry as well as of important tools in human and animal health, nutrition, and functional food. This review considers studies on the beneficial effects of medicinal mushrooms on the nutrition and health of humans and farm animals. An overview of the chemical structure and composition of mycochemicals is presented in this review with particular reference to phenolic compounds, triterpenoids and sterols, fatty acids and lipids, polysaccharides, proteins, peptides, and lectins. The nutritional value and chemical composition of wild and cultivated mushrooms in Italy is also the subject of this review which also deals with mushrooms as nutraceuticals and the use of mushrooms in functional foods. The nutraceutical benefits of UV irradiation of cultivated species of basidiomycetes to generate high amounts of vitamin D2 is also highlighted and the ability of the muhsrooms to inhibit glycation is analyzed. Finally, attention is paid to studies on bioactivities of some Italian wild and cultivated mushrooms with particular reference to species belonging to the genus Pleurotus . The review highlights the potential of medicinal mushrooms in the production of mycochemicals that represent a source of drugs, nutraceutical, and functional food.
Graphic abstract
... Recently, special attention was given to the potential biomedical application of hypogean fungus bioactive compounds, in particular, phytosterols, fatty acids, phenols, amino acids, volatile components, etc. [1,3,[6][7][8]11,[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. However, still only a few scientific studies have been undertaken on secondary metabolites with therapeutic potential and on truffles' biology [3,6,7,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. ...
... Recently, special attention was given to the potential biomedical application of hypogean fungus bioactive compounds, in particular, phytosterols, fatty acids, phenols, amino acids, volatile components, etc. [1,3,[6][7][8]11,[15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. However, still only a few scientific studies have been undertaken on secondary metabolites with therapeutic potential and on truffles' biology [3,6,7,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. ...
... The spectra disclose a very complex mixture of molecules from which only some molecules were detected. A total of 109 identified metabolites were attributed to different chemical classes such as amino acids, saccharides, flavonoids, aldehyde, ketone, esters, sulfur compounds, terpenoids, phenolic acids, steroids, hydrocarbons, and other data confirming results already published in the literature [7,10,15,17,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29]. The results of the GC-MS were confirmed by ESI-QTOF-MS analysis. ...
Truffles are the rarest species and appreciated species of edible fungi and are well-known for their distinctive aroma and high nutrient content. However, their chemical composition largely depends on the particularities of their grown environment. Recently, various studies investigate the phytoconstituents content of different species of truffles. However, this research is still very limited for Romanian truffles. This study reports the first complete metabolites profiles identification based on gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (ESI-QTOF-MS) of two different types of Romania truffles: Tuber magnatum pico and Tuber brumale. In mass spectra (MS) in positive mode, over 100 metabolites were identified from 14 secondary metabolites categories: amino acids, terpenes, alkaloids, flavonoids, organic acids, fatty acids, phenolic acids, sulfur compounds, sterols, hydrocarbons, etc. Additionally, the biological activity of these secondary metabolite classes was discussed.
... Truffles vary in their texture (wrinkled, bruised, smooth, and reticulate) and color (white, brown, and black). White truffles include Tuber magnatum, T. maculatum, T. borchii, T. dryophilum, T. puberulum, T. oregonense (Oregon white truffle), T. excavatum, and T. latisporum, whereas black truffles include T. melanosporum (Perigord Truffle), T. aestivum (summer truffle), T. brumale, T. uncinatum (Burgundy truffle), T. indicum, and T. himalayense [26,27]. About 30 species of truffle are commercially traded, and because of their rarity and unique aroma, they are one of the most expensive foods in the world [28]. ...
... The characteristic aroma of truffles vary from mild to intense, and range from earthy, cheese, pungent, garlicky, leathery, vanilla-like, dusty, creamy to gasoline like [27,29]. The volatile organic compounds (VOCs), responsible for the distinctive scent of truffles are a blend of alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, aromatic, and sulfur compounds, albeit only a small fraction of all the VOCs are responsible for what humans perceive as truffle aroma "aroma active compounds". ...
... The microbiome on truffles are regarded responsible for the aroma profile [47]. For example, sulfur containing volatiles such as thiophene derivatives, characteristic of T. borchii fruiting bodies, originate from the transformation of non-volatile precursors of truffles into volatile compounds via these bacteria [27,48]. There is even an indirect evidence that bacteria might be exclusively responsible for the production of 2,4-dithiapentane in T. magnatum [47]. ...
Truffles are underground edible fungi that grow symbiotically with plant roots. They have been globally considered as one of the most expensive foods because of their rarity, unique aroma, and high nutritional value as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, hepatoprotective, anti-mutagenic, antituberculoid immunomodulatory, antitumor, antimicrobial, and aphrodisiac. The unique flavor and fragrance of truffles is one of the main reasons to get worldwide attraction as a food product. So, the aim of this review was to summarize the relevant literature with particular attention to the active aroma components as well as the various sample preparation and analytical techniques used to identify them. The major analytical methods used for the determination of volatile organic compounds (VOC) in truffles are gas chromatography (GC), proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS), and electronic nose sensing (EN). In addition, factors influencing truffle aroma are also highlighted. For this reason, this review can be considered a good reference for research concerning aroma profiles of different species of truffles to deepen the knowledge about a complex odor of various truffles.
... This is mainly due to the antioxidant and antimicrobial properties of these secondary metabolites. Our results are consistent with those obtained by Patel et al. 32 All obtained data allow us to deduce that all of the studied extracts have antioxidant activity. In addition, we note that the EC 50 varied among the three evaluated species. ...
... From the observations drawn from these various correlations, we can deduce the crucial role of polyphenols followed by proanthocyanidins (class of condensed tannins) in the antioxidant power of our mushrooms as has already been reported by several studies. 1,8,32 In addition, antimicrobial activity of the extracts of L. pyriforme, L. deliciosus, and A. vaporarius was evaluated against seven strains of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria by determining the MIC (in grams per milliliter) and ZI inhibition diameter. Considering these two parameters, the analysis of our results reveals that the extracts prepared with the QUENCHER approach have better antimicrobial activity than the aqueous extracts. ...
The objective of the current study is to compare the mycochemical composition and biological activities of two extracts (aqueous extracts and grounded materials prepared by the QUENCHER approach) of three wild Basidiomycetes Agaricus vaporarius, Lactarius deliciosus and Lycoperdon pyriforme collected from a region located at the north of Tunisia. Mycochemical analysis in terms of total phenolic compounds, flavonoids, flavanols, proanthocyanidins and tannins contents were determined. In addition, their antioxidant activities were evaluated using three assays (testing 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl [DPPH] free radical scavenging, FRAP assay, and metal chelating assay). Their antimicrobial activities were assessed against seven bacterial species. The obtained data revealed the presence of significant differences between secondary metabolites and the biological activities of the different tested extracts. Extracts prepared by the QUENCHER approach of those basidiomycetes have a higher total phenolic content and antimicrobial activity against the evaluated strains. Antioxidant activity showed that the water extract had the greatest activity. The water extracts were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the results showed that these three wild macromycetes contain a wide variety of antioxidant compounds in addition to many other bioactive compounds of nutritional and therapeutic interests.
... The aroma profiles of the most sought-after truffles, mainly Tuber species from Europe, have been extensively studied (Mustafa et al., 2020). Only in recent years have researchers began to recognize the high nutritional value and therapeutic potential of truffles (El Enshasy et al., 2013;Lee et al., 2020;Patel et al., 2017). Truffle biodiversity shows great promise in that respect as each species has evolved distinct protection mechanisms, including the production of different secondary metabolites (e.g., phenolic compounds) in response to their environment. ...
The molecular and biofunctional properties of protein and phenolic fractions in edible truffles remain largely unknown. This study examined the effect of ultrasonication on the contents, profiles, and bioactive properties of free and bound phenolics (FP and BP) from desert truffle (Tirmania nivea) and its protein fractions. Protein fractions from the Osborne extraction scheme were biochemically and structurally characterized. The albumin fraction showed the highest abundance (16.8%) and yield (35.8%). Total phenolic contents were the highest in non-sonicated samples (3.5-34.1 mg/g), particularly in the albumin fraction and in whole truffle. FP extracted at 30°C (FP-30°C) accounted for the largest proportion of total phenolics in all protein fractions, whereas BP-30°C and FP-60°C were predominant in non-sonicated and sonicated truffle, respectively. The highest antioxidant activity was obtained with FP-30°C extracts from non-sonicated albumins, globulins and truffle (91.9, 72.7 and 30.0%), followed by BP-30°C from non-sonicated albumins (25.4%) and FP-60°C from sonicated glutelins-1 (24.2%). High inhibition of α-amylase was evidenced in several extracts, including FP-30°C from non-sonicated glutelins-1 (99.2%) and FP-30°C from sonicated globulins (72.4%). Several extracts also displayed high inhibition of angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE), including FP-60°C from non-sonicated glutelins-1 (65.1%) and sonicated glutelins-1 (71.1%) and globulins (64.7%). Most extracts were rich in epicatechin, gallic acid, chlorogenic acid and catechin. Correlations between phenolic content, antioxidant activity, anti-α-amylase and anti-ACE activities were influenced by sonication. Sonication reduced the particle size of the proteins and modified their structural characteristics. These findings demonstrate that white desert truffle proteins co-occur with bioactive phenolics whose functionalities can be tailored by protein fractionation and sonication.
... It is also known that the aroma varies among ascocarps within the same truffle species, according to differences in the development or maturation stages (Caboni et al., 2020;Shah et al., 2020;Splivallo et al., 2012) geographical origin (Li et al., 2022;Niimi et al., 2021a), host trees (Culleré et al., 2017), and soil microbial community composition (Niimi et al., 2021b;Splivallo et al., 2011;Splivallo & Ebeler, 2015), among other external abiotic (weather conditions and soil characteristics) and biotic factors. Diverse authors suggest that the aroma profile of truffles is less likely to be affected by genetic factors than by environmental factors affecting its growing conditions (Patel et al., 2017;Splivallo et al., 2011;Vita et al., 2015). In this regard, the Chinese truffle (Tuber indicum) aroma analyses have shown differences among countries, within the same country, and between truffles collected from different host plants within the same orchard (Splivallo et al., 2012). ...
... Those with the flavor for gourmet preparations belong to the Tuber genus; however, the genera Terfezia and Tirmania include odorless species referred as dessert truffles [5]. According to recent studies, the hypogeous fruiting bodies from both truffle types, in addition to their gastronomic interest, also showed biological properties that might be beneficial for human health [6,7]. ...
An optimized PLE method was applied to several truffle species using three different solvent mixtures to obtain bioactive enriched fractions. The pressurized water extracts contained mainly (1 → 3),(1 → 6)-β-D-glucans, chitins, and heteropolymers with galactose and mannose in their structures. The ethanol extracts included fatty acids and fungal sterols and others such as brassicasterol and stigmasterol, depending on the species. They also showed a different fatty acid lipid profile depending on the solvent utilized and species considered. Ethanol:water extracts showed interesting lipids and many phenolic compounds; however, no synergic extraction of compounds was noticed. Some of the truffle extracts were able to inhibit enzymes related to type 2 diabetes; pressurized water extracts mainly inhibited the α-amylase enzyme, while ethanolic extracts were more able to inhibit α-glucosidase. Tuber brumale var. moschatum and T. aestivum var. uncinatum extracts showed an IC50 of 29.22 mg/mL towards α-amylase and 7.93 mg/mL towards α-glucosidase. Thus, use of the PLE method allows o bioactive enriched fractions to be obtained from truffles with antidiabetic properties.
