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Conservation potential of apex predator tourism
Abstract
In recent decades, public interest in apex predators has led to the creation and expansion of predator-focused wildlife tourism. As wildlife tourism has become an increasing topic of study for both social and biological scientists, researchers have debated whether these activities serve conservation goals by providing non-con-sumptive values for wildlife. Discussion of predator tourism requires additional recognition of predator-specific biological and ecological characteristics, consideration of human safety concerns, and mitigation of human-wildlife conflict. By reviewing tourism activities centered on both aquatic and terrestrial predators from diverse taxa (sharks, crocodiles, and big cats), we evaluate the potential benefits and conservation challenges associated with predator tourism. Our review suggests that positive conservation outcomes are possible, but not assured given historical, cultural, and ecological complexities. We explore some of the factors which determine whether tourism contributes to conservation outcomes, including (1) effective protection of animals and habitats, (2) avoidance and mitigation of human-wildlife conflict, (3) quality of associated educational interpretation and outreach, (4) collaboration with local stakeholders, and (5) use of generated funds to advance conservation goals. Our findings suggest tourism is most likely to support predator conservation and/or recovery when the industry has both public and political support and under conditions of effective regulation focused on management , monitoring and enforcement by local, national, and international bodies.
... WILDLIFE tourism, a fast-growing sector within the larger global tourism industry, can provide economic benefits to local communities and conservation benefits to species if carried out in a responsible and sustainable manner (Buckley et al. 2016;Macdonald et al. 2017). Part of the benefit stems from the idea that certain species in certain locations are more valuable to humans, in a monetary sense, alive than dead (e.g., Vianna et al. 2012). ...
... Large predators have received increasing interest from the wildlife tourism industry in recent years (Macdonald et al. 2017), and some populations or communities have been assigned high tourism values (nonconsumptive) in the literature. For example, shark tourism in Palau and the Bahamas is estimated to generate $18 million USD and $113.8 million USD/yr, respectively, for the local economies (Vianna et al. 2012;Haas et al. 2017). ...
... Wildlife tourism involving large predators can deliver conservation benefits as well as financial returns for local communities, but only if certain guidelines are followed. Macdonald et al. (2017) outlined five factors that determine whether or not large predator tourism can lead to positive conservation results: effective animal and habitat protection measures, effective management of human-predator conflict, effective educational materials and outreach, buy-in from local stakeholders, and appropriate use of tourismgenerated funds. If these factors can be adequately addressed and controlled, then wildlife tourism has been shown to be able to extend expected survival times for some threatened populations (Buckley et al. 2016). ...
Wildlife tourism, including tourism involving large predators, is a rapidly growing industry that can generate many conservation and economic benefits. Monetary values can be derived for populations of large predators, and even individuals, on the basis of how much money tourists spend to see and interact with these awe-inspiring animals, but valuation studies only exist for a few groups of species. To help fill this gap we quantified the monetary value of crocodilians that are the focus of a wildlife tourism business in South America, the first time such a value has been calculated for crocodilians. We also compared the monetary values we derived with the monetary values of other crocodilians harvested in the hunting and farming industries during the same time period (20092014). We found mean minimum and maximum gross values of individual crocodilians per year as part of wildlife tourism were $422.00 USD and $566.67 USD, respectively, both higher than the mean gross value of individual crocodilians per year across hunting and farming industries ($300.29 USD). Individual crocodilians that were recaptured multiple times as part of wildlife tourism activities reached a peak value of $2700.00 USD. Thus, our study demonstrates that wildlife tourism can create substantial monetary incentives for local communities that coexist with crocodilians to work toward conservation goals. We conclude that wildlife tourism focused on crocodilians should be viewed as part of a larger strategy for conserving threatened populations, one that may include partners in the farming and hunting industries as well.
... Thematic strategies aimed at improving tolerance include ecosystem services research that highlights the economic benefits of wildlife to human communities (e.g., Nelson et al., 2010), compensating ranchers who support carnivores on their lands (e.g., Zabel and Holm-Müller, 2008;Macon, 2020), educating the public about the positive roles carnivores play in natural systems (Bruskotter and Wilson, 2014), developing effective anti-predation strategies to protect livestock (Castaño Uribe et al., 2016;Ohrens et al., 2019a), and ecotourism, which provides positive direct experience with species and landscapes of interest that can change people's beliefs and values, if well-managed (Hemson et al., 2009;Macdonald et al., 2017). Tourism also provides economic incentives for maintaining predator populations, non-extractive employment for members of local communities, and opportunities for the predators themselves to become flagship individuals that increase local tolerance for predators and political support for conservation more broadly (Macdonald et al., 2017). ...
... Thematic strategies aimed at improving tolerance include ecosystem services research that highlights the economic benefits of wildlife to human communities (e.g., Nelson et al., 2010), compensating ranchers who support carnivores on their lands (e.g., Zabel and Holm-Müller, 2008;Macon, 2020), educating the public about the positive roles carnivores play in natural systems (Bruskotter and Wilson, 2014), developing effective anti-predation strategies to protect livestock (Castaño Uribe et al., 2016;Ohrens et al., 2019a), and ecotourism, which provides positive direct experience with species and landscapes of interest that can change people's beliefs and values, if well-managed (Hemson et al., 2009;Macdonald et al., 2017). Tourism also provides economic incentives for maintaining predator populations, non-extractive employment for members of local communities, and opportunities for the predators themselves to become flagship individuals that increase local tolerance for predators and political support for conservation more broadly (Macdonald et al., 2017). Nevertheless, we lack evidence that tourism in fact improves tolerance or changes people's attitudes. ...
... Nevertheless, tourism also appears to be creating a division among ranchers with regards to the lethal control of pumas (up to 14 times more potential for conflict than puma tourism itself), the potential removal of pumas that kill livestock, and whether to initiate a managed puma hunt to pre-emptively mitigate puma-livestock conflict (12 times more potential for conflict than puma tourism itself) (Fig. 2). The dichotomy between those who benefit most from tourism versus those who do not is widely described in tourism-revenue related studies (Archabald and Naughton-Treves, 2001;Dickman et al., 2011;Mossaz et al., 2015;Macdonald et al., 2017;Tortato et al., 2017), and it needs to be watched carefully before it becomes a source for conflict among ranchers that undermines conservation efforts. ...
