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Shared Water Resources of Lebanon

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Amin Shaban at National Council for Scientific Research, Lebanon
Amin Shaban
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Water has become a challenging resource that many countries worldwide are concerned with. Thus, water is often linked with health, society development, national income and even international geo-politics. Sometimes, water resources are unavailable, but successful management involves developing approaches and projects to assure water supply. However, there are some countries with available water resources, but unsatisfactory management, and thus complain about water supply becoming a national problem. This situation is prevalent in Lebanon, a country characterized by abundant water resources whether on the surface or sub-surface. It is a paradox that there is still imbalance in water supply/demand in Lebanon, and water resources are now under stress due to chaotic use. This has been exacerbated by the oscillating climatic conditions, increased population and improper management. Therefore, people receive less than one-third of their water needs, and most water supplied is of poor quality. The current status shows a descending trend. Undoubtedly, if the water sector in Lebanon continues this way, we should anticipate unfavourable (and may be severe) consequences. Many studies have been conducted on water and related disciplines in Lebanon; however, all of them focus on specific themes and sometimes defined regions. Nevertheless, the occurred changes on the influencers (natural and man-made) have not been considered. This book is the first of its type for Lebanon, and it shows all aspects of water resources with updated measurements and findings obtained by adopting new techniques. It diagnoses in-depth the major elements of water flow/storage mechanism that have never been covered in such a comprehensive manner before. Also, this book introduces and analyses the existing challenges and proposes solutions. It represents a comprehensive investigation of the water resources in Lebanon.
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... Lebanon is located on the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea (Fig. 1a), covering an area of 10,452 km 2 between 33 • -35 • N and 35 • -37 • E (Shaban, 2020). Lebanon hosts a harsh topography providing various microclimates from Mediterranean to arid, representative of the whole Mediterranean basin. ...
... This holds true under Mediterranean conditions (wet winter and dry summers), and is well documented across the basin (Lempereur et al., 2015;Zribi et al., 2016). We could find HMED drought-types for the extreme drought level (KBDI-150) covering exclusively two mountainous regions Mount-Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon with annual rainfall amounts exceeding 1200 mm/year and between 600 and 800 mm/year (Shaban, 2020). The precipitation patterns (climatic factor) and elevation (affecting temperatures and decreasing PET) (topographic/orographic factors) over Fig. 9. Drought Features sensitivity to various scenarios of daily maximum temperature changes. ...
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... • Finally, the Beirut River is characterized by an average flow in the wet season and a flow almost null in the dry season. It crosses the capital Beirut, so it has the highest population [36], industrial, agricultural [31] and touristic activities along its side, which reveals very high amounts of discharges, as shown in Table 1. A total of 23 samples were collected at different sampling points in these three rivers in such a way that they represent the river's source, outlet, and between locations based on the river's accessibility. ...
... Lebanon's watersheds are made up of exposed carbonate rocks where limestone, dolomitic limestone and dolomite are distributed on field surfaces. More than 85% of these rocks are karstified, and the dissolution of carbonates is very noticeable [36]. Calcium and carbonate alkalinity show a similar behavior along the three rivers, which indicates that they are controlled by almost identical factors as carbonate mineral weathering, which gives CaCO 3 precipitation as a sink. ...
Surface Water Processes in Coping with Anthropogenic Impact in a Coastal Eastern Mediterranean Region
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
Rivers are progressively being exposed to increased anthropogenic pollution stresses that are undermining their designated uses and affecting sensitive coastal areas. In this study, three adjacent eastern Mediterranean coastal rivers , Ibrahim, Kaleb and Beirut, were evaluated. Water quality samples were collected in dry and wet seasons from different sampling sites along the river from the source to the outlet which represent a gradient of increased urbanization. The spatiotemporal variability of the physio-chemical properties, heavy metals (Zn, Pb, Cu, Cr, and Cd) and organic matter (DOC) were statistically analyzed to better understand the contribution of point and nonpoint pollution sources. The three rivers (Beirut, Kaleb and Ibrahim) show a similar behavior in calcium and carbonate alkalinity due to the carbonate mineral weathering effect, so they are of calcium bicarbonate type due to their calca-reous geological nature. The speciation of anions was affected by temporal variation. Moreover, it is obvious that the Beirut River has a different beha-vioral characteristic where the water is a sulfate type water with a preferable metal-OM complexation mainly with lead, zinc and copper, whereas Kaleb and Ibrahim are considered to be of a nitrate phosphate type with a preferable metal inorganic complexation, especially copper, that has a consistent behavior in both types of waters. This difference is attributed to the urbanization effect highly impacting the Beirut River.