... Currently, about 30 species of truffles are traded, and due to their unique aroma and potential health benefits, they are one of the most expensive and valuable products in the market [3]. Truffles have been a good source of natural antioxidants such as phenolic and flavonoids compounds, protein, essential amino acids, fatty acids, terpenoids, polysaccharides, minerals, carbohydrates and ergosterols, which have beneficial properties for human health [4]. Some of the potential health benefits of truffles are known, such as antitumor, antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-mutagenic and hepatoprotective activities [5]. ...
This study investigated the effects of two mild thermal processing (MTP) (63 °C, 40 °C, 3 min) methods, in a brine storage medium (7–16% (w/v) NaCl) and a vinegar solution (5% vinegar, 1% salt, and 0.5% sugar), on some physicochemical properties of truffles (Terfezia claveryi). Weight loss, phenolic compounds, firmness, ascorbic acid and microbial loads were evaluated during 160 days of storage. It was demonstrated that a 5% vinegar treatment with 63 °C MTP was effective to reduce the weight loss, microbial spoilage and increased firmness and of truffles during storage. However, phenolic compounds and ascorbic acid content were decreased by heating. Both MTPs inhibited the microbial load, but the 63 °C, 3 min MTP was most effective and resulted in an immediate (3.05–3.2 log CFU/g) reduction in the total aerobic bacteria (TAB) and remained at an acceptable level during storage, while the 40 °C, 3 min MTP reduced (1.12–2 log CFU/g) of the TAB. The results of this study suggest that the 63 °C MTP and immersion in 5% vinegar increased the shelf life of the truffles without perceptible losses in quality attributes.
... Due to their high cultural and gastronomic prestige, various truffle species have well established ecology and are appreciated worldwide for their high nutritional value, bioactive compounds, and prestigious aroma (Patel et al., 2017;Yan et al., 2017;Lee et al., 2020). Scientific background data is required for the adequate cultivation and commercialization of T. floridanum. ...
Tuber floridanum is the first truffle species reported in Brazil and little is known about its nutritional properties and ecology. Therefore, this study aimed to (1) determine T. floridanum aroma and nutritional properties and (2) analyze cultivation and fruiting conditions, including potential crop pests and market value. Fruiting bodies of T. floridanum showed a slightly ellipsoid shape and smooth to shallow groovy surface. The mass of ascocarps ranged from 0.13 g to 15.95 g, and the truffle was composed of 71 % carbohydrates, 19 % protein, 5 % ash, and 5 % of fat. Octan-3-one, 1-methoxy-3-methyl-butane, and 1-methoxy-2-methyl-butane determined T. floridanum characteristic aroma. Soil properties were also specific for this truffle, differing from optimal soils where commercial truffles are produced. In addition, the occurrence of earwigs (Anisolabididae, Anisolabidinae) feeding on truffles (26 % of all ascocarps) in pecan orchards may reduce truffle quality and cause financial losses. T. floridanum aroma has a unique composition, completely different from any commercial and non-commercial truffle species analyzed so far. Soil conditions in pecan orchards were also specific for truffle fruiting. Further studies should elucidate other ecological conditions for the co-production of T. floridanum with pecan .
aroma profile; mycophagy; nutritional properties; pecan; soil
... Therefore, they are also a source of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids, terpenoids, ergosterol, ascorbic acid, polysaccharides, and phytosterol [5,6]. Truffles secondary metabolites have recently received a lot of attention for their antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antimutagenic, and aphrodisiac effects [4,[7][8][9][10]. ...
Truffle, the hypogeous, ascomycetous macrofungus, has been recognized as a delicacy for centuries, and it is gaining elevated status in the culinary domain. The chemical composition and biological activities of aqueous extract and ground material of two desert Tunisian Tirmania nivea and Terfezia boudieri were studied for the first time. Using three assays antioxidant activity of the aqueous extract and ground material of the two truffles were investigated. Indeed, the aqueous extract and ground material of Terfezia boudieri showed the highest capacity for the DPPH scavenging test (IC50 = 0.18 mg/mL) and with regard to the chelating power of iron (IC50 = 0.22 mg/mL). At the same time, the highest capacity for iron reduction was recorded in the crude material of Tirmania nivea. Besides, the total phenolic, flavonoid, flavanol, tannin, and proanthocyanidin contents of both truffles extracts were determined. The ground material showed the best antibacterial activity for two ascomycetes against seven strains of bacteria. HPLC analysis of aqueous extracts showed that the predominant phenolic compounds in T. boudieri and T. nivea were gallic acid (33.25%) and myricetin (52.91%). Therefore, these truffles are a source of natural antioxidant and antimicrobial agents and could be used as a potential health food.
... Truffles are considered one of the world's most highly prized and valued foods mainly due to their organoleptic properties. Recently, they are also being investigated because of their bioactive compounds with potential to induce beneficial effects on human health (Khalifa et al., 2019;Patel, Rauf, Khan, Khalid, & Mubarak, 2017). Many of the studies were focused on large molecules such as β-glucans (Tejedor-Calvo et al., 2020c), however, truffles also include approximately 5-8 % lipids (Harki, Bouya, & Dargent, 2006). ...
A supercritical fluid extraction methodology was used to extract flavoring and bioactive compounds from truffles. Some parameters such as CO2 flow rate (1-3 mg/mL), extraction time (15-90 min) and different trapping food matrices (grape seed oil, gelatin, agar agar and water) were optimized using response surface methodology to enhance extraction and trapping yields. The optimal conditions (2.27 mg/mL CO2 flow rate, 82.5 min when using 40 °C and 30 MPa, with 1 mL grape seed oil as trapping matrix) obtained with Tuber melanosporum were applied to three different truffle species: Terfezia claveryi, Tuber aestivum and Tuber indicum. A total of 32 metabolites were profiled in the extracts using ultra-high-performance supercritical fluid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Compounds such as brassicasterol ergosta-7,22-dienol, oleic and linoleic acid were found at similar amounts in all the extracts but other molecules (e.g. fungal sterols) showed a particular distribution depending on the specie studied and whether a trapping matrix was used at the SFE outlet.
... Species of truffle have wide biological activities such as antioxidant (9) , antimicrobial (10) , anti-inflammatory (11) , anticancer (12) , and antidepressant (13) . Types of wild and cultivated mushrooms are well known to contain various polyphenolic compounds which are considered as an excellent antioxidants (14,15) . ...
Desert truffle is considered as a type of Syrian wild fungi that spreads heavily, and it occupies important rank in folk medicine, where its aqueous extract is used for the treatment of some eye and skin illnesses, and people prefer the use of black truffle. This work interested in studying of the most available species; Terfezia claveryi (black) and Tirmania pinoyi (white). The extracts of the two species of truffle were prepared by maceration with water, methanol, and ethanol 70%. Their total phenolic contents (TPC) and total flavonoid contents (TFC) were analyzed using Folin-ciocalteu and Aluminum chloride methods respectively, and their antioxidant activities was tested using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) methods, after microscopic examination and detection of phytochemical components. Then, phenolic profile of ethanolic 70% extract of black truffle T.claveryi was studied by using LC-MS/MS. The values of TPC were between 25.3-43.6 mg GAE/g dry extract and TFC were between 2.5-6.8 mg QE/g dry extract. The values of DPPH (IC50) and FRAP were between 5.6-9.0 mg/ml and 90.1-153.4 µmol AAE/g dry extract respectively. There is a great similarity in content and activity of two species, also the aqueous extract is similar to other extracts in content and activity, and this means that the method of extract preparation in traditional medicine is reliable. It has been predicted about 14 phenolic compounds in the extract; as p-Hydroxy benzoic acid, Syringic acid and trans-Cinnamic acid. As a result, both truffle species are a new rich resource of antioxidant compounds which are usable in nutritional, cosmetic, and therapeutic applications.
... [9] Truffles are well-known as a wide family of hypogeous fungi, generally containing the genera of Picoa, Tirmania, Tuber and Terfezia. [10] The main genus of truffles is Terfezia, belonging to ...
Background: Numerous reports on the side effects of anti-cancer drugs have encouraged scientists to search for alternative anti-cancer agents with higher efficacy and fewer side effects. The current investigation was intended to study the anti-tumor efficacy of Terfezia claveryi Chatin methanolic extract (TCME) on mice with Ehrlich solid tumors (EST). Materials and Methods: EST mice received TCME at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg orally once a day for two weeks. To study the anti-tumor effects, the rate of tumor growth, weight of the body, the serum level of some tumor markers, enzymes related to liver and kidney function, oxidant and antioxidant enzymes, tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) level, and some genes related to apoptosis were investigated. Results: The results revealed that the growth rate of the tumor, tumor markers, oxidative markers, enzymes related to liver and kidney function, level of TNF-α, and Bcl-2 gene expression were considerably declined in the EST mice receiving the TCME, whereas the enzyme levels related to antioxidant activity as well as Bax and caspase-3 gene expression were considerably elevated (P < 0.001). Conclusion: We found that T. claveryi methanolic extract has relevant anti-tumor efficacy on mice with EST and might be considered as a substitute anti-cancer compound; however, more studies especially in vulnerable humans are mandatory to approve these outcomes.
... Trappe and Tirmania pinoyi (Maire) Malençon [6]). In addition, desert truffles are not only an important economic resource, but contain high nutritional and antioxidant properties [7,8], including bioactive compounds with potential health benefits such as antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, and antitumor activities [9][10][11][12]. ...
Desert truffle crop is a pioneer in southeastern Spain, a region where native edible hypogeous fungi are adapted to the semiarid areas with low annual rainfall. Terfezia claveryi Chatin was the first species of desert truffle to be cultivated, and has been increasing in recent years as an alternative rainfed crop in the Iberian Peninsula. However, its behaviour in the field has yet not been investigated. For this purpose, specific primers were designed for the soil DNA quantification of both T. claveryi and Terfezia crassiverrucosa and a real-time qPCR protocol was developed, using the ITS rDNA region as a target. Moreover, a young desert truffle orchard was sampled for environmental validation. The results showed the highest efficiency for the TerclaF3/TerclaR1 primers pair, 89%, and the minimal fungal biomass that could be reliable detected was set at 4.23 µg mycelium/g soil. The spatial distribution of fungal biomass was heterogeneous, and there was not a direct relationship between the quantity of winter soil mycelium and the location/productivity of desert truffles. This protocol could be applied to tracking these species in soil and understand their mycelial dynamics in plantations and wild areas.