Predator tourism is one strategy to improve tolerance for predators, and support biodiversity and ecosystem health. Torres del Paine National Park (TdP)-a UNESCO Biosphere Reserve in southern Chile-supports productive livestock industries and nascent puma tourism. We compared interviews conducted in the region prior to puma tourism, with results from interviews collected across 45 ranches post-puma tourism. We assessed rancher attitudes regarding pumas, puma-livestock conflict, puma tourism, and linked them with socio-ecological factors. Respondents who viewed pumas as a threat experienced higher livestock losses. Respondents who reported higher sheep losses were inclined to support the lethal removal of livestock-killing pumas, and to initiate a puma hunt, whereas respondents who supported puma tourism disagreed with hunting pumas. Using the Potential for Conflict Index, we found that participants exhibited the highest consensus on the benefit of puma tourism and the lowest consensus over lethal removal of pumas. Our results suggest predator tourism has increased tolerance for pumas but is creating new potential for conflict. Previous to puma tourism, ranchers were almost entirely negative about pumas and unanimously supported illegal puma hunting. Now, most believe that pumas are part of Patagonia's heritage. This divide was best explained by distance to TdP: ranches closer to TdP experienced greater losses to pumas but had neighbours that benefitted most from puma tourism. Therefore, we suggest that tourism revenues supplement community compensation insurance programs that reimburse rancher losses to pumas to mitigate the growing divide between those benefiting from pumas and those experiencing economic hardship.
... Wildlife tourism practices are globally diverse, targeting a multitude of taxa across all biomes, and uses a range of methods to observe and attract species. The industry has a history of affecting species and ecosystems (Higham et al., 2016;Trave, Brunnschweiler, Sheaves, Diedrich, & Barnett, 2017), but can also provide a positive alternative to lethal wildlife use, owing to a number of conservation and economic benefits Macdonald et al., 2017). Balancing the impacts on species and benefits to the community has prompted a paradigm shift in how we view wildlife tourism from "nonconsumptive use" to "nonlethal consumptive use" (Higham et al., 2016). ...
... Wildlife tourism often provides substantial education opportunities and economic benefits Macdonald et al., 2017;Steven, Morrison, & Castley, 2017), which require inclusion to enable managers to balance the complex and challenging trade-offs of the industry, similar to frameworks such as Brown et al. (2001) balancing marine protected area management options. Furthermore, sustainable wildlife tourism should ensure that economic benefits remain, at least in part, within the local community (Agyeiwaah et al., 2017;Brown et al., 2001;Leung et al., 2018). ...
... The socioeconomic values are somewhat high (+0.38) for the other wildlife, which contribute to the experience as a whole, but do not carry the same charismatic draw, notoriety, or historically-damaged public perception as white sharks (Apps, Dimmock, & Huveneers, 2018Macdonald et al., 2017). The Barngarla and Naou people are the traditional custodians of the Eyre Peninsula, yet the cultural and spiritual role of the Neptune Islands, white sharks, and nontarget species is unknown to industry managers. ...
Wildlife tourism is growing in popularity, diversity of target species, and type of tours. This presents difficulties for management policy that must balance the complex trade‐offs between conservation, animal welfare, and pragmatic concerns for tourist satisfaction and economic value. Here, we provide a widely applicable, multidisciplinary framework to assess the impacts of wildlife tourism focusing on industry tractability, socioeconomic values, and their effects on conservation, animal welfare, and ecosystem impacts. The framework accommodates and quantifies the complexity of factors influencing wildlife tourism management, including direct and indirect effects on target and nontarget species, and identifies priorities for future biological, socioeconomic, and cultural heritage research. When applied to white shark cage‐diving as a case study, the output demonstrates the utility of the framework for researchers, managers, and policy makers, and highlights the benefits of undertaking the assessment as an inclusive workshop to facilitate a more multidisciplinary assessment of wildlife tourism industries. The use of a universally applicable assessment framework will enable the identification of relevant factors to account for when managing wildlife tourism, provide an inventory of current knowledge, identify research needs, and semiquantitatively compare categories and target and nontarget species, leading to improved conservation outcomes for species and ecosystems.
... Wildlife tourism is a rapidly expanding industry globally [1]. When conducted responsibly, wildlife tourism can provide benefits that range from economic development [2,3] to strengthened conservation awareness and action [4][5][6]. However, when management is absent or sub-optimal, wildlife tourism can also negatively impact focal [7][8][9] and non-focal species [10,11], ecosystems [12][13][14][15] and communities [16][17][18]. ...
... Given that the purpose of a shark sanctuary is to prohibit shark fishing, this management control has little to no effect on mitigating tourism impacts [22]. These indirect management controls are limited in scope when applied to elasmobranch tourism activities as they do not provide specific guidance to manage the practices that influence hazards and effects, and often neglect the value of elasmobranch tourism activities, including potential economic, societal and conservation benefits [6,8,41]. ...
... Encouragingly, there are examples of effective, activity and species specific management controls in place that can be used for guidance [24,31,32,69]. The iconic nature of whale and white sharks has meant that these species have attracted a disproportionate amount of public interest that has driven greater research and management attention [6,39]. For example, studies investigating the effects of cage diving tourism on the behaviour [38,70,71], movement [39,70,72] and physiology [73] of white sharks have contributed to the development of species and tourism specific management policies [24,74]. ...