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... More advanced results were possible to obtain under protected vegetables on the coastal areas even with the use of slightly saline water in irrigation due to appropriate management of fertigation and irrigation schedule based on the monitoring of soil moisture (Darwish et al., 2018b). Water scarcity in inland Bekaa area and intensive agriculture have been associated with excess pumping from groundwater causing the depletion of groundwater table level (Shaban, 2020). ...
Transforming Irrigated Agriculture in Semi-Arid and Dry Subhumid Mediterranean Conditions: A Case of Protected Cucumber Cultivation
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Oct 2024
Pressure from population growth and climate change stress the limited water resources in the Mediterranean region and threaten food security and social stability. Enhancing food production requires the transformation of irrigation systems and enhancement of local capacity for sustainable water and soil management in irrigated agriculture. The aim of this work is the conversion of traditional irrigation practices, by introducing the practice of optimal irrigation scheduling based on local ET estimation and soil moisture monitoring, and the use of continuous feeding by fertigation to enhance both water and nutrient use efficiency. For this, two trials were established between August and November 2023 in two different pedoclimatic zones (Serein and Sultan Yacoub) of the inner Bekaa plain of Lebanon, characterized by semi-arid and dry subhumid conditions and different soil types. Protected cucumber was tested to compare the prevailing traditional farmer’s practice of empirical nutrient and water management using closed tanks with the advanced methods of water accounting and soil moisture monitoring using differential injector that allow more homogeneous application of nutritive solutions and simple tensiometers. Results showed a significantly higher amount of water applied by the farmers to the protected cucumber with a potential for average saving of 105 mm by improved practices. Water input was accompanied by higher amplitude of variation of soil moisture in the farmer’s practice before and after the irrigation cycle revealing potential stress to plant performance caused by higher water depletion followed by over irrigation. With more than 20% increase in cucumber yield by the transformed practices, a general trend in both locations was observed in the fertilization approach and amounts resulting in lower nutrient recovery in the farmer’s plots. The science-based practices of water and nutrient management showed higher application and agronomic water use efficiency of full fertigation, exceeding 60%, associated with double and triple higher nitrogen use efficiency, compared to those results obtained by the traditional water and fertilizer application methods. The monitored factors contribute to severe economic and environmental consequences from nutrient buildup in the soil-groundwater system in the Mediterranean region.
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... torrential rain) has been well 36 pronounced lately and reflected on the increased number of flash floods in many wadis of Saudi Arabia resulting 37 in severe damages to the infrastructure and the environments (Al Saud, 2015). Similarly, to many arid and sem-38 iarid regions, there are several dams have been constructed along valleys in Saudi Arabia either to capture water 39 runoff for water supply or to give a chance for the accumulated water behind these dams to infiltrate, as sponta-40 neous groundwater recharge process (Shaban, 2020). 41 Even though the Arabian Peninsula, including Saudi Arabia, is characterized by arid climate and scarce water 42 ...
Evidenced Paleodrainages in Desert Regions of Saudi Arabia: Satellite Images with Field-Based Study
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Aug 2024
In Saudi Arabia, a number of linear features with uncertain origin have been observed from space, but they do not belong to any existed drainage networks. They are ancient watercourses carried water in the past during Mid-Late Quaternary (Pleistocene) and later on they were affected by global climate change and geological processes turning them into dry and buried channels filled by sediments, and then described as “Paleodrainages”. This study investigated these features primarily based on the integration of a variety of satellite images including SRTM DEM for generating detailed stream networks, ALOS-PALSAR which is capable to penetrate the surficial materials, and ASTER for detecting thermal differentiation. The novelty of this study includes the use of more than one satellite images (optical and microwave) with various spectral and optical characteristics, and the reliability of results were evidenced by field verification to investigate the lithological facies of stuffed materials into the detected paleodrainages and this has never been implemented in previous studies. Hydro-geomorphological-based categorization of these paleodrainages was carried out, indicating the presence of porous, unconsolidated sediments and rocks. From the hydrological point of view, these paleodrainages are potential for groundwater storage; and they can be also suitable sites for artificial groundwater recharge; be-sides they represent routs for saltwater intrusion on-land; and these science-based clues represent supportive element for better water resources management in Saudi Arabia.