... By adding truffle, the food industry increases the added value of various products such as cheese, pâté, pasta, pizzas, sauces or oils, giving them truffle attributes as luxury and gourmet (Torregiani et al., 2017;Wernig, Buegger, Pritsch, & Splivallo, 2018). Generally, when consumers speak of truffled product, they refer to the species Tuber melanosporum (black truffle) or Tuber magnatum (white truffle), due to their unique aroma and high economic value (Campo et al., 2018;Khalifa et al., 2019;Lee et al., 2020;Patel, Rauf, Khan, Khalid, & Mubarak, 2017). Nevertheless, there is a certain tendency within the food industry to add lower-value truffle species with morphological similarities, such as Tuber indicum and Tuber aestivum for black-truffled products, or Tuber borchii for white-truffled products (Oliach et al., 2021). ...
The price of the truffle species Tuber melanosporum and Tuber magnatum can be up to fifty times higher, or even more, than the cheapest edible truffle species due to their appreciated aroma and low production levels. This aroma is seriously affected after the application of treatments for the conservation of food products, usually thermal (freezing or sterilization). Hence, many of the truffled products that are retailed are characterized by the use of truffle species of low economic value and the addition of flavoring substances. Most of the time, the added flavorings do not mimic fresh truffle aroma and do not correspond to the truffle species appearing in the ingredients list and the statement of identity. These products sometimes include pictures of truffles or the term ‘white or black truffle’ in the label, which might confuse the consumer. To study this practice in the food industry, 51 products were evaluated through instrumental techniques determining truffle species presence by microscopy and molecular techniques, as well as the level of truffle flavorings added by HS-GC-MS analysis and by sensory perception scale. Finally, a sensory analysis of eight products was carried out by consumers distributed into two groups, those who had previously tasted fresh truffles and those who had not. Lower-value truffle species such as Tuber aestivum and Tuber indicum were frequently found in products in which the labeling did not indicate so. Also, 48% of the products contained high levels of added flavorings. In the sensory analysis, non-consumers of truffles rated flavored products more positively (up to 2 more points in some products) than truffle consumers. Also, this group associated negative attributes (weird and disappointing) to products elaborated with real black truffle, whereas truffle consumers associated positive attributes (truffle flavor, truffle smell and gourmet) to them.
... Among the more than 180 Tuber species currently known, T. magnatum Picco, the so-called Italian white truffle, is the species of greatest interest and with the highest economic value (Bonito et al., 2010(Bonito et al., , 2013Vita et al., 2015;Benucci and Bonito, 2016). Indeed, in the final stage of its complex life cycle, this ectomycorrhizal ascomycete of the Pezizales order produces edible fruiting bodies that can be considered one of the most expensive foods in the world, reaching a cost of thousands of euros per kilogram (Riccioni et al., 2016;Patel et al., 2017;Daba et al., 2019;Laruccia et al., 2020;Monaco et al., 2021a). Multiple factors contribute to the exorbitant prices of T. magnatum ascomata. ...
Among the hypogeous ectomycorrhizal fungi, the white truffle Tuber magnatum Picco is the species of greatest interest, both from an ecological and economic point of view. The increasing market demand of the precious white truffle along with the fall in its natural production led to a growing interest in cultivation techniques and encouraged truffle growers and researchers to deeper investigate factors that could affect and improve T. magnatum productivity. In this context, microbial communities play a central role. Indeed, in the last few years, the hypothesis of a potential link between microbial community composition and truffle orchard productivity is arousing a greater attention. Moreover, since the value of the prized T. magnatum can vary in relation to its provenience, the need to define a reliable tracking system is also emerging and bacteria appear to be a promising tool. Accordingly, the present mini-review summarises the knowledge currently available on T. magnatum microbial communities, focusing on the role of truffle-associated bacteria and highlighting similarities and differences between samples of different origin, to address the following issues: (i) Is there a correlation between microbial taxa and truffle ground productivity? (ii) Can bacteria actually be used as markers of T. magnatum geographic origin? The identification of microorganisms able to promote T. magnatum formation may represent an important advance in the field of truffle farming. Similarly, the detection of bacterial taxa that can be used as markers of T. magnatum origin could have a considerable impact on truffle industry and trade, even at local scale.
... After performing [U-14 C], labelled experiments valine was postulated as a starting molecule that is transformed via corresponding oxo acid, isobutyric acid, and methacrylic acid into 3-mercaptoisobutyric acid, 3-methylthioisobutyric acid, and, to a lesser extent, asparagusic acid [56]. In the cooking process, asparagus yields compounds belonging to different chemical classes: sulfur compounds (17), pyrroles, pyridines, pyrazines, furanes (25), aldehydes (12), ketones (15), alcohols (26), phenols (11), lactones (5), acids (10), and dimethyl sulfide and methyl 1,2-dithiolane-4-carboxylate (3000 ppb and 7000 ppb, respectively) [57]. ...
At the base of the food pyramid is vegetables, which should be consumed most often of all food products, especially in raw and unprocessed form. Vegetables and mushrooms are rich sources of bioactive compounds that can fulfill various functions in plants, starting from protection against herbivores and being natural insecticides to pro-health functions in human nutrition. Many of these compounds contain sulfur in their structure. From the point of view of food producers, it is extremely important to know that some of them have flavor properties. Volatile sulfur compounds are often potent odorants, and in many vegetables, belonging mainly to Brassicaeae and Allium (Amaryllidaceae), sulfur compounds determine their specific flavor. Interestingly, some of the pathways that form volatile sulfur compounds in vegetables are also found in selected edible mushrooms. The most important odor-active organosulfur compounds can be divided into isothiocyanates, nitriles, epithionitriles, thiols, sulfides, and polysulfides, as well as others, such as sulfur containing carbonyl compounds and esters, R-L-cysteine sulfoxides, and finally heterocyclic sulfur compounds found in shiitake mushrooms or truffles. This review paper summarizes their precursors and biosynthesis, as well as their sensory properties and changes in selected technological processes.
... Today, mushrooms are well-known as a widespread food in different regions of the world and they have become very pleasant as a functional food [6]. Truffles are considered a wide family of hypogeous fungi, generally containing the genera of Picoa, Tirmania, Tuber, and Terfezia [7]. Genus of the Terfezia (belonging to the family Tubraceae) have four species including Terfezia boudieri Chatin, Terfezia claveryi (T. ...
... The pseudo fruits of R. canina (the rose hips) are often used as food or medicine in many countries. The health benefit of the rose hip is attributed to its high vitamin C and polyphenolic content (Fan et al. 2014;Patel et al. 2017). Usually, decoctions of R. canina hips are used as remedies for the treatment and prevention of cold and flu, as well as for infectious diseases, inflammation, stomach disorders, arthritis, and rheumatoid disorders in traditional folk medicine (Chrubasik et al. 2008;Patel 2013;Živković et al. 2020. ...
Wild fruits are underutilized plants that are well adapted to the local climatic conditions. Extreme environmental conditions due to climate change or variability are a threat to wild-growing species, crop production, productivity, and livelihood. Wild fruit fields could be affected by not meeting winter chilling requirements, which is specific for every fruit species. On the other hand, the plants’ secondary metabolites and other bioactive compounds can be attributed to the changing conditions as a response to various types of environmental stresses which affect their production. Secondary metabolites refer to small molecules that are non-essential for the growth and reproduction of plants, but have a wide range of effects on the plant itself and other living organisms. Blackthorn (Prunus spinosa L.), Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas L.), dog rose (Rosa canina L.), and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna Jacq.) are important wild plants with powerful health-promoting properties. Due to their chemical composition and nutritive value, they have a strong effect on regional food security and poverty alleviation. Positive health effects, forceful impact on the quality of life, and market potential are additional attributes of these plants, which may have significant economic impact.
... μg/g (Cai et al., 2016), respectively. As important secondary metabolites in plants, phenolic compounds not only play an important role in plant growth and development and resistance to stress, but are also beneficial to human health due to their strong antioxidant effect (Cheynier et al., 2013;Patel et al., 2017). In the brewing industry, phenolic compounds affect the quality of beer, such as taste, flavor, haze stability, and appearance (Mikyska et al., 2002;Vanderhaegen et al., 2006). ...
Barley is the fourth largest cereal crop in the world. It is mainly used for feeding, beer production and food. Barley is receiving more attention from both agricultural and food scientists because of its special chemical composition and health benefits. In comparison with other cereal crops, including wheat, rice and maize, barley grains are rich in dietary fiber (such as β-glucan) and tocols, which are beneficial to human health. It is well proved that diets rich in those chemicals can provide protection against hypertension, cardiovascular disease, and diabetes. Barley has been widely recognized to be great potential as a healthy or functional food. In this review, we present the information about the studies on physical structure of barley grain and the distribution of main chemical components, nutrient and functional composition of barley grain and their health benefits, and the approaches of improving and utilizing the nutrient and functional chemicals in barley grain. With the development of processing technologies, functional components in barley grains, especially β-glucan, can be efficiently extracted and concentrated. Moreover, nutrient and functional components in barley grains can be efficiently improved by precise breeding and agronomic approaches. The review highlights the great potential of barley used as healthy and functional foods, and may be instructive for better utilization of barley in food processing.
... They can be classified under two broad types: forest (Tuber) and arid, semi-arid, or desert truffles (Terfezia, Tirmania, and Picoa). Truffles are very rich in antioxidant compounds and can eliminate free radicals such as DPPH, ROS, and hydroxyl (OH) groups (Guo, Wei, Sun, Hou, & Fan, 2011;Beara et al., 2014;Patel, Rauf, Khan, Khalid, & Mubarak, 2017). Organisms have developed antioxidant defense and repair systems to protect their cellular environment from oxidative stress; however, these systems are insufficient to prevent damage completely (Wasser, 2011;Wasser, 2014;Sánchez, 2017). ...
... This kind of mushrooms are rich on various polyphenolics manifested as excellent antioxidants which have the ability to eliminate free radical and consequently protect humans from cancers (Özyürek, Bener, Güçlü, & Apak, 2014). Even though truffles present a rich source of nutrition and medical attributes that were investigated in multiple studies (Al-Laith, 2010;Özyürek et al., 2014;Patel, Rauf, Khan, Khalid, & Mubarak, 2017), most of truffle types appear in the spring for short periods, but some appear early in November and December which limits profiting from this very beneficial product. Therefore, the importance of investigating its sorption behavior aiming a better preservation of this product to ensure its availability all the year. ...
In this work the sorption behavior of Terfezia boudieri truffle was studied and evaluated using the static gravimetric method. This approach permits the measurement of the sorption isotherms at three given temperatures 30, 40, and 50°C. Where in the first step experimental sorption data was collected, and then was used in order to identify the thermodynamic properties of truffle. Several results were found by conducting this study. First, the optimal water activity (aw) for conserving T. boudieri truffles was determined and found to be in range of the values 0.24 and 0.31 as a function of temperature. Additionally, net isosteric heat and entropy of sorption, which are two parameters studied during this study, were found to be decreasing when the water content increased; where the existence of the compensation theory of enthalpy–entropy for Terfezia boudieri was confirmed. Second, net isosteric heat and entropy of sorption, which are two parameters studied during this study, were found to be decreasing when the water content increased; where the existence of the compensation theory of enthalpy–entropy for Terfezia boudieri was confirmed. Finally, the isokinetic temperatures were 338.69 and 324.35 K for desorption and adsorption, respectively. As well as the free Gibbs energy was found to be positive for sorption which indicates that the sorption process as a non-spontaneous one. Moreover, the spreading pressure varied in a range of 0.03–0.25 J/m², while the aw increased. This study is a contribution to the drying, packaging, and conservation of white truffle.