Elasmobranch tourism is a rapidly expanding global industry. While this industry can provide community and conservation benefits, it presents risks to target species, environments and humans when inappropriately managed. To ensure appropriate management is implemented, there is a need to identify the prevalence of elasmobranch tourism globally, the types of operations occurring and the controls used to mitigate risk. This study undertook a global literature review to develop an industry activity typology and establish the types of management controls present across elasmobranch tourism operations. In total, 151 unique species-activity-location conditions were identified, with four broad activity types categorised: diving, snorkelling, provisioning and cage diving. Spanning 42 countries and 49 different species, 32% of conditions identified lacked evidence of management. Further to this, many of the prevailing management controls in place (e.g. MPAs, shark sanctuaries, protected species status), were secondary in nature, having not been designed or implemented to manage elasmobranch tourism explicitly. Therefore, avoidable risks are likely widespread throughout the industry. Encouragingly, the application of activity specific management controls is likely to be effective at reducing risks across activity types. The theoretical case studies and management tools investigated herein provide operators and industry managers with guidance on how to reduce risk and safeguard industry benefits. With the elasmobranch tourism industry likely to continue expanding, it is important that appropriate management and regulatory frameworks are in place so that marine wildlife tourism can continue in a beneficial and sustainable manner.
... The change from extractive to non-extractive use should promote species conservation through different mechanisms [131,184,242]. A direct mechanism is related to the revenue from the new non-extractive use, that may push towards the establishment of conservation action [131], as documented by the Manta ray case study, or the Bahamas elasmobranch case studies [25]. ...
... A link between conservation and the change in use is also documented by the tourism attraction exerted by MPAs [243,244]. A second mechanism concerns the educational value of ecotourism activities, as wildlife watching may positively influence tourist attitudes [184,242]. However, a fundamental additional aspect relates to the beneficiaries of the change in use of marine megafauna. ...
... In the 1990s, about half of all charter boat operators simultaneously held commercial fishing licenses [245]. In other cases, tourists pay compensation to local communities of fishers for the loss of fishery opportunities resulting from conservation-oriented management [242,246]. In most cases the transition from extractive to non-extractive uses of marine megafauna does produce greater benefits, but these benefits cascade down to different stakeholders. ...
Marine megafauna has always elicited contrasting feelings. In the past, large marine animals were often depicted as fantastic mythological creatures and dangerous monsters, while also arousing human curiosity. Marine megafauna has been a valuable resource to exploit, leading to the collapse of populations and local extinctions. In addition, some species have been perceived as competitors of fishers for marine resources and were often actively culled. Since the 1970s, there has been a change in the perception and use of megafauna. The growth of marine tourism, increasingly oriented towards the observation of wildlife, has driven a shift from extractive to non-extractive use, supporting the conservation of at least some species of marine megafauna. In this paper, we review and compare the changes in the perception and use of three megafaunal groups, cetaceans, elasmobranchs and groupers, with a special focus on European cultures. We highlight the main drivers and the timing of these changes, compare different taxonomic groups and species, and highlight the implications for management and conservation. One of the main drivers of the shift in perception, shared by all the three groups of megafauna, has been a general increase in curiosity towards wildlife, stimulated inter alia by documentaries (from the early 1970s onwards), and also promoted by easy access to scuba diving. At the same time, environmental campaigns have been developed to raise public awareness regarding marine wildlife, especially cetaceans, a process greatly facilitated by the rise of Internet and the World Wide Web. Currently, all the three groups (cetaceans, elasmobranchs and groupers) may represent valuable resources for ecotourism. Strikingly, the economic value of live specimens may exceed their value for human consumption. A further change in perception involving all the three groups is related to a growing understanding and appreciation of their key ecological role. The shift from extractive to non-extractive use has the potential for promoting species conservation and local economic growth. However, the change in use may not benefit the original stakeholders (e.g. fishers or whalers) and there may therefore be a case for providing compensation for disadvantaged stakeholders. Moreover, it is increasingly clear that even non-extractive use may have a negative impact on marine megafauna, therefore regulations are needed.
... However, there is evidence that a more direct personal experience through participation in wildlife encounters, such as watching sharks in their natural habitats using snorkel or scuba gear (i.e. shark tourism), may be beneficial to enhance tour participants' perceptions toward sharks and promote pro-conservation attitudes (Friedrich et al., 2014;Gallagher et al., 2015;Macdonald et al. 2017;Gonzáles-Mantilla et al., 2022;Macdonald et al., 2017;Hoenicka et al., 2022). ...
... However, there is evidence that a more direct personal experience through participation in wildlife encounters, such as watching sharks in their natural habitats using snorkel or scuba gear (i.e. shark tourism), may be beneficial to enhance tour participants' perceptions toward sharks and promote pro-conservation attitudes (Friedrich et al., 2014;Gallagher et al., 2015;Macdonald et al. 2017;Gonzáles-Mantilla et al., 2022;Macdonald et al., 2017;Hoenicka et al., 2022). ...
Sharks support ecosystems’ health, but their populations are facing severe declines worldwide. Knowledge gaps on shark distribution and the negative human perception of them still represent a barrier to the implementation of effective conservation measures. Here we carried out a regional-scale analysis in the Mediterranean Sea using data on requiem shark catches and sightings available in the scientific literature and on social media platforms to: 1) depict the distribution of Carcharhinus species across the basin, 2) identify potentially relevant areas for their conservation, and 3) evaluate people’s attitude toward shark protection. In addition, we administered 112 questionnaires in one of the very few shark-diving spots in the Mediterranean Sea to assess the potential role of sustainable shark-tourism activities in enhancing people’s self-perceived knowledge of sharks and supporting positive attitudes toward their conservation. We show that social media content represented a valuable update of literature data from 58 papers contributing to identifying potentially relevant conservation areas for requiem shark populations. Social media data mining revealed a general shift toward positive perceptions of sharks in recent years, whilst negative attitudes still prevail in postings shared by fishers. Moreover, questionnaire surveys suggested that shark diving activities may further improve tourist perceptions of sharks and increase diver willingness to support conservation measures. By integrating different data sources, this study provides useful information for spatial conservation prioritization and for progressing our understanding of human and ecological dimensions of shark conservation, a necessary step toward specific and efficient protection policies.
... Ecotourism-related feeding of large aquatic predators, in particular, has raised concerns regarding alterations in their behaviour that could have ecosystem impacts or ramifications for human safety (Gallagher et al., 2015;Macdonald et al., 2017). There is a wide discussion on the habituation of predators to human contact and dependence on the food provided, as well as the safety hazards for recreational divers and water enthusiasts during provisioning activities (Macdonald et al., 2017;Mann et al., 2021;Orams, 2002). ...