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... Earlier studies focused on the volume of water resources (Bou-Zeid and El-Fadel, 2002;El-Fadel et al., 2000) and human impacts (Khair et al., 1994). More recently, the book Water Resources of Lebanon (Shaban, 2020) presented the knowledge on the Lebanese water resources from the available data. Lebanon was also included in several studies of the Mediterranean region, such as those of water-resource management (Correia, 1999), global-change impacts (García-Ruiz et al., 2011;Milano et al., 2013), drought variability (Cook et al., 2016), hydrological response characteristics (Merheb et al., 2016), catchment classification (Allam et al., 2021), climate trends (Alpert et al., 2008;Philandras et al., 2011), and groundwater hydrogeochemistry (Al Haj et al., 2023). ...
The water resources of Lebanon -A review to support water security
Article
Full-text available
  • Aug 2024
  • PHYS CHEM EARTH
This work reviewed a large and fragmented body of academic and grey literature on water resources in Lebanon. The objective was to assess and curate the existing knowledge base that reflected the importance of water-related concerns. Studies were classified into four topics: water balance, quality, management and governance, each of which was subdivided into sub-topics. Bibliometric analysis was performed, the content was summarised and discussed, and future directions were proposed. In terms of water balance, precipitation requires more research, as available rainfall maps are outdated. Despite an increase in the number of weather stations, their spatial distribution and data continuity remain problematic. Snow cover area and duration differed among studies; thus, it also requires more research. Estimates of evapotranspiration lack comprehensive coverage and often focus on specific crops. Surface-water studies are rare and have low temporal resolution. River flows have high temporal and spatial variability, emphasizing the importance of groundwater, which is overexploited. No consistent trends in climate change impacts were detected. More research is needed in all of the hydrological cycle components. On the other hand, water quality is degrading rapidly with microbiological pollution in most rivers. Groundwater degradation, saltwater intrusion, nitrate pollution, and pesticide contamination pose significant challenges. In addition, emerging pollutants are also being detected. In terms of water management and governance, Lebanon's water framework is complex, involving many laws, institutions, and international partnerships. Despite reforms, challenges remain. Water management has evolved from being state-centred to having increased involvement by international organisations and the private sector. Access to public water networks has improved but remains intermittent. Wastewater networks are expanding, but treatment capacity remains limited. Finally, this work made it possible to quantify the research work and projects carried out in each Lebanese basin, which made it possible to identify gaps in study topics and areas. We hope that this work contributes to the ongoing debate about water security and serves as a resource to support water security and solutions for researchers, educators and policy makers.
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... However, the inclined bedding plans seaward, plus the dominant fault 131 systems and karstic conduits, often allow groundwater seepages into the sea. were succeeded (Shaban, 2020). However, the majority of SWHR techniques follows two main 145 technical approaches as follows: ...
GIS-Based Multi Factor Analysis for Positioning Water Harvesting Sites Integrated with Managed Aquifer Recharge
Preprint
Full-text available
  • Jun 2024
Runoff loss to the sea and seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers represent a dual hydrologic phenomenon in many coastal regions. In this respect, an integrated management approach must be adopted to mitigate the impact of this geo-environmental problem, through surface water harvesting and recharging (SWHR) it into the beneath rock formations. However, positioning suitable sites, for surface water harvesting where from this water can be artificially/spontaneously recharged, is often a challenge. This study handles this challenge with innovative multi factor analysis using GIS to identify the optimal sites for SWHR. For this purpose, thematic maps were analysed and systematically integrated with data retrieved from satellite images (e.g., Sentinel-2, SRTM, etc.). The obtained geospatial data represent main factors controlling surface water flow regime, infiltration potential and other relevant environmental factors. Being converted to GIS digital files with various levels of impact on SWHR, these factors were together systematically manipulated; and thus 28 sites were identified and hydrologically characterized. The produced SWHR sites' map serves decision makers to take proper actions for water management in coastal zones whether in the investment of surface water or the mitigation of seawater intrusion.