Practical applications
White truffle has been widely used in many food products related applications, and pharmaceutic industry. White truffle is only available in certain seasons; consequently its storage process for long periods is a necessity in order to ensure the supply chain over the year. Furthermore, this particular food product needs a very specific storage conditions which may affect its quality and shelf-life. This work aimed to determine and evaluate the water sorption properties in an adequate range of temperature and relative humidity. The mathematical models and the thermodynamic analysis conducted throughout this study, in addition to the reported data are useful to find the optimal and adequate storage conditions to preserve the quality and prolong the white truffle shelf-life.
... They can be classified under two broad types: forest (Tuber) and arid, semi-arid, or desert truffles (Terfezia, Tirmania, and Picoa). Truffles are very rich in antioxidant compounds and can eliminate free radicals such as DPPH, ROS, and hydroxyl (OH) groups (Guo, Wei, Sun, Hou, & Fan, 2011;Beara et al., 2014;Patel, Rauf, Khan, Khalid, & Mubarak, 2017). Organisms have developed antioxidant defense and repair systems to protect their cellular environment from oxidative stress; however, these systems are insufficient to prevent damage completely (Wasser, 2011;Wasser, 2014;Sánchez, 2017). ...
... 31 Edible mushrooms and truffles are composed of 90% water and 10% dry matter, in which 35%-70% correspond to digestible and non-digestible carbohydrates (chitin, hemicellulose, β and α-glucans, mannans, xylans and galactans-commonly known as fibres), 15%-35% to proteins, and <5% to fat, vitamins (especially from B and D groups) and minerals. 32 Human health benefits of mushrooms and truffles 26,33,34 are attributed to proteins, polysaccharides (especially ɑ/ß-glucans), lipopolysaccharides, glycoproteins, essential amino acids, dietary fibre, minerals and secondary metabolites. 35 Among the secondary metabolites, 36 the terpenoids have shown antiinfectious, anti-inflammatory and anticancer properties; the flavonoids, saponin and tannins, antioxidant and anti-tumoral activities; the steroids anti-inflammatory activity; the polyketides antibiotic, anticancer, antifungal, hypolipidemic and immunosuppressive properties; the alkaloids and pigments exhibited angiogenesis inhibition; and the anthraquinones provided anti-inflammatory and anti-tumoral activities. ...
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is a most important cause of liver disease. Similar to other non-communicable diseases (NCD), such as obesity and type II diabetes mellitus, NAFLD can strongly affected by diet. Diet-related NCD and malnutrition are rising in all regions being a major cause of the global health, economic and environmental burdens. Mushrooms, important dietary components since the hunter-gathering communities, have increasingly gained momentum in biomedical research and therapeutics due to their interplay in metabolism traits. We emphasize here the beneficial effects of mushroom-enriched diets on the homeostasis of lipid and sugar metabolism, including their modulation, but also interfering with insulin metabolism, gut microbiota, inflammation, oxidative stress and autophagy. In this review, we describe the cellular and molecular mechanisms at the gut-liver axis and the liver-white adipose tissue (WAT) axis, that plausibly cause such positive modulation, and discuss the potential of mushroom-enriched diets to prevent or ameliorate NAFLD and related NCD, also within the shift needed toward healthy sustainable diets.
... Its symbiosis with the roots of various angiosperms and gymnosperms can form ectomycorrhizas [19]. Black truffles are rich in bioactive and healthy compounds, which are a popular food because of their unique aroma and taste [20]. Truffles are rich in saponins, protein, fat, carbohydrates, fiber, lipids, several minerals, and unsaturated fatty acids, and truffle saponins are some of their main bioactive ingredients [21]. ...
Saponins possess a variety of pharmacological effects and exhibit great potential in the food industry as bioactive substances. In this study, extracellular saponin production via the liquid fermentation of Tuber melanosporum occurred with the addition of rutin. For this purpose, medium composition and culture conditions were optimized using single-factor experiments and an orthogonal experiment design. The optimal medium consisted of glucose (43.5 g/L), peptone (6 g/L), KH2PO4 (1.15 g/L), NaCl (0.2 g/L), vitamin B2 (0.082 g/L), vitamin B6 (0.1 g/L), vitamin C (0.02 g/L), and rutin (4.8 g/L). The culture conditions were as follows: 12.5% (v/v) inoculation, medium volume of 50 mL/250 mL flask, culture temperature of 24 °C, shaker speed of 190 rpm, initial pH of 5.7, and culture time of 96 h. Finally, a maximal extracellular saponin content of 0.413 g/L was obtained, which was 134.7% higher than that in the base medium. Rutin proved to be an excellent promoter, because the saponin production was increased by 50.2% compared to that in the optimized medium without rutin. The 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) scavenging activity, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, and ferric reducing antioxidant power of truffle saponins reached 94.13%, 79.26%, and 42.22 mM, respectively. This study provides a useful strategy for fungal bioactive saponin production by liquid fermentation with the addition of flavonoid compounds.
... Truffles contain other valuable compounds i.e. β-glucans, or specific fugal sterols Tejedor-Calvo, Amara, et al., 2020) with interesting biological activities such as immunomodulatory and hypocholesterolemic properties (Patel, Rauf, Khan, Khalid, & Mubarak, 2017). These molecules could remain in the residual cake after the extraction of the aromatic compounds as a byproduct, and they could be also extracted to design novel functional foods. ...
Truffles are a well-known worldwide product mainly appreciated by their unique aroma, which is composed by more than 50 volatile compounds. However, to this day, no one has accomplished to find the aromatic key that evokes the real aroma of truffles for its use as food flavoring. Among them, black truffle was selected for extraction with supercritical fluids using CO2 as solvent recovering natural truffle aroma fraction. To achieve the optimal extraction ratio, time, pressure and grapeseed oil addition to the separators were evaluated. Aroma from black truffle powder, extracts obtained, and residual cakes fractions were characterized by headspace gas chromatography-spectrometry and olfactometry techniques. The results indicated that optimal extraction conditions were 30 MPa for 3 h. Also, grapeseed oil addition enhanced trapping some key truffle aromatic compounds as 2,3-butanodione, 2-methyl-1-butanol, octanal and dimethyl disulphide. Olfactometry study showed the aromatic profile of the extracts indicating the molecules ethyl pentanoate (fruity), 1-hexen-3-one (metallic) and ethyl hexanoate (fruity) as the main compounds of extracts samples. For the first time, a natural truffle aroma has been obtained using low-value truffles. After aromatic extraction, carbohydrates, proteins, and phenolic compounds were analysed within the residues, showing a potential source of bioactive compounds.
... In more recent times cosmetic products and food supplements have been marketed by famous brands. The most recent patents for these were awarded to Akridge (2020) and Coquet and Chabert (2020) and new drugs (Stanikunaite et al. 2007;El Enshasy et al. 2013;Patel et al. 2017). ...
Perhaps with the exception of a small number of cultivated saprobic species, the true truffles (Tuber spp.) command the attention of more scientists than other species of mushroom. Many thousands of scientific papers have been devoted to topics ranging among taxonomy; aroma; molecular makeup; the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics industries; and perhaps, at the bottom of the list, their cultivation. The genus Tuber is widespread in the northern hemisphere and with the recent exploration of new areas and the application of molecular identification methods, the number of proposed species is growing almost exponentially. The past 25 years in particular have seen a huge expansion in the cultivation of Tuber melanosporum, T. borchii, and T. aestivum in the Southern Hemisphere and a flurry of papers dealing with various molecular aspects of the truffles. This has resulted in a greater understanding of how to grow truffles in areas which would have been considered totally unsuitable in the Northern Hemisphere, and a depth of knowledge that early 1970s/1980s’ researchers would never have conceived such as the cultivation of T. melanosporum on heavily limed, naturally very acidic soils. Our current review looks at the state of knowledge in the fields of biodiversity and ecology, biotechnological applications, and the cultivation of true truffles.
... Endocannabinoids may also have potential therapeutic uses in multiple sclerosis, modification of various pain states, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease and epilepsy (Maccarrone et al., 2017). Further, T. melanosporum (Fig. 3b) amongst other Tuber species is rich in l-tyrosine, which is suggested to be beneficial in the management of stress, depression and bipolar disorder (Patel et al., 2017), but the degree of impact is currently under debate. The Tuber genus may also be a useful source of polysaccharide fractions which could promote antitumor activity. ...
... Although the discovery of antibiotics was a defining moment in the medical management of microbial infections, [18] the advent globally of multi drug-resistant bacteria and the fact that the synthetic production of new antimicrobials has declined over the decades has led to a surge in the alternatives to antibiotics in herbal medicines. For ocular infections, there have been suggestions by researchers [19][20][21] for the use of dessert truffles as alternatives to currently used antibiotics. Truffles are ectomycorrhizal fungi belonging to a family of complex hypogenous fungi containing species of which includes Terfezia claveryi and Terfezia boudieri. ...
ABSTRACT
Background: Ocular infections are capable of spreading to different
anatomical sites of the eyes and, if not appropriately treated, can lead
to blindness. The emergence of difficult to treat microbial infections has led to the search of alternatives from natural sources. Objectives: The antimicrobial effects of Terfezia claveryi and Terfezia boudieri (T. boudieri) against bacteria isolates associated with eye infections and their molecular mechanism were investigated. Materials and Methods: Crude aqueous and methanolic extracts, including fractions of chloroform, petroleum, and ethyl acetate of T. claveryi and T. boudieri, were used for the investigation. Bacterial isolation and identification were carried out using basic microbiological and biochemical techniques. scanning electron microscopy. (SEM) and molecular docking were used to adduce possible antimicrobial
mechanism of these extracts and their fractions. Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Staphylococcus hominis, Staphylococcus lugdunensis, Serratia odorifera, Serratia liquefaciens, Pseudomonas stutzeri, Pseudomonas oryzihabitans, Proteus mirabililis, Kocuria kristinae, Kocuria rosea, and Micrococcus luteus were isolated from patients with ocular infections. Results: Isolates were resistant to benzylpenicillin (78.0%), rifampicin (57.0%), Tetracycline (56.0%), clindamycin (33.3%), and tigecycline (24.0%). Furthermore, the percentage resistance to gentamicin and ciprofloxacin was 13.0% each. All isolates were susceptible to extracts/fractions of T. claveryi and T. boudieri. Docking analysis showed binding with surface protein Sortase A of Staphylococcus aureus, indicating that stigmasterol, the active compound in both Terfezia species, interacted with valine amino acid 110. SEM imaging showed morphological alterations in treated isolated Staphylococcal species. Conclusion: Therefore, extracts of both Terfezia species have demonstrated the potential to possess antibacterial activity, which can be further exploited for clinical use.