... Ecotourism-related feeding of large aquatic predators, in particular, has raised concerns regarding alterations in their behaviour that could have ecosystem impacts or ramifications for human safety (Gallagher et al., 2015;Macdonald et al., 2017). There is a wide discussion on the habituation of predators to human contact and dependence on the food provided, as well as the safety hazards for recreational divers and water enthusiasts during provisioning activities (Macdonald et al., 2017;Mann et al., 2021;Orams, 2002). Shark diving tourism is a global phenomenon, where sharks are usually attracted to or fed at tourist sites (Gallagher & Hammerschlag, 2011); however, studies on the potential effects of ecotourism-related feeding on sharks have revealed mixed effects on their behaviour and physiology, suggesting possible population-, species-, location-and context-dependent effects. ...
While a growing body of literature has shown that tourism provisioning can influence the behaviour of wildlife, how physiological state might be related to the nature and magnitude of these effects remains poorly understood. Physiological state, including reproductive and nutritional status, can have profound effects on an individual's behaviour and decision making. In the present study, we used multiple physiological markers related to reproductive (testosterone, 17β-oestradiol and progesterone), metabolic (corticosteroids) and nutritional ecology (stable isotopes and fatty acids), integrated with ultrasonography and passive acoustic telemetry to explore the possible relationship between physiological condition and space use of tiger sharks, Galeocerdo cuvier, exposed to dive tourism provisioning. Large, nongravid female tiger sharks, with higher plasma steroid levels (i.e. testosterone, 17β-oestradiol, relative corticosteroid), enriched δ¹⁵N and elevated nutritional status (in terms of fatty acids) spent proportionally more time at food provisioning sites compared to conspecifics. Testosterone levels also were positively correlated with the proportion of time spent at provisioning sites. Based on these results, we speculate that physiological condition plays a role in shaping the spatial behaviour of female tiger sharks within the context of food provisioning, whereby larger individuals, exhibiting higher testosterone levels and elevated nutritional status, show selective preferences for provisioning dive sites, where they outcompete conspecifics of relatively smaller size, lower testosterone levels and depressed nutritional state. While more studies are needed to explore whether sharks are making these decisions because of their physiological state or whether spending more time at provisioning sites results in altered physiological state, our findings highlight the importance of considering animal life stage, endocrine regulation, and nutritional condition when evaluating the biological impacts of provisioning tourism.
... Similarly, global shark tourism has grown in the past 2 decades and shows mixed impacts on shark physiology, behavior, and eco logy (Maljković & Côté 2011, Huveneers et al. 2013, Barnett et al. 2016 but has no effect on shark persistence and mortality. Although limited to a handful of primarily coastal species (Macdonald et al. 2017), shark tourism is expected to increase and eventually surpass shark fisheries in economic value (Cisneros-Montemayor et al. 2013), and therefore sustainable practices should be assessed and implemented. ...
... One concern is that these mechanisms can work only for developed countries with appropriate tourism infrastructure. Another challenge is that only a small fraction of species is currently of importance to tourism (Macdonald et al. 2017). As such, at present, non-consumptive value can only be used directly to drive conservation for a small number of elasmobranchs. ...
Over the past 4 decades there has been a growing concern for the conservation status of elasmobranchs (sharks and rays). In 2002, the first elasmobranch species were added to Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Less than 20 yr later, there were 39 species on Appendix II and 5 on Appendix I. Despite growing concern, effective conservation and management remain challenged by a lack of data on population status for many species, human−wildlife interactions, threats to population viability, and the efficacy of conservation approaches. We surveyed 100 of the most frequently published and cited experts on elasmobranchs and, based on ranked responses, prioritized 20 research questions on elasmobranch conservation. To address these questions, we then convened a group of 47 experts from 35 institutions and 12 countries. The 20 questions were organized into the following broad categories: (1) status and threats, (2) population and ecology, and (3) conservation and management. For each section, we sought to synthesize existing knowledge, describe consensus or diverging views, identify gaps, and suggest promising future directions and research priorities. The resulting synthesis aggregates an array of perspectives on emergent research and priority directions for elasmobranch conservation.
... Similarly, global shark tourism has grown in the past 2 decades and shows mixed impacts on shark physiology, behavior, and eco logy (Maljković & Côté 2011, Huveneers et al. 2013, Barnett et al. 2016 but has no effect on shark persistence and mortality. Although limited to a handful of primarily coastal species (Macdonald et al. 2017), shark tourism is expected to increase and eventually surpass shark fisheries in economic value (Cisneros-Montemayor et al. 2013), and therefore sustainable practices should be assessed and implemented. ...
... One concern is that these mechanisms can work only for developed countries with appropriate tourism infrastructure. Another challenge is that only a small fraction of species is currently of importance to tourism (Macdonald et al. 2017). As such, at present, non-consumptive value can only be used directly to drive conservation for a small number of elasmobranchs. ...
Over the past 4 decades there has been a growing concern for the conservation status of elasmobranchs (sharks and rays). In 2002, the first elasmobranch species were added to Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Less than 20 yr later, there were 39 species on Appendix II and 5 on Appendix I. Despite growing concern, effective conservation and management remain challenged by a lack of data on population status for many species, human−wildlife interactions, threats to population viability, and the efficacy of conservation approaches. We surveyed 100 of the most frequently published and cited experts on elasmobranchs and, based on ranked responses, prioritized 20 research questions on elasmobranch conservation. To address these questions, we then convened a group of 47 experts from 35 institutions and 12 countries. The 20 questions were organized into the following broad categories: (1) status and threats, (2) population and ecology, and (3) conservation and management. For each section, we sought to synthesize existing knowledge, describe consensus or diverging views, identify gaps, and suggest promising future directions and research priorities. The resulting synthesis aggregates an array of perspectives on emergent research and priority directions for elasmobranch conservation.