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... Groundwater is widely tapped worldwide, and aquiferous rock formations are subjected to unprecedented exhaustion, of which Lebanon is a typical example [2,3]. In this becomes significant to acquiring the geospatial data needed for analysis and for the systematic manipulation. ...
LithoSFR Model for Mapping Groundwater Potential Zones Using Remote Sensing and GIS
Article
Full-text available
  • Jul 2024
Groundwater is a significant source of water supply, especially with depleted and quality-deteriorated surface water. The number of drilled boreholes for groundwater has been increased, but erroneous results often occur while selecting sites for digging boreholes. This makes it necessary to follow a science-based method indicating potential zones for groundwater storage. The LithoSFR Model is a systematic approach we built to create an indicative map with various categories for potential groundwater sites. It is based mainly on retrieved geospatial data from satellite images and from available thematic maps, plus borehole data. The geospatial data were systematically manipulated in a GIS with multi-criteria applications. The novelty of this model includes the empirical calculation of the level each controlling factor (i.e., weights and rates), as well as the LithoSFR Model, adopting new factors in its design. This study was applied on a representative Mediterranean region, i.e., Lebanon. Results showed that 44% of the studied region is characterized by a very high to high potentiality for groundwater storage, mainly in areas with fractured and karstified carbonate rocks. The obtained results from the produced map were compared with datasets which were surveyed from representative boreholes to identify the discharge in the dug boreholes, and then to compare them with the potential zones in the produced map The reliability of the produced map exceeded 87%, making it a significant tool to identify potential zones for groundwater investment.
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... However, the country is under water stress due to several factors including mainly climate change which has been raised lately and impacted several sectors. The impact of climate change is mainly observed from the increased temperature rate which was estimated at 1.8 • C over the past few decades, as well as form the changing rainfall patterns which became torrential and associated with slight decrease in the rainfall rate estimated at 30-35 mm over the last five decades [4,5]. It is obvious from the performed climatic trends and scenarios obtained by various studies, that the current climatic regime in Lebanon is aligned with an increasing temperature trend and a decreasing trend in precipitation [6][7][8]. ...
Unveiling novel APLIS model for identifying groundwater recharge zones in semi-arid regions: A case from Lebanon
Article
  • Jun 2024
The Bekaa Plain in Lebanon, is a major agricultural region known for its fertile soil and extensive crops cultivation using groundwater resources which is recently became under stress due to population growth, urbanization , and climate change. The main aim of this study is to investigate the rate of groundwater recharge (GwR) into this region using APLIS Model which principally depends on altitude, slope, lithology, infiltration, and soil type. Using GIS-based for a multicriteria mapping approach, in this study additional factors were added to the model, by incorporating rainfall rates, stream density, and fracture density. Results revealed various recharge potential area in the Bekaa Plain, with 52 % classified as high to very high GwR zones, equivalent to approximately 42.5 % of precipitated water, which is a testament to the exceptional capacity of the region to replenish groundwater aquifers. The geographic distribution of GwR categories primarily depends on altitude and litho-logical characteristics. The exceptional GwR potential of the Bekaa Plain holds immense promise for mitigating water scarcity, fostering agricultural productivity, and ensuring the socioeconomic well-being of communities reliant on groundwater resources.
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EXPRESS: Cultivating Sustainable Return Migration to Lebanon: Supporting Young Migrants through Marketing Systems Amidst Ongoing Conflict
Article
  • Sep 2024
Amidst Lebanon's enduring conflict and its consequences, young Lebanese are driven to seek stability and opportunities abroad, impacting the demographic balance among religious communities, which generates tensions and threatens the fragile peace prevailing in the country. This study delves into these migration dynamics, exploring how marketing systems can mitigate challenges and encourage emigrants to return to Lebanon. Semi-structured interviews with Lebanese migrants across five continents were conducted to ascertain primary motivations for emigration, obstacles to return, and factors encouraging repatriation. Findings reveal that while young Lebanese pursue better lives abroad, insecurity and persistent barriers hinder their return. By integrating marketing systems and adapting the "Transformative Refugee Service Experience Framework," this research proposes comprehensive public policy and managerial strategies tailored to Lebanon’s context. Key recommendations include targeted job placement programs, enhanced communication with the diaspora, and community-based educational reforms. By fostering a hospitable environment, Lebanon can support sustainable development, resilience, and well-being, encouraging the return of its young migrants. This study bridges theory and practice, offering actionable insights for policymakers and extending existing frameworks to other socio-political settings.