... Truffles are an important source of natural bioactive compounds that could be used as potential therapeutic agents (Wang & Marcone, 2011). Specifically, these bioactive compounds, such as fatty acids, organic acids, phenolics, polysaccharides, sterols and terpenoids, have been identified as antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, and hepatoprotective agents (Lee et al., 2020;Patel, Rauf, Khan, Khalid, & Mubarak, 2017). ...
Ten truffle species of Tuber and Terfezia genera were chemical characterized, assessing their proximate composition, individual nutrient compounds and some bioactive molecules. The bioactive properties of these species were also evaluated, namely their antioxidant, antimicrobial and cytotoxic potential. Carbohydrates were the main macronutrients present in truffles, followed by proteins. Furthermore, the levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), subsequently presented as a percentage, were higher in truffles (38.2 % - 79.3 %) except in Tuber magnatum and Terfezia arenaria, which have a more saturated fatty acids (SFA) profile (70.7 % and 53.7 %, respectively). Comparing the species, T. magnatum revealed the highest levels of total phenolic compounds (TPC) (290 mg GAE/100 g truffle), as also the best results in the four methods used to evaluate the antioxidant activity. On the other hand, only five extracts obtained from some studied truffle species (Terfezia magnusii, Tuber aestivum, Tuber gennadii, and Tuber melanosporum) showed a slight inhibition of microbial growth, tested against different bacteria. Terfezia and T. gennadii extracts, showed potential to inhibit the cellular growth of NCI-H460, HeLa, HepG2, and MCF-7 cell lines (GI50 concentrations range: 19-78, 33-301, 83-321 and 102-321 µg/mL, respectively), indicating anti-proliferative activity. Nevertheless, T. arenaria revealed some potential hepatotoxicity, inhibiting the growth of PLP2 cells (GI50 concentration of 220 µg/mL), a primary cell culture obtained from porcine liver.
... Their aroma is influenced by species, maturity, genotype, the microbial communities that inhabit the truffle fruiting bodies, climate and soil composition. Aroma is a result of a unique combination of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), namely alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, organic acids and sulphurous compounds (Patel, Rauf, Khan, Khalid, & Mubarak, 2017;Splivallo & Culleré, 2016). To date, more than 200 volatiles have been identified. ...
This study was aimed to determine whether the species and regional origin of freeze-dried truffles can be grouped based on their volatile organic compound (VOC) profiles obtained using headspace solid-phase microextraction gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GC-MS). The study looked at four globally traded truffle species: Tuber aestivum, Tuber brumale, Tuber magnatum and Tuber melanosporum. The results show that the VOC profile of freeze-dried truffles is significantly modified compared to fresh truffles. However, the study indicated that VOC transformation during freeze-drying is species-specific, and by using multivariate discriminant analysis, we were able to distinguish between all four freeze-dried truffle species equally successfully as for fresh samples, supporting the applicability of the approach in food fraud detection. Samples of T. aestivum were also collected from four major truffle hunting locations in Slovenia, to discern any differences in regional origin. Comparison of VOC profiles indicated possible disclose truffles regional origin. However, further investigations are required to improve cross-validation results.
... Desert truffles have a high content of minerals, amino acids, proteins, fibers, fatty acids, and carbohydrates. Moreover, they are rich in anti-bacterial, anti-cancer, and anti-oxidant compounds contributing to human health [4,6,[13][14][15]. These features result in truffles providing an important nutritional resource, especially for nomadic tribes in desert areas where truffles serve as a staple seasonal food [16]. ...
Mycorrhizal desert truffles such as Terfezia boudieri, Tirmania nivea, and Terfezia claveryi, form mycorrhizal associations with plants of Cistaceae family. These valued truffles are still collected from the wild and not cultivated under intensive farming due to the lack of basic knowledge of their biology at all levels. Recently, several genomes of desert truffles have been decoded, enabling to attempt genetic manipulations to enable cultivation. To execute such manipulations, the development of molecular tools for genes transformation into truffles is needed. We developed an Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated genetic transformation system in T. boudieri. This system was optimized for the developmental stage of the mycelia explants, bacterial optical density, infection and co-cultivation durations, and concentrations of the selection antibiotics. The pFPL-Rh plasmid harboring hph gene conferring hygromycin resistance as selection marker and red fluorescent protein gene were used as visual reporters. The optimal conditions were incubation with 200 μM acetosyringone, attaining a bacterial optical density of 0.3 OD600, transfer time of 45 min and co-cultivation for 3 days. This is the first report on a transformation system for T. boudieri and the proposed protocol can be adapted for transformation of other important desert truffles as well as ectomycorrhizal species.
Wild and cultivated edible and medicinal mushrooms have long been known by humans as a source of valuable food and medicines in Asian and European countries. Currently, only a small fraction of estimated fungal biodiversity has been investigated for their bioactivities and medicinal properties, while mushrooms possess a potential in pharmacy, medicine, cosmetics and food industry. In the kingdom of fungi, mushrooms taxonomically belong to phyla Basidiomycota (class Agaricomycetes) and Ascomycota (class Pezizomycetes) of the subkingdom Dikarya.Mushrooms, such as truffles (Tuber), morels (Morchella), Agaricus bisporus, Boletus edulis and oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus species), are considered gourmet healthy food. Mushrooms (Ganoderma and Trametes species, Hericium erinaceus, Lentinula edodes, etc.) are also perspective sources for myco- pharmacological research as source of bioactive molecules (alkaloids, lipids, phenolics, polysaccharides, proteins, steroids, terpenoids, etc.) with more than 130 medicinal effects (anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, antioxidant, antitumor, antiviral, cytotoxic, hepatoprotective, hypocholesterolaemic, hypoglycaemic, hypotensive, immunomodulatory, neuroprotective, etc.). There is scientific evidence of using mushroom-derived biotech products as dietary food, pharmaceuticals, cosmeceuticals and other products available in the market.The current review discusses recent advances in research on the biotechnological potential of mushrooms to develop novel biotech products and perspectives for their applications in human welfare.KeywordsBiotech productsCosmeceuticalsMedicinalMushroomsNutriceuticalsPharmaceuticals
Several kinds of food can be analyzed by the human sensory organs. In this review, we demonstrate the relation and importance of the color and bioactive molecules of food and their health effects. This work focuses on black foods, which can be found in both natural and processed forms, present in our daily life for several years without being noticed. Besides, the chemistry underlying the black color of black foods has not yet been fully understood. More than 130 black foods are reported in the current review, which belong to 3 main groups and 12 sub-groups. In studied black foods, melanins and anthocyanins are the primary pigments, along with other pigments such as chlorophylls, carotenoids, and tannins. The health potential of black foods is also discussed. Due to their high concentration of phytochemical and phenolic compounds, black-colored foods are beneficial in preventing diseases and boosting the immune system. As a promising natural pigment and antioxidant compound source, black foods could be used as functional foods. Several questions on black foods are still open and need more investigation, especially the mechanisms by which the black color is formed in fruits and vegetables.
The lipid profiles of the truffles with different treatments were determined by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-Quadrupole-Exactive Orbitrap mass spectrometry (UHPLC-QE Orbitrap/MS/MS) and the volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were identified by purge-and-trap-gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (P&T-GC-MS). A total of 37 lipid molecular species and 28 VOCs were tentatively identified. Lysophophatidylcholine (LPC), triacylglycerol (TG) and sphingomyelin (SM) in heat-drying truffles, phosphatidic acid (PA) in freeze-drying and fresh truffles might be the key lipids that bound VOCs. Furthermore, the correlation between lipids and VOCs were analyzed by 19 differential lipids and 7 VOCs. The findings indicated that TG 18:2/18:2/18:2 and Cardiolipin (CL) 16:0/16:0/18:2/18:2 might be the key lipid molecule species for the formation of 2-methoxyphenol. The study helps to understand the effect of different treatments on the lipid profiles and provides the mechanistic insights to the relationship between the lipids and VOCs of truffles.
Newly developed fungal-based materials have promising potential with regard to mitigating greenhouse gas emissions and enabling a shift towards a more circular economy. However, an important step towards their success in the bioeconomy is consumers’ acceptance and sustainable consumption of these materials. Highlighting the power of narratives, this paper looks at the symbolic nature of fungi and discusses how common perceptions can be reshaped through narrative structures. We first identify common expectations, hopes and fears of fungi and then focus on how potentially negative beliefs or fears regarding fungal-based materials can be transformed through disseminating and reframing scientific information in a narrative structure. Specifically, we discuss characteristics of a story that can induce changes in attitudes and behaviours among consumers to induce sustainable consumer choices. To adjust and promote these sustainable narratives within the society, we suggest innovative science communication and especially citizen participation formats as adequate tools.
The desert truffle Terfezia boudieri is an ascomycete fungus that forms ect-endomycorrhiza in the roots of plants belonging to Cistaceae. The fungus forms hypogeous edible fruit bodies, appreciated as gourmet food. Truffles and host plants are colonized by various microbes, which may contribute to their development. However, the diversity and composition of the bacterial community under field conditions in the Negev desert are still unknown. The overall goal of this research was to identify the rhizosphere microbial community supporting the establishment of a symbiotic association between T. boudieri and Helianthemum sessiliflorum. The bacterial community was characterized by fruiting bodies, mycorrhized roots, and rhizosphere soil. Based on next-generation sequencing meta-analyses of the 16S rRNA gene, we discovered diverse bacterial communities of fruit bodies that differed from those found in the roots and rhizosphere. Families of Proteobacteria, Planctomycetes, and Actinobacteria were present in all four samples. Alpha diversity analysis revealed that the rhizosphere and roots contain significantly higher bacterial species numbers compared to the fruit. Additionally, ANOSIM and PCoA provided a comparative analysis of the bacterial taxa associated with fruiting bodies, roots, and rhizosphere. The core microbiome described consists of groups whose biological role triggers important traits supporting plant growth and fruit body development.
It has been found that 2,4‐dithiapentane and dimethyl disulfide are readily prepared in useful yields from DMSO/(COCl)2 under different conditions. The reaction mixture of DMSO/(COCl)2 was treated with 1 equivalent of Et3N and 15 equivalents of H2O to afford 2,4‐dithiapentane, whereas dimethyl disulfide was obtained by the treatment DMSO/(COCl)2 with 10 equivalents of H2O without Et3N. The corresponding deuterated products, [2H8]‐2,4‐dithiapentane, [2H6]‐dimethyl disulfide, and [2H6]‐methyl methanethiosulfonate were also prepared from the reactions of [2H6]‐DMSO with (COCl)2. 2,4‐Dithiapentane and dimethyl disulfide are readily prepared in useful yields from DMSO/(COCl)2 under different conditions. The corresponding deuterated products, [2H8]‐2,4‐dithiapentane, [2H6]‐dimethyl disulfide, and [2H6]‐methyl methanethiosulfonate were also prepared from the reactions of [2H6]‐DMSO with (COCl)2.