... To ensure reliable experiences can be offered to paying clients, the provisioning of food to attract sharks to divers is commonplace (Meyer et al., 2021). This has led to debate within the public and scientific community as to whether the potential economic and conservation advantages outweigh the possible negative impacts, which might include changes in shark behavior, increased human-wildlife conflict, increased prevalence of disease, or a possible reliance of sharks on provisioned food sources (Semeniuk and Rothley, 2008;Brena et al., 2015;Gallagher et al., 2015;Macdonald et al., 2017). At face value, shark ecotourism appears to be a conservation "winwin" providing localized protection to species, while generating local income and employment (of particular importance in developing countries) and raising public awareness of imperiled species (Apps et al., 2018). ...
... Sharks are a valuable commodity within the dive tourism industry (Gallagher and Hammerschlag, 2011) and there are potential conservation benefits to be gained through these practices (Vianna et al., 2012;Macdonald et al., 2017;Apps et al., 2018). Attracting wide-ranging, apex marine predators in high densities to areas through food provisioning however, may have unintended consequences at both the individual and group level (Brena et al., 2015), and it is the latter that we still know very little about. ...
Shark dive ecotourism is a lucrative industry in many regions around the globe. In some cases, sharks are provisioned using bait, prompting increased research on how baited dives influence shark behavior and yielding mixed results. Effects on patterns of habitat use and movement seemly vary across species and locations. It is unknown, however, whether wide-ranging, marine apex predators respond to provisioning by changing their patterns of grouping or social behavior. We applied a tiered analytical approach (aggregation-gregariousness-social preferences) examining the impact of provisioning on the putative social behavior of tiger sharks (Galeocerdo cuvier) at a dive tourism location in The Bahamas. Using network inference on three years of acoustic tracking data from 48 sharks, we tested for non-random social structure between non-provisioned and provisioned monitoring sites resulting in 12 distinct networks. Generally considered a solitary nomadic predator, we found evidence of sociality in tiger sharks, which varied spatiotemporally. We documented periods of both random (n = 7 networks) and non-random aggregation (n = 5 networks). Three of five non-random aggregations were at locations unimpacted by provisioning regardless of season, one occurred at an active provisioning site during the dry season and one at the same receivers during the wet season when provision activity is less prevalent. Aggregations lasted longer and occurred more frequently at provisioning sites, where gregariousness was also more variable. While differences in gregariousness among individuals was generally predictive of non-random network structure, individual site preferences, size and sex were not. Within five social preference networks, constructed using generalized affiliation indices, network density was lower at provisioning sites, indicating lower connectivity at these locations. We found no evidence of size assortment on preferences. Our data suggest that sociality may occur naturally within the Tiger Beach area, perhaps due to the unusually high density of individuals there. This study demonstrates the existence of periodic social behavior, but also considerable variation in association between tiger sharks, which we argue may help to mitigate any long-term impacts of provisioning on this population. Finally, we illustrate the utility of combining telemetry and social network approaches for assessing the impact of human disturbance on wildlife behavior.
... Wildlife viewing and other recreational activities can present a threat to wildlife (Bentz et al., 2016;Isaacs, 2000;Müllner et al., 2004;Storch, 2013) through various negative impacts such as altering diel activity and foraging behaviors (Corcoran et al., 2013;Dunn et al., 2010), affecting immune responses (French et al., 2010), lowering body mass of young (Almasi et al., 2015), or by decreasing recruitment (Broekhuis, 2018). Wildlife tourists often desire close encounters with nature, incentivizing tour operators to meet these expectations regardless of consequences to wildlife or the environment (Macdonald et al., 2017;Nortje et al., 2012;Reynolds & Braithwaite, 2001). To achieve a close encounter with a species, particularly those that are rare, tourists may engage in repeat visits, pay greater amounts of money, and go to extreme lengths (e.g., supplemental feedings), putting themselves and wildlife at risk (Courchamp et al., 2006;Macdonald et al., 2017;Reynolds & Braithwaite, 2001). ...
... Wildlife tourists often desire close encounters with nature, incentivizing tour operators to meet these expectations regardless of consequences to wildlife or the environment (Macdonald et al., 2017;Nortje et al., 2012;Reynolds & Braithwaite, 2001). To achieve a close encounter with a species, particularly those that are rare, tourists may engage in repeat visits, pay greater amounts of money, and go to extreme lengths (e.g., supplemental feedings), putting themselves and wildlife at risk (Courchamp et al., 2006;Macdonald et al., 2017;Reynolds & Braithwaite, 2001). This can create an anthropogenic Allee effect, or a "paradox of value" (Courchamp et al., 2006(Courchamp et al., , p. 2405. ...
Social media platforms allow people to share experiences, thoughts, and actions through words and images, including human interactions with both domestic and wild animals. Human-wildlife interactions have been documented to have negative effects on wildlife. We use social media and a content analysis framework to identify general locations of a specific human-endangered wildlife interaction: human activity at painted dog den sites. Two hundred twenty images and captions relating to den visits were collected from four social media platforms, and then general locations mapped. Results indicate that den visits by humans occurred in seven of 14 countries where painted dogs are known to be present. This information provides a starting point for further investigation into the impacts of this activity on painted dogs, which is valuable to the effective management of human-caused disturbances (e.g., reducing potential anthropogenic Allee effects) for this species.
... Wildlife tourism received considerable attention from both tourists and academics, due to increasing awareness for the environment along with its preservation and the interest in having a connection with the nature -where experiencing the wildlife developed into the business of wildlife tourism (Reynolds and Braithwaite, 2001). Among which, Macdonald et al. (2017) points out that predator-focused wildlife tourism (e.g. shark diving) is more desired nowadays. ...
... On the other side, Gössling (Blue Ocean Network, 2017) points out that the divers act as ambassadors of the ocean which helps to increase awareness among people regarding marine resource protection. Macdonald et al. (2017) suggests that predator-focused wildlife tourism, for instance shark diving tourism, has the potential to serve as conservation goals by providing non-consumptive values for wildlife, while Higham and Hopkins (2015) present a critique to the consumptive/non-consumptive debate, where "ocular consumption" still comes with several implications for the environment. ...
... Social tolerance for large carnivores is on the rise (e.g., Chapron et al., 2014;Karanth & Chellam, 2009), and predator tourism is among the most popular types of ecotourism in the world, bringing in substantial revenue for local communities (MacDonald et al., 2017). In Africa and India, for example, open habitats have supported big cat tourism for decades. ...