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Navigating the water–energy nexus amidst the Lebanese economic crisis
Article
  • May 2024
Lebanon's economic crisis has disrupted the country's energy and water sectors, highlighting their interdependence. The methodology involves surveying 150 municipalities across all Lebanese governorates, ensuring a comprehensive coverage of public and private water resources. Data on water and energy were collected before and during the crisis to explore this nexus during periods of economic turmoil. The findings reveal a decline in water provision during the crisis, with the average weekly water supply plummeting from 49 h in 2019 to 22 h in 2023. Concurrently, the use of water tankers has surged from 26 to 44%, indicating a concerning shift in water acquisition methods. Despite the crisis, conventional water sources remain predominant, while unconventional sources account for less than 1% of the total supply. In response to the energy shortage, renewable energy sources have gained traction in residential, commercial, and industrial sectors. The scarcity and rising cost of electricity have driven the adoption of solar photovoltaics in the water sector, reaching 4.8% for extraction from underground reservoirs and 2.8% for distribution. Similarly, the use of solar water heaters has increased from 7.9 to 15.4% in 2023. These findings underscore the interplay between energy and water security during periods of economic instability.
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Offshore Pumping Impacts Onshore Groundwater Resources and Land Subsidence
Article
Full-text available
Freshened groundwater exists offshore along many coastlines worldwide. Pumping of these offshore resources has been proposed for more efficient oil production as well as drinking and agriculture. Although pumping can occur tens to hundreds of kilometers offshore, these activities may threaten connected onshore aquifer systems. We conducted numerical simulations of variable-density groundwater flow and salt transport in coastal aquifers with different geologic structure subject to offshore pumping to assess potential impacts. Results show that offshore pumping can diminish both onshore groundwater availability and submarine groundwater discharge and can cause widespread land subsidence. Heterogeneity increases water resource vulnerability relative to equivalent homogeneous and layered systems and exacerbates the magnitude of land subsidence. More continuous geologic structure causes propagation of maximum subsidence farther landward. This work suggests that coastal aquifers may be vulnerable to offshore pumping activities and that these effects should be considered in feasibility assessments for offshore drilling.
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Exploitation of submarine springs in Lebanon: assessment of potential
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2018
The extreme shortage of public water supplies in most countries of the Middle East has steadily commanded a great political importance. Regional disputes over the riparian rights relevant to the transboundary surface and groundwater resources are imminent. Therefore, it is opportune to plan for feasible, affordable, and sustainable measures such as conservation, wastewater reclamation, artificial recharge, and particularly utilization of deep groundwater and submarine springs. Chekka Bay, in the north of Lebanon, is well known for its freshwater springs. A general objective of the study was set at evaluating the feasibility of exploiting the submarine springs in the Chekka Bay taking into consideration the technical, economic, social and environmental aspects of such a project. The study has been subdivided into three parts, namely hydrogeological, marine and socioeconomic. Offshore exploitation of the submarine springs could face implementation problems as it is technically difficult, financially expensive, and yields a qualitatively unacceptable water. A more suitable alternative would be to tap the submarine springs inland through wells of differing depths. The financial feasibility of the latter alternative has been confirmed through a cost-benefit analysis.
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Contrasting Two Dimensions of Disaster-Induced Water-Shortage Experiences: Water Availability and Access
Article
Full-text available
  • Dec 2017
The value of a good is contingent on an individual’s experience that reveals the nature of the good. This study investigates the effects of a water shortage due to the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster in 2011 on the voluntary management of community wells in the water-rich town of Otsuchi, Japan. A questionnaire survey based on a choice experiment (CE) framework was conducted in 2015 in which a total of 127 residents participated. The responses were then analyzed using two types of logit models that consider preference heterogeneity across survey participants. The results revealed that the severity and duration of the water shortage had opposing effects on people’s attitudes toward the wells. More specifically, increasingly severe water shortages due to the unavailability of water rendered people less supportive of the wells, whereas water shortages of a longer duration caused by limited access to water resources made people more supportive.