Throughout history, mushrooms have occupied an inseparable part of the diet in many countries. Mushrooms are considered a rich source of phytonutrients such as polysaccharides, dietary fibers, and other micronutrients, in addition to various essential amino acids, which are building blocks of vital proteins. In general, mushrooms offer a wide range of health benefits with a large spectrum of pharmacological properties, including antidiabetic, antioxidative, antiviral, antibacterial, osteoprotective, nephroprotective, hepatoprotective, etc. Both wild edible and medicinal mushrooms possess strong therapeutic and biological activities, which are evident from their in vivo and in vitro assays. The multifunctional activities of the mushroom extracts and the targeted potential of each of the compounds in the extracts have a broad range of applications, especially in the healing and repair of various organs and cells in humans. Owing to the presence of the aforementioned properties and rich phytocomposition, mushrooms are being used in the production of nutraceuticals and pharmaceuticals. This review aims to provide a clear insight on the commercially cultivated, wild edible, and medicinal mushrooms with comprehensive information on their phytochemical constituents and properties as part of food and medicine for futuristic exploitation. Future outlook and prospective challenges associated with the cultivation and processing of these medicinal mushrooms as functional foods are also discussed.
Hysterangium inflatum is a truffle that grows naturally in the roots of Eucalyptus sp. and is distributed along the Mediterranean and Aegean coasts. Chemical investigation of the H. inflatum enabled to isolate of a new cerebroside, hysteroside (1), and seven known compounds namely, psyllic acid (2), brassicasterol (3), ergosterol (4), ergosterol d (5), ergosterol peroxide (6), ergosta-7,9,22-triene-3-O-β-d-glucoside (7) and mannitol (8). IR, NMR, MS techniques were used for structural elucidation and supported with literature data. Antioxidant, cholinesterase, urease, and tyrosinase inhibitory and cytotoxic activities on MCF-7 breast, H-1299 lung cancer cells, and murine fibroblast (L929) non-cancerous cells of extracts and isolated compounds from H. inflatum were analyzed. All the isolated compounds, except compounds 2 and 8, displayed considerable cytotoxic activities against MCF-7 and H-1299 cancer cells. Compounds 1 (IC50: 18.11 µg/mL) and 5 (IC50: 24.93 µg/mL) were the most effective against MCF-7, while compounds 6 (IC50: 27.61 µg/mL), 1 (IC50: 36.20 µg/mL) and 5 (IC50: 38.62 µg/mL) showed most potent toxicity against H-1299 and the extracts and compounds have no toxic effect on L929. Among the extracts, the methanol extract displayed the best antioxidant activity in all assays. Compound 1 exhibited highest enzyme inhibition activities with value of 58.71%, 52.84%, 45.37%, and 35.63%, against urease, tyrosinase, butrylcholinesterase (BChE), and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) enzymes at 100 µg/mL concentration, among the isolated compounds. These results support that H. inflatum is a steroid-rich truffle and might be a potential source, especially for ergostane type steroids.
Black Périgord truffle (Tuber melanosporum) is one of the most expensive fungi in the world that appreciated by gourmets. Studies have indicated the impact of growing location and soil microorganisms on the aroma profile of truffle. The aroma profile of West Australian black Périgord truffle (Tuber melanosporum) has not been previously reported, which was studied over a 14 day storage period. Sixty‐four compounds were identified in all truffle samples. Significant changes (P > 0.05) were observed in 11 key volatiles (carbon dioxide, acetaldehyde, 2‐butanone, 3‐methyl‐1‐butanal, toluene, 2‐butenal, formic acid 2‐methyl butyl ester, 3‐methyl‐1‐butanol, 6‐methyl‐2‐heptanol, 3‐octanol and dimethyl sulfoxide) over time. Comparison of these results against published aroma profile of European grown black Périgord truffle identified number of significant similarities and differences were also detected. Dimethyl sulfoxide, a compound previously identified in European grown white truffle (Tuber magnatum) was detected. Principle component analysis (PCA) showed that the major changes in the truffle aroma profile took place in the first 7 days of storage.
Truffles are ectomycorrhizal mushrooms that grow in specific climates. They are rare and famous for their secondary metabolites and their promising biological activities. Truffles are considered from the most expensive macrofungi all over the world. Understanding the rare and uncommon types of interaction between truffles and their different invadors is of high significance. However, studies describing such relation are very limited. In this review, we describe general description and ecology of truffles. Examples on microbes attracted to colonize fruiting bodies of truffles were mentioned. Finally, factors causing truffles damage such as pathogenic fungal attacks, truffles rot, and insects' invasion were highlighted.
Black truffle (Tuber aestivum Vittad.) is one of the most appreciated and one of the most expensive European truffles. The intention of our study was to create a truffle–based product (truffles, extra virgin olive oil, rosemary, red paprika, cayenne pepper) by bioguded design – a novel strategy aimed to find right mixtures of ingredients to achieve enhanced biological activity of final product.
Ingredients and their combinations in different ratios were evaluated in several in vitro bioassays related to antioxidant (DPPH, NO scavenging activity, inhibition of lipid peroxidation, reducing power – FRAP assay) and some metabolic syndrome–associated enzymes (α–amylase, α–glucosidase, pancreatic lipase) inhibitory activity. Concentration–dependent synergy/antagonism of ingredients was noticed. For the first time, it was determined that black truffles have α–amylase, α–glucosidase and pancreatic lipase inhibitory activity (IC50 = 0.49, 8.54 and 1.21 mg/mL, respectively).
Dominant phenolic acids in preferable combination were rosmarinic and ursolic (2.83 and 3.48 mg/g dw, respectively), while luteolin, apigenin and chrysoeriol (55.72, 22.56 and 30.75 μg/g dw, respectively) were the most abundant flavonoids. Considerable contents of proteins (405.44 mg BSAE/g dw) and polysaccharides (1.05 mmol GE/g dw) contributed to the nutritional value of final product.
Chinese black truffle (Tuber indicum) is rich in nutrition. However, commercial interests lead to the aroma components and nutrients of T. indicum being greatly affected by overexploitation without consideration of their maturity. This study investigated the proteomic and metabolomic profiles of truffle fruiting bodies at different maturities using a meta-proteomic approach. Among the 3007 identified proteins, the most up-expressed protein in the mature ascocarps was involved in the peptidyl-diphthamide biosynthetic process, while thiamine metabolism was the most differentially expressed pathway. Furthermore, a total of 54 metabolites identified upon LC-MS differed significantly, with 30 being up-expressed in the mature ascocarps, including organic acids, carnitine substances and polysaccharides. Additionally, the ash, protein, fat, crude fiber and total sugar contents were all higher in the mature ascocarps. Overall, our findings reveal that mature truffles have a higher nutritional value, providing a basis for further exploring protein functionality of T. indicum at different maturities.
In our previous work, we have proved that diosgenin (DS) can promote the Tuber polysaccharide (TP) production of Tuber melanosporum in the liquid-state fermentation process. In the present study, we confirm that DS can increase the TP production in the solid-state fermentation of T. melanosporum. The orthogonal design and non-linear regression analysis revealed that the optimum medium composition was as follows (g/L): oat 60, corn hull 15.2, fructose 1.8, sucrose 1.2, peptone 0.48, yeast extract 0.72, MgSO4·7H2O 0.06, MnSO4 0.12, KH2PO4·H2O 0.09, VB2 0.01 and DS 0.4 at a water-material ratio of 0.85. The optimum operational condition included inoculation volume of 19.2 mL, culture time of 12.9 d and culture temperature of 26.6 °C. Under the optimum medium and operational conditions, the maximum TP production reached 115.6 mg/g dry substrate. Collectively, our findings provided a strategy to increase bioactive ingredients of traditional food.
Interaction of truffle mycelium with the host plant involves the excretion of extracellular enzymes. The ability of Tuber maculatum mycelium to produce an extracellular cellulase during submerged fermentation was demonstrated for the first time. T. maculatum mycelia were isolated and tested for extracellular cellulase production at variable pH on solid agar medium, and the highest activity was observed at pH 7.0. Furthermore, T. maculatum was subjected to submerged fermentation in basal salt medium for cellulase production. Under optimized conditions using sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (0.5 % w/v) as carbon source and an initial pH of 7.0, the enzyme production yielded 1.70 U/mL of cellulase in the cell-free supernatant after 7 days of incubation time. The optimum of the obtained cellulase’s activity was at pH 5.0 and a temperature of 50 °C. The enzyme showed good thermostability at 50 °C by retaining 99 % of its maximal activity over an incubation time of 100 min. The cellulase activity was inhibited by Fe²⁺ and slightly activated by Mn²⁺ and Cu²⁺ at 1 mM concentration. The results indicated that truffle mycelium is utilizing cellulosic energy source in the root system, and the optimal conditions are those existing in the acidic Finnish soil.
Background:
This work aimed at characterizing 12 isolates of the genus Tuber including Tuber melanosporum (11 isolates) and Tuber brumale (one isolate). This was done using internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences, confirming their origin.
Results:
Analysis of their mating type revealed that both MAT1-1 and MAT1-2 exist within these isolates (with 3 and 8 of each, respectively). We observed that each of these cultures was consistently associated with one bacterium that was intimately linked to fungal growth. These bacterial associates failed to grow in the absence of fungus. We extracted DNA from bacterial colonies in the margin of mycelium and sequenced a nearly complete 16S rDNA gene and a partial ITS fragment. We found they all belonged to the genus Rhodopseudomonas, fitting within different phylogenetic clusters. No relationships were evidenced between bacterial and fungal strains or mating types. Rhodopseudomonas being a sister genus to Bradyrhizobium, we tested the nodulation ability of these bacteria on a promiscuously nodulating legume (Acacia mangium), without success. We failed to identify any nifH genes among these isolates, using two different sets of primers.
Conclusions:
While the mechanisms of interaction between Tuber and Rhodopseudomonas remain to be elucidated, their interdependency for in vitro growth seems a novel feature of this fungus.
As a medicinal and edible fungus parasitizing on the trees, Perigord Truffle (
Tuber huidongense
) is well known for its delicious taste, unique smell, and high medical value for healthcare. One new water-soluble nonstarch polysaccharide (PST-W with the yield of 0.41%) from
Perigord Truffle
(
Tuber huidongense
) was purified and identified on structural characteristics for the first time. The characterizations of PST-W were studied on physicochemical properties, main components of monosaccharide(s), and molecular structure. The monosaccharide compositions of PST-W were studied and identified as glucan, only containing D-glucoses with the molecular structure of [→6)
α
-D-Glcp
(
1
→
6
)
α
-D-Glcp (1→]
n
by methylation analysis and NMR. In the determination of total reducing capacity, the reducing abilities of polysaccharide extracts could be listed as vitamin C > PST-W > crude polysaccharides-3 > crude polysaccharides-2 > crude polysaccharides-1. All of PST-W, crude polysaccharides-2, and crude polysaccharides-3 were relatively good scavenger for 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical 2,2-Diphenyl-1-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)hydrazyl radicals with IC
50
of 2.81, 4.17, and 3.44 mg/mL, respectively. However,
O
2
-
∙
clearing abilities of PST-W and crude polysaccharides were obviously weaker. The activities of total crude extract were the worst, indicating that the impurities might negatively affect the antioxidant activity. Thus, the separation and purification of polysaccharides were significant to increase the antioxidant activity in some degree.
For some truffle species of the Tuber genus, the symbiotic phase is often associated with the presence of an area of scant vegetation, commonly known as the brûlé, around the host tree. Previous metagenomics studies have identified the microorganisms present inside and outside the brûlé of a Tuber melanosporum truffle-ground, but the molecular mechanisms that operate in this ecological niche remain to be clarified. To elucidate the metabolic pathways present in the brûlé, we conducted a metaproteomics analysis on the soil of a characterized truffle-ground and cross-referenced the resulting proteins with a database we constructed, incorporating the metagenomics data for the organisms previously identified in this soil. The soil inside the brûlé contained a larger number of proteins and, surprisingly, more proteins from plants, compared with the soil outside the brûlé. In addition, Fisher’s Exact Tests detected more biological processes inside the brûlé; these processes were related to responses to multiple types of stress. Thus, although the brûlé has a reduced diversity of plant and microbial species, the organisms in the brûlé show strong metabolic activity. Also, the combination of metagenomics and metaproteomics provides a powerful tool to reveal soil functioning.
Background
Traditional Environmental Knowledge (TEK) related to truffles represents an under-investigated area of research in ethnobiology. Nevertheless, truffles, in a few southern European areas, and notably in South Piedmont, represent a crucial component of the local economy and cultural heritage.
Methods
Thirty-four white truffle (Tuber magnatum Pico) gatherers, locally known as trifulau, aged between 35 and 75 years and living in a few villages and small towns of the Langhe and Roero areas (South Piedmont, NW Italy), were interviewed in-depth during the years 2010-2014 regarding their ecological perceptions, truffle gathering techniques, and the socio-ecological changes that have occurred during the past several decades.
Results
A very sophisticated ethnoecological knowledge of the trees, soils, and climatic conditions considered ideal for searching for and finding white truffles was recorded. Moreover, a very intimate connection between gatherers and their dogs plays a fundamental role in the success of the truffle search. However, according to the informants, this complex ethnoecological cobweb among men, truffles, dogs, and the environment has been heavily threatened in the past few decades by major changes: climate change, in which the summer has become a very hot and dry season; social changes, due to a more market-oriented attitude of younger gatherers; and especially environmental and macro-economic dynamics, which followed the remarkable expansion of viticulture in the study area.
Conclusion
The TEK of white truffle gatherers indicates the urgent need for fostering sustainable gastronomy-centred initiatives, aimed at increasing the awareness of consumers and food entrepreneurs regarding the co-evolution that has inextricably linked locals, truffles, and their natural environment during the past three centuries.
To improve baseline data for the developing truffle industry in British Columbia, we compiled existing Tuber species sequences from published and unpublished studies and generated new ITS sequences for truffles belonging to Tuber collected in the province. In doing so, we obtained evidence that 13 species of Tuber occur in the province, including six introduced and seven native species, two of which are putative undescribed species. Of the native species, the Tuber anniae species complex is widely distributed in the province while Tuber beyerlei appears to be much more restricted in distribution. Four of the introduced species have commercial value (Tuber melanosporum, Tuber aestivum, Tuber brumale, and Tuber borchii) as do two of the native species (Tuber gibbosum and Tuber oregonense). Focused sampling on likely tree hosts, both hardwood and Pinaceae species, as well as in currently unexplored parts of the province seems likely to expand our knowledge of the diversity and distribution of Tuber species in British Columbia.
To compare the volatile compounds of Chinese black truffle and white truffle from Yunnan province, this study presents the application of a direct solvent extraction/solvent-assisted flavor evaporation (DSE-SAFE) coupled with a comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography (GC × GC) high resolution time-of-flight mass spectrometry (HR-TOF/MS) and an electronic nose. Both of the analytical methods could distinguish the aroma profile of the two samples. In terms of the overall profile of truffle samples in this research, more kinds of acids were detected via the method of DSE-SAFE. Besides, compounds identified in black truffle (BT), but not in white truffle (WT), or vice versa, and those detected in both samples at different levels were considered to play an important role in differentiating the two samples. According to the analysis of electronic nose, the two samples could be separated, as well.
Fungi that produce their fruiting bodies underground within the soil profile are known commonly as truffles. Truffle fruiting bodies harbor a diverse but poorly understood microbial community of bacteria, yeasts, and filamentous fungi. In this study, we used next-generation 454 amplicon pyrosequencing of the V1 and V4 region of the bacterial 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) in order to characterize and compare effects of truffle species and geographic origin on the truffle microbiome. We compared truffle microbiomes of the glebal tissue for eight truffle species belonging to four distinct genera within the Pezizales: Tuber, Terfezia, Leucangium, and Kalapuya. The bacterial community within truffles was dominated by Proteobacteria, Bacterioides, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes. Bacterial richness within truffles was quite low overall, with between 2-23 operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Notably, we found a single Bradyrhizobium OTU to be dominant within truffle species belonging to the genus Tuber, irrespective of geographic origin, but not in other truffle genera sampled. This study offers relevant insights into the truffle microbiome and raises questions concerning the recruitment and function of these fungal-associated bacteria consortia.
Aroma results from the interplay of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and the attributes of microbial-producing aromas are significantly affected by fermentation conditions. Among the VOCs, only a few of them contribute to aroma. Thus, screening and identification of the key VOCs is critical for microbial-producing aroma. The traditional method is based on gas chromatography-olfactometry (GC-O), which is time-consuming and laborious. Considering the Tuber melanosporum fermentation system as an example, a new method to screen and identify the key VOCs by combining the aroma evaluation method with principle component analysis (PCA) was developed in this work. First, an aroma sensory evaluation method was developed to screen 34 potential favorite aroma samples from 504 fermentation samples. Second, PCA was employed to screen nine common key VOCs from these 34 samples. Third, seven key VOCs were identified by the traditional method. Finally, all of the seven key VOCs identified by the traditional method were also identified, along with four others, by the new strategy. These results indicate the reliability of the new method and demonstrate it to be a viable alternative to the traditional method.
The aroma attributes of sulfurous, mushroom and earthy are the most important characteristics of the aroma of Tuber melanosporum. However, these three aroma attributes are absent in the T. melanosporum fermentation system. To improve the quality of the aroma, repeated freeze-thaw treatment (RFTT) was adopted to affect the interplay of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Using RFTT, not only was the score on the hedonic scale of the aroma increased from the "liked slightly" to the "liked moderately" grade, but the aroma attributes of sulfurous, mushroom and earthy could also be smelled in the T. melanosporum fermentation system for the first time. A total of 29 VOCs were identified, and 9 compounds were identified as the key discriminative volatiles affected by RFTT. Amino acid analysis revealed that methionine, valine, serine, phenylalanine, isoleucine and threonine were the key substrates associated with the biosynthesis of the 9 key discriminative VOCs. This study noted that amino acid metabolism played an important role in the regulation of the aroma of the T. melanosporum fermentation system.
Topographical and pedological factors at 9 sites of Tuber indicum in Yunnan, Sichuan and Tibet were studied by using principal component analysis in order to determine the connection between truffle-growth with topographic factors and soil factors. Results showed that: 1) The 5 principal components selected from 15 topographical and pedological factors had a great cumulative contribution, up to 87.5%. Among the topographical factors, the slope position was the most important ecological factor affecting truffles growth. The higher the slope position was, the less conducive to truffles growth. In the middle and lower parts of the slope, T. indicum grew best. 2) As for the pedological factors, the bulk density, silt content, pH, total nitrogen content, exchangeable calcium and magnesium contents were the important factors restricting T. indicum growth. Under the condition of bulk density 0.65-0.82 g·cm-3, silt content 30.0% and sand content about 55.0%, T. indicum grew well. Too high bulk density or clay content was not conducive to its growth. The soil with pH 6.40 or so, total nitrogen content of 2.29-3.70 g·kg-1, exchangeable calcium content of 22.91-37.17 cmol·kg-1 and exchangeable magnesium content of 1.85-2.59 cmol·kg-1 were favorable for growth of T. indicum. 3) The comprehensive evaluation showed that the site at Shaoshang Village in Kunming, Yunnan and Jiangsegang Village in Linzhi Prefecture, Tibet had higher scores, which meant these two sites had the most favorable conditions for truffles growth. However, the site at Ershijiu-liangzi Village in Panzhihua, Sichuan and the Mt. Wuding in Chuxiong Prefecture, Yunnan had lower scores, which meant these two sites were not fit for truffles growth regarding the topographical and soil conditions. ©, 2015, Editorial Board of Chinese Journal of Applied Ecology. All right reserved.
Major scholars in the field, on the basis of a 3-day consensus, created an in-depth review of current knowledge on the role of diet in cardiovascular disease (CVD), the changing global food system and global dietary patterns, and potential policy solutions. Evidence from different countries and age/race/ethnicity/socioeconomic groups suggesting the health effects studies of foods, macronutrients, and dietary patterns on CVD appear to be far more consistent though regional knowledge gaps is highlighted. Large gaps in knowledge about the association of macronutrients to CVD in low- and middle-income countries particularly linked with dietary patterns are reviewed. Our understanding of foods and macronutrients in relationship to CVD is broadly clear; however, major gaps exist both in dietary pattern research and ways to change diets and food systems. On the basis of the current evidence, the traditional Mediterranean-type diet, including plant foods and emphasis on plant protein sources provides a well-tested healthy dietary pattern to reduce CVD.
In this paper volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from Tuber magnatum fruiting bodies were analyzed using a PTR-TOF-MS instrument. The aim was to characterize the VOC's profile of the fruiting bodies and identify if any VOCs were specific to a season and geographical areas. Multiple factorial analysis (MFA) was carried out on the signals obtained by MS. Experiments using ITS region sequencing proved that the T. magnatum life cycle includes the formation of fruiting bodies at two different times of the year. The VOCs profiles diverge when different seasonal and geographical productions are considered. Using PTR-TOF-MS, compounds present at levels as low pptv were detected. This made it possible to determine both the origin of fruiting bodies (Alba and San Miniato) and the two biological phases of fruiting bodies formation in San Miniato truffles.
Truffles (Tuber spp.) are ascomycete subterraneous fungi that form ectomycorrhizas in a symbiotic relationship with plant roots. Their fruiting bodies are appreciated for their distinctive aromas which might be partially derived from microbes. Indeed truffle fruiting bodies are colonized by a diverse microbial community made of bacteria, yeasts, guest filamentous fungi and viruses. The aim of this mini-review is double. First the current knowledge on the microbial community composition of truffles has been synthesized to highlight similarities and differences among four truffle species (T. magnatum, T. melanosporum, T. aestivum and T. borchii) at various stages of their life cycle. Second the potential role of the microbiome in truffle aroma formation has been addressed for the same four species. Our results suggest that on one side odorants which are common to many truffle species might be of mixed truffle and microbial origin while on the other side less common odorants might be derived from microbes only. They also highlight that bacteria, the dominant group in the truffle's microbiome, might also be the most important contributors to truffle aromas not only in T. borchii as already demonstrated but also in T. magnatum, T. aestivum and T. melanosporum.
Copyright © 2015, American Society for Microbiology. All Rights Reserved.
Truffle mycelia exhibit a complex interaction pattern with host plants and have been extensively studied over the last years as a source of new bioactive compounds. Fungal enzymes possess a wide use in food industry, confectionaries, textiles and leather industries in order to simplify the processing of raw materials. They are often more stable than enzymes derived from other sources. Tuber maculatum and Tuber aestivum mycelia were tested for enzymes production in Petri dishes solid medium conditions. The results showed that Tuber maculatum produced seven extracellular enzymes (amylase, xylanase, laccase, lipase, peroxidase, cellulase and catalase) while Tuber aes-tivum produced only three enzymes (amylase, peroxidase and catalase).
The relevance of tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) in the treatment of malignancies has been already defined. Aberrant activation of tyrosine kinase signaling pathways has been causally linked not only to cancers but also to other non-oncological diseases. This review concentrates on the novel plausible usage of this group of drugs in neurological disorders, such as ischemic brain stroke, subarachnoid hemorrhage, Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis. The drugs considered here are representatives of both receptor and non-receptor TKIs. Among them imatinib and masitinib have the broadest spectrum of therapeutic usage. Both drugs are effective in ischemic brain stroke and multiple sclerosis, but only imatinib produces a therapeutic effect in subarachnoid hemorrhage. Masitinib and dasatinib reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. In the case of multiple sclerosis several TKIs are useful, including apart from imatinib and masitinib, also sunitinib, sorafenib, lestaurtinib. Furthermore, the possible molecular targets for the drugs are described in connection with the underlying pathophysiological mechanisms in the diseases in question. The most frequent target for the TKIs is PDGFR which plays a pivotal role particularly in ischemic brain stroke and subarachnoid hemorrhage. The collected data indicates that TKIs are very promising candidates for new therapeutic interventions in neurological diseases.
Different soil types can significantly affect the composition of wine grapes and the final wine product. In this study, the effects of soil types on the composition of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and wine produced in the Helan Mountains were evaluated. Three different representative soil types-aeolian, sierozem and irrigation silting soil were studied. The compositions of grapes and wines were measured, and in addition, the weights of 100-berry samples were determined. The grapes that grown on the aeolian and sierozem soils matured sooner than those grown on the irrigation silting soil. The highest sugar content, total soluble solids content, sugar to acid ratio and anthocyanin content were found in the grapes that grown on the aeolian soil. The wine produced from this soil had improved chroma and tone and higher-quality phenols. The grapes grown on the sierozem soil had the highest total phenol and tannin contents, which affected the wine composition. The grapes grown on the irrigation silting soil had higher acidities, but the remaining indices were lower. In addition, the grapes grown on the aeolian soil resulted in wines with better chroma and aroma. The sierozem soil was beneficial for the formation of wine tannins and phenols and significantly affected the wine composition. The quality of the grapes from the irrigation silting soil was relatively low, resulting in lower-quality wine.
BACKGROUND: Microbial volatile organic compounds (MVOCs) are produced by a wide array of microorganisms ranging from bacteria to fungi. A growing body of evidence indicates that MVOCs are ecofriendly and can be exploited as a cost-effective sustainable strategy for use in agricultural practice as agents that enhance plant growth, productivity and disease resistance. As naturally occurring chemicals, MVOCs have potential as possible alternatives to harmful pesticides, fungicides and bactericides as well as genetic modification. Recent studies performed under open field conditions demonstrate that efficiently adopting MVOCs may contribute to sustainable crop protection and production. We review here the chemical diversity of MVOCs and their potential physiological effects on crops and analyze potential and actual limitations for MVOC use as a sustainable strategy for improving productivity and reducing pesticide use.
Adult BALB/c mice, individually housed, were stimulated with nine different stressors, arranged randomly, for 4 continuous weeks to generate an animal model of chronic stress. In chronically stressed mice, spontaneous locomotor activity was significantly decreased, escape latency in the Morris water maze test was prolonged, serum levels of total thyrotropin and total triiodothyronine were significantly decreased, and dopamine and norepinephrine content in the pallium, hippocampus and hypothalamus were significantly reduced. All of these changes were suppressed, to varying degrees, by L-tyrosine supplementation. These findings indicate that the neuroendocrine network plays an important role in chronic stress, and that L-tyrosine supplementation has therapeutic effects.
Truffle (Tuber spp.), also known as "underground gold," is popular in various cuisines because of its unique and characteristic aroma. Currently, truffle fruiting bodies are mostly obtained from nature and semi-artificial cultivation. However, the former source is scarce, and the latter is time-consuming, usually taking 4 to 12 years before harvest of the fruiting body. The truffle submerged fermentation process was first developed in Tang's lab as an alternative to its fruiting bodies. To the best of our knowledge, most reports of truffle submerged fermentation come from Tang's group. This review examines the current state of the truffle submerged fermentation process. First, the strategy to optimize the truffle submerged fermentation process is summarized; the final conditions yielded not only the highest reported truffle biomass but also the highest production of extracellular and intracellular polysaccharides. Second, the comparison of metabolites produced by truffle fermentation and fruiting bodies is presented, and the former were superior to the latter. Third, metabolites (i.e., volatile organic compounds, equivalent umami concentration, and sterol) derived from truffle fermentation could be regulated by fermentation process optimization. These findings indicated that submerged fermentation of truffles can be used for commercial production of biomass and metabolites as a promising alternative to generating its fruiting bodies in bioreactor.
Truffles are the fruiting body of fungi, members of the Ascomycota phylum endowed with major gastronomic
and commercial value. The development and maturation of their reproductive structure are
dependent on melanin synthesis. Since anandamide, a prominent member of the endocannabinoid system
(ECS), is responsible for melanin synthesis in normal human epidermal melanocytes, we thought that
ECS might be present also in truffles. Here, we show the expression, at the transcriptional and translational
levels, of most ECS components in the black truffle Tuber melanosporum Vittad. at maturation stage
VI. Indeed, by means of molecular biology and immunochemical techniques, we found that truffles contain
the major metabolic enzymes of the ECS, while they do not express the most relevant endocannabinoid-
binding receptors. In addition, we measured anandamide content in truffles, at different
maturation stages (from III to VI), through liquid chromatography–mass spectrometric analysis, whereas
the other relevant endocannabinoid 2-arachidonoylglycerol was below the detection limit.
Overall, our unprecedented results suggest that anandamide and ECS metabolic enzymes have evolved
earlier than endocannabinoid-binding receptors, and that anandamide might be an ancient attractant to
truffle eaters, that are well-equipped with endocannabinoid-binding receptors.
For centuries, macrofungi have been used as food and medicine in different parts of the world. This is mainly attributed to their
nutritional value as a potential source of carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, and minerals. In addition, they also include many
bioactive metabolites which make mushrooms and truffles common components in folk medicine, especially in Africa, theMiddle
East, China, and Japan. The reported medicinal effects of mushrooms include anti-inflammatory effects, with anti-inflammatory
compounds ofmushrooms comprising a highly diversified group in terms of their chemical structure.They include polysaccharides,
terpenoids, phenolic compounds, andmany other lowmolecularweightmolecules.The aims of this revieware to report the different
types of bioactive metabolites and their relevant producers, as well as the differentmechanisms of action ofmushroomcompounds
as potent anti-inflammatory agents.
Background
Tuber melanosporum, also known in the gastronomic community as “truffle”, features one of the largest fungal genomes (125 Mb) with an exceptionally high transposable element (TE) and repetitive DNA content (>58%). The main purpose of DNA methylation in fungi is TE silencing. As obligate outcrossing organisms, truffles are bound to a sexual mode of propagation, which together with TEs is thought to represent a major force driving the evolution of DNA methylation. Thus, it was of interest to examine if and how T. melanosporum exploits DNA methylation to maintain genome integrity.
Findings
We performed whole-genome DNA bisulfite sequencing and mRNA sequencing on different developmental stages of T. melanosporum; namely, fruitbody (“truffle”), free-living mycelium and ectomycorrhiza. The data revealed a high rate of cytosine methylation (>44%), selectively targeting TEs rather than genes with a strong preference for CpG sites. Whole genome DNA sequencing uncovered multiple TE-enriched, copy number variant regions bearing a significant fraction of hypomethylated and expressed TEs, almost exclusively in free-living mycelium propagated in vitro. Treatment of mycelia with 5-azacytidine partially reduced DNA methylation and increased TE transcription. Our transcriptome assembly also resulted in the identification of a set of novel transcripts from 614 genes.
Conclusions
The datasets presented here provide valuable and comprehensive (epi)genomic information that can be of interest for evolutionary genomics studies of multicellular (filamentous) fungi, in particular Ascomycetes belonging to the subphylum, Pezizomycotina. Evidence derived from comparative methylome and transcriptome analyses indicates that a non-exhaustive and partly reversible methylation process operates in truffles.
While numerous changes in human lifestyle constitute modern life, our diet has been gaining attention as a potential contributor to the increase in immune-mediated diseases. The Western diet is characterized by an over consumption and reduced variety of refined sugars, salt, and saturated fat. Herein our objective is to detail the mechanisms for the Western diet's impact on immune function. The manuscript reviews the impacts and mechanisms of harm for our over-indulgence in sugar, salt, and fat, as well as the data outlining the impacts of artificial sweeteners, gluten, and genetically modified foods; attention is given to revealing where the literature on the immune impacts of macronutrients is limited to either animal or in vitro models versus where human trials exist. Detailed attention is given to the dietary impact on the gut microbiome and the mechanisms by which our poor dietary choices are encoded into our gut, our genes, and are passed to our offspring. While today's modern diet may provide beneficial protection from micro- and macronutrient deficiencies, our over abundance of calories and the macronutrients that compose our diet may all lead to increased inflammation, reduced control of infection, increased rates of cancer, and increased risk for allergic and auto-inflammatory disease.
Cell walls are deeply involved in the molecular talk between partners during plant and microbe interactions, and their role in mycorrhizae, i.e., the widespread symbiotic associations established between plant roots and soil fungi, has been investigated extensively. All mycorrhizal interactions achieve full symbiotic functionality through the development of an extensive contact surface between the plant and fungal cells, where signals and nutrients are exchanged. The exchange of molecules between the fungal and the plant cytoplasm takes place both through their plasma membranes and their cell walls; a functional compartment, known as the symbiotic interface, is thus defined. Among all the symbiotic interfaces, the complex intracellular interface of arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) symbiosis has received a great deal of attention since its first description. Here, in fact, the host plasma membrane invaginates and proliferates around all the developing intracellular fungal structures, and cell wall material is laid down between this membrane and the fungal cell surface. By contrast, in ectomycorrhizae (ECM), where the fungus grows outside and between the root cells, plant and fungal cell walls are always in direct contact and form the interface between the two partners. The organization and composition of cell walls within the interface compartment is a topic that has attracted widespread attention, both in ecto- and endomycorrhizae. The aim of this review is to provide a general overview of the current knowledge on this topic by integrating morphological observations, which have illustrated cell wall features during mycorrhizal interactions, with the current data produced by genomic and transcriptomic approaches.