... Additional contributing factors were the simultaneous surge in the global demand for wildlife tourism activities (Twining-Ward, Li, Bhammar, & Wright, 2018) and the growing implementation of anti-predation strategies for livestock in cattle ranches (e.g., Hoogesteijn et al., 2016). If well-managed, predator tourism can be effective carnivore conservation, and together with other strategies, augment broader conservation agendas (MacDonald et al., 2017;Mossaz et al., 2015). ...
Livestock is the predominant biomass in terrestrial systems around the world, and conflict with livestock inventories continues to threaten large carnivore persistence in increasingly fragmented habitats. Nevertheless, social tolerance for large carnivores is increasing, as is interest in predator tourism, which can facilitate wildlife–livestock coexistence strategies. We report two case studies in which natural disasters led to a reduction in local livestock inventories, and subsequent economic hardships that in turn created opportunities for initiating predator tourism: jaguar tourism in the Pantanal of Brazil and puma tourism in the Patagonia steppe grasslands of southern Chile. Any time livestock numbers are reduced, whether through management decisions or natural disasters, may be considered opportunities to reduce dependency upon livestock and to weigh diversifying revenue streams via alternative activities, such as tourism. Livestock reductions in combination with a surge in the global demand for wildlife tourism have made jaguar and puma tourism an increasingly important economic activity for both regions. Well‐managed predator tourism can be effective carnivore conservation, and if integrated among other strategies, can augment conservation agendas.
Abstract in Spanish is available with online material.
... Interaction tourism has contributed to the conservation of several species. In Brazil, a country with ample natural beauty and with much of it still in a good state of conservation, there is a demand for interaction tourism with fauna (Tischer et al. 2013, Macdonald et al. 2017, Tortato and Izzo 2017. Examples include sea turtle tourism on the coast (Pegas and Stronza 2010), Amazon river dolphin (Inia geoffrensis) tours (Vidal et al. 2020(Vidal et al. , 2021, jaguar (Panthera onca) viewing in the Pantanal (Peralta 2012, Nassar et al. 2013, and harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) watching (Miranda et al. 2021). ...
Ecotourism is a strategy for biodiversity conservation, but it involves possible negative effects on animal health and welfare. Large predators such as crocodilians are one of the great public attractions sought after for tourist interactions. Interactions with wild animals and humans can hyperstimulate the hypothalamic‐pituitary‐adrenal axis in the short term, in the case of crocodilians showing an increased corticosterone level, which is indicative of physiological stress. Between September and December 2019, we simulated interactions between tourists and Amazonian crocodilians at Anavilhanas National Park in Central Amazonia, Brazil to evaluate the effects of handling and use of photographic flashes on black caiman ( Melanosuchus niger ) and spectacled caiman ( Caiman crocodilus ) on circulating corticosterone and lactate. Corticosterone levels increased 1.7‐fold during handling and 2.7‐fold when exposed to photographic flashes in black caiman but not in spectacled caiman. Increased corticosterone concentrations in black caiman were characterized by an increase caused by handling and were more intense after flashes than in controls, but the combination of handling and flash had no effect. During handling in simulated tourist interactions, anaerobic respiration increased lactate in black caiman but not in spectacled caiman. The effect of simulated tourist interactions with Amazonian crocodilians was dependent on the handling and especially on flash use in black caiman. The results can assist management, conservation programs, and public policies, especially in programs based on tourism interaction with Amazonian crocodilians.
... Nature-based tourism is often promoted to provide economic incentives to communities, raising public awareness and sustaining biodiversity conservation efforts, although these purported benefits are highly debated (Dickman et al., 2017;Karanth & DeFries, 2011;Macdonald et al., 2017;Mawdsley et al., 2009). Communities' engagement and benefit distribution are particularly poor in biodiversity-rich developing economies (Coria & Calfucura, 2012;Ghosh & Ghosh, 2018;Karanth & DeFries, 2011). ...
Nature-based tourism is rising in popularity in developing countries. This presents a challenge for protected area (PA) managers forcing them to revisit management strategies to balance revenue generation while maintaining ecological integrity. Identifying tourists’ preference for nature-viewing can aid in improved tourism management while simultaneously enhancing visitor experiences. We conducted semi-structured surveys with 516 tourists visiting three popular Indian PAs to understand their nature-viewing preferences. We identified the factors influencing viewing preferences for seven biodiversity categories using recursive partitioning classification trees. We found the biodiversity categories such as charismatic megafauna and landscape to be major tourist-attractants. Despite this, we also found that prior engagement in conservation activities, age, and gender can influence preference for viewing low-profile categories such as herpetofauna and flora. Providing opportunities for people to engage in conservation at different levels of governance and especially for tourists when visiting a PA could increase appreciation for all species and funding available for their conservation.
... In fact, some of the species most sought by tourists (e.g., jaguar, and ocelot) have secretive habits and low densities compared to other animals (Desbiez et al. 2010). Large carnivores are focal species for the ecotourism industry worldwide (Macdonald et al. 2017), including in the Pantanal . They cause fascination in several people because of their beauty and potential as human predators . ...
The role of local biodiversity to cultural ecosystem services (CES) has been increasingly recognized. Yet, it is still unclear how local species can represent multiple CES in the same area for different people. We comprehensively evaluated the role of local biodiversity to the provision of multiple CES in the Pantanal, the largest continuous wetland in the world. First, we assessed the use of names of local species by screening and mapping tourist accommodations and rural properties names. Second, we evaluated the tourist demand for species by screening tourist accommodation websites. Finally, we assessed differences between demand and supply using two questionnaires. While mammals and birds were more common in the names of tourist accommodations, plants were more frequent in the names of rural properties. We did not record a significant correlation between the number of records on tourist accommodation websites and the mean research interest from Google Trends (considering all species, terrestrial vertebrates, or fish). Finally, we found a mismatch between demand and supply for terrestrial vertebrates, while we found a significant and positive correlation between demand and supply for fish. Our findings emphasize the importance of Pantanal biodiversity for different CES, such as tourism and recreation, which may support biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. The use of species names varied according to the economic activity (tourism or agriculture), a novel finding for the Pantanal. Future studies should focus on the role of local biodiversity for others CES, such as spiritual and inspirational values, as well as indigenous culture. Resumo. O papel da biodiversidade local para os serviços ecossistêmicos culturais (SEC) tem sido cada vez mais reconhecido. No entanto, ainda não está claro como as espécies locais podem representar vários SEC na mesma área para diferentes pessoas. Neste estudo, avaliamos de forma abrangente o papel da biodiversidade local para o fornecimento de múltiplos SEC no Pantanal, a maior área úmida contínua do mundo. Primeiramente, avaliamos o uso de nomes de espécies locais por meio da triagem e mapeamento de nomes de acomodações turísticas e propriedades rurais. Em segundo lugar, avaliamos a demanda turística por espécies por meio da checagem de sites de acomodações turísticas. Finalmente, avaliamos as dife-renças entre demanda e oferta usando dois questionários. Enquanto os mamíferos e as aves foram mais comuns nos nomes das acomodações turísticas, as plantas foram mais frequentes nos nomes das propriedades rurais. Não registramos uma correlação significativa entre o número de registros em sites de acomodações turísticas e o interesse médio de pesquisa do Google Trends (considerando todas as espécies, vertebrados terrestres ou peixes). Por fim, encontramos um descompasso entre demanda e oferta para vertebrados terrestres, enquanto que encontramos uma correlação significativa e positiva entre demanda e oferta para peixes. Nossas descobertas enfatizam a importância da biodiversidade do Pantanal para diferentes SEC, como turismo e recreação, que podem apoiar a conservação da biodiversidade e o desenvolvimento sustentável. O uso de nomes de espécies variou de acordo com a atividade econômica (turismo ou agricultura), uma descoberta inédita para o Pantanal. Estudos futuros devem focar no papel da biodiversidade local para outros SEC, como valores espirituais e inspiracionais, bem como a cultura indígena.
... Despite the generally positive socio-economic impact of shark wildlife tourism activities [37,52], shark cage diving, in particular, has been controversial [19]. It has been proposed that some of the techniques employed in cage diving tours (such as shark-feeding) can have a negative long-term impact on the behavior of the animals [54]. ...
Quantifying the effect of human-wildlife interactions, and particularly those where negative perceptions exist, can have a benefit towards the conservation of species. The negative perceptions surrounding human-shark interactions can be put forward as a case in point. In this work, we use six relevant statements questions to test human perceptions before and after controlled human interactions with the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias. Questions were adapted from Kellert's typology of human attitudes towards animals. A total of 322 tourists participating in white shark cage diving tours in Gansbaai, South Africa were exposed to two surveys (pre and post-experience) to assess whether a shift in perception can happen. We focused the work on measuring the effect of the shark cage diving tourism activities to change negative perceptions towards white sharks in people who dare to cage diving with sharks. To determine the underlying structure of the statements involved in shark perception, exploratory factor analyses were performed. Two attitudes, Dominionistic and Ecologistic-Scientific explained 52.8% of the variance. In addition, analyses of differences between pre and post-surveys in participants of White Shark cage diving tours indicated a positive change in perception towards white sharks after the activity. No age, gender, or transcultural differences were found, and possible psychological and political approaches were addressed. Controlled human-shark interaction can aid in a positive shift of the attitudes towards this animal, which can have significant potential implications. Ultimately, exposure to sharks could be a valuable tool for promoting public attitudes, especially when paired with the correct interpretation of shark behavior and its impact on the ecosystem.
... Sustainable tourism is economically viable, socially equitable, and ecologically sustainable [194]. Tourism is a good conservation tool if managed sustainably, especially in areas with apex predators [195]. A previous study on the snow leopard global range revealed ecotourism to be a good option for conservation in these high Asian landscapes [196]. ...
Citation: Sultan, H.; Rashid, W.; Shi, J.; Rahim, I.u.; Nafees, M.; Bohnett, E.; Rashid, S.; Khan, M.T.; Shah, I.A.; Han, H.; et al. Horizon Scan of Transboundary Concerns Impacting Snow Leopard Landscapes in Asia. Land 2022, 11, 248. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11020248
... Studies on NBT have largely ignored the role of economics in the symbiotic relationship between tourism and nature conservation (Boley and Green, 2016;Macdonald et al., 2017). This relationship is referred to as symbiotic because of the mutual benefit shared between them (Du-Pont et al., 2020). ...
The nature-based tourism sector has experienced significant growth and is often promoted as a mechanism for conservation. The geographical boundaries of national parks are often adjacent to farming land which leads to animal-farmer conflict over wildlife crop damage. This leads to unresolved conflict in many countries where there is little or no compensation to farmers. This study investigates how and in what circumstances foreign tourist contributions can be utilized to protect and foster national park-based resources and compensate for wildlife (mainly elephant) related crop damage. We employ a novel discrete choice experiment to explore nature conservation preferences from international visitors at Yala national park in Sri Lanka. We find that tourists are willing to pay significantly more for nature conservation, especially elephant conservation, in the form of an embarkation tax. The findings further show visitor preferences for the creation of wildlife corridors and the establishment of water bodies as alternative conservation measures.
... Non-consumptive wildlife tourism can also generate funds to advance conservation goals, especially when the industry has both public and political support, and when effective regulation occurs at multiple levels of government. For example, this was documented in the case of apex predator tourism (Macdonald et al., 2017). ...
Recreation ecology has its foundations in the premise that recreationists have a negative impact on ecosystems, and are thus treated as an ecological stressor. However, ecology is the study of interactions between organisms and the environment, not just an organism's impacts on the environment. While we do not dispute the evidence that recreationists can negatively impact ecosystems, recreation can also have positive effects for conservation. Contextualizing interactions between recreation and ecology within broader multi-scale social-ecological systems can advance our scientific knowledge of these interactions to provide a basis for more effective management of protected areas that host recreation. In this paper, we propose the concept that recreation-ecosystem interactions are part of a system with a range of positive, negative, and neutral interactions with feedbacks of variable intensity occurring between multiple levels. We simplify this concept into a two-dimensional quadrant system to describe the spectrum of interactions within a range of social-ecological systems, which could be developed for countless natural and social systems. For example, the social portion of this system includes values such as cultural, health and well-being, tribal, and many others; examples of the ecological portion include vegetation, biodiversity, soils, and more. As an illustrative example, we develop the system for recreation-wildlife interactions. We also emphasize the importance of integrating recreation and wildlife research and management through approaches based on this framework. Future research in this area might be improved by considering this novel framework to balance the needs of humans and protect natural ecosystems in protected area management decisions.
Management implications
The framework aims to help outdoor recreation managers and researchers better
-Address existing gaps in research and management,
-Collaborate with those working in complementary fields ,
-Develop more integrative recreation planning and management tools, and
-Resolve persistent problems in outdoor recreation management.
... The same state-sponsored migrants who created the Arc of Deforestation (Schneider and Peres 2015) can provide important assistance in finding and providing access to Harpy Eagle nests. Harpy Eagle tourism can help to generate concrete financial value for habitat conservation, as has happened with other predators (Macdonald et al. 2017, Tortato et al. 2017. Although practical protocols have been developed for better practices of wildlife tourism (Haskell et al. 2015), few have addressed Amazonian wildlife. ...
Tourism can be a powerful tool for wildlife conservation if well controlled and responsibly managed. Apex predators constitute particularly attractive subjects for tourism, but simultaneously they may generate conflict with local communities. Harpy Eagles Harpia harpyja are the largest eagle species and are highly sought-after by ecotourists. The last stronghold of the Harpy Eagle is the Amazon Forest, which is being deforested for cattle ranching. We tested methods for developing Harpy Eagle ecotourism as a potential tool to harmonize these issues. Using camera traps, we collected data on timing of Harpy Eagle visits to their nests, as well as on probabilities of viewing an eagle. Harpy Eagles can only be seen predictably during the first 12 of the 30–36 month nest cycle. In nests with nestlings (up to 5–7 months), adults are visible on a daily basis, and this period lasts 16.6% of the nesting cycle, demanding a minimum of 13, 17, and 26 nests to have at least one nest with a nestling on 90%, 95% and 99% of the days. After this 5–7 month window, we found that two and 4.16 days spent at nests afforded high probabilities of sighting a fledgling or adult eagle, respectively. Harpy Eagles were mainly active at the beginning and the end of the day. Activity core lasted 6.5 decimal hours for adults, peaking at 10h00, and 7.45 decimal hours for fledged eagles, peaking at 15h00. Our results demonstrate that Harpy Eagles fit several criteria for a viable wildlife attraction: predictable in activity and location, viewable, and diurnal, even though at the same time they are considered a rarity. In a broader perspective, Harpy Eagle tourism shows every indication of being a significant tool for more robust rainforest conservation.
... Aquatic predators provide important goods and services to society (e.g., MacDonald et al., 2017;Hammerschlag et al., 2019), and can impact ecosystem function through trophic cascades (e.g., Frank et al., 2005;Estes et al., 2011;Altieri et al., 2012) and through energetic connections across communities (e.g., Casini et al., 2012;Mather et al., 2013). However, variation in spatial distributions of individual predators can reduce fishrelated goods and services, change the magnitude of ecological impacts by and on predators, and influence relevant coastal and marine research, and management directions (e.g., Eero et al., 2012;Kessel et al., 2016;Shelton et al., 2020). ...
Identifying patterns of organismal distribution can provide valuable insights for basic and applied marine and coastal ecology because understanding where animals are located is foundational to both research and science-based conservation. Understanding variation in distributional patterns can lead to a better assessment of ecological drivers and an improved ability to predict consequences of natural and altered relationships. Here, our purpose is to explore if quantifying coexisting groups of individual fish predators advances our understanding of field distribution patterns. Toward this end, we quantified locations of 59 acoustically tagged striped bass ( Morone saxatilis) within a 26-stationary unit telemetry receiver array in Plum Island Estuary (PIE), MA, United States. We then used cluster analyses on spatial and temporal-spatial metrics from this dataset to (1) assess if distinct groups of individuals coexisted, (2) quantify group characteristics, and (3) test associations between groups and distribution (e.g., physical site type and region). Based on multiple lines of evidence, we identified four groups of striped bass with different space use patterns that persisted across seasons (summer and fall). Similar-sized striped bass clustered at spatial and temporal scales at which individuals within distinct groups could, and did, physically overlap. In addition, distributional groups were linked to components of physical site type and region suggesting that discrete groups of individuals can interact differently with the environment within the same ecological system. The identification of these distinct groups of individuals creates a baseline from which to explore further ecological implications of grouping behavior for research and conservation in geographically large, temporally dynamic, and spatially heterogeneous marine and coastal environments.
... The wildlife and human axis combined define four archetypical representations Hartel et al., 2018) that cover all possible HWIs: (i) negative for both wildlife and people (left lower quadrant), like when endangered wildlife causes damage to people and preventive or retaliatory killing or harassment ensues (e.g., Das and Jana, 2018;LaDue et al., 2021;Simpfendorfer et al., 2021); (ii) negative for wildlife and positive for (some) people (left upper quadrant), as in overharvest associated with poaching or wildlife trade (e.g., Shepherd et al., 2017;Gomez et al., 2020); (iii) positive for wildlife (at the population level) and negative for people (right lower quadrant), as when abundant wildlife is a nuisance (e.g., Gamalo et al., 2019;Carpio et al., 2021); vehicle collisions and zoonotic diseases produce negative outcomes to people and are associated with both endangered and abundant wildlife (e.g., Pagany, 2020;Namusisi et al., 2021), therefore they belong in the two lower quadrants; and (iv) positive for both wildlife and people (right upper quadrant), like when abundant, native or exotic wildlife, is used in tourism (e.g., Macdonald et al., 2017) or sustainable harvest (e.g., Campos-Silva et al., 2017) (both, but most obviously the latter, may only apply to population-level parameters