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Water Economics and Policy
Article
Full-text available
  • Oct 2017
Economics plays a double role in the field of water management, firstly as a powerful analytical tool supporting water allocation and policy decisions, and secondly in the form of policy instruments (water pricing, markets, etc.). This Special Issue presents a platform for sharing results connecting excellent interdisciplinary research applied to different regional and sectoral problems around the world. The 22 peer-reviewed papers collected in this Special Issue have been grouped into five broad categories: Water valuation and accounting; Economic instruments; Cost effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis; and Water productivity and Governance. They are briefly presented.
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An assessment of two automated snow water equivalent instruments during the WMO Solid Precipitation Intercomparison Experiment
Article
Full-text available
During the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) Solid Precipitation Intercomparison Experiment (SPICE), automated measurements of snow water equivalent (SWE) were made at the Sodankylä (Finland), Weissfluhjoch (Switzerland) and Caribou Creek (Canada) SPICE sites during the northern hemispheric winters of 2013/14 and 2014/15. Supplementary intercomparison measurements were made at Fortress Mountain (Kananaskis, Canada) during the 2013/14 winter. The objectives of this analysis are to compare automated SWE measurements with a reference, comment on their performance and, where possible, to make recommendations on how to best use the instruments and interpret their measurements. Sodankylä, Caribou Creek and Fortress Mountain hosted a Campbell Scientific CS725 passive gamma radiation SWE sensor. Sodankylä and Weissfluhjoch hosted a Sommer Messtechnik SSG1000 snow scale. The CS725 operating principle is based on measuring the attenuation of soil emitted gamma radiation by the snowpack and relating the attenuation to SWE. The SSG1000 measures the mass of the overlying snowpack directly by using a weighing platform and load cell. Manual SWE measurements were obtained at the intercomparison sites on a bi-weekly basis over the accumulation–ablation periods using bulk density samplers. These manual measurements are considered to be the reference for the intercomparison. Results from Sodankylä and Caribou Creek showed that the CS725 generally overestimates SWE as compared to manual measurements by roughly 30–35 % with correlations (r2) as high as 0.99 for Sodankylä and 0.90 for Caribou Creek. The RMSE varied from 30 to 43 mm water equivalent (mm w.e.) and from 18 to 25 mm w.e. at Sodankylä and Caribou Creek, which had respective SWE maximums of approximately 200 and 120 mm w.e. The correlation at Fortress Mountain was 0.94 (RMSE of 48 mm w.e. with a maximum SWE of approximately 650 mm w.e.) with no systematic overestimation. The SSG1000 snow scale, having a different measurement principle, agreed quite closely with the manual measurements at Sodankylä and Weissfluhjoch throughout the periods when data were available (r2 as high as 0.99 and RMSE from 8 to 24 mm w.e. at Sodankylä and from 56 to 59 mm w.e. at Weissfluhjoch, where maximum SWE was approximately 850 mm w.e.). When the SSG1000 was compared to the CS725 at Sodankylä, the agreement was linear until the start of ablation when the positive bias in the CS725 increases substantially relative to the SSG1000. Since both Caribou Creek and Sodankylä have sandy soil, water from the snowpack readily infiltrates into the soil during melt, even if the soil is frozen. However, the CS725 does not differentiate this water from the unmelted snow. This issue can be identified, at least during the late spring ablation period, with soil moisture and temperature observations like those measured at Caribou Creek. With a less permeable soil and surface runoff, the increase in the instrument bias during ablation is not as significant, as shown by the Fortress Mountain intercomparison.
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The Middle-East: Regional Geology and Petroleum Resources
Article
  • Jul 1989
This book is divided into two parts; the first part describes the regional geology of the area and traces the geological evolution of the Middle East including Proterozoic cratonization; Proterozoic stratigraphic correlation; late Cretaceous tectonic events and ophiolite obduction; the Tertiary opening of the Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden; and the evolution of the Levant (Dead Sea) fracture. The second part concentrates on the petroleum resources of the area and their exploitation. A short section on other mineral resources is also included. -A.W.Hall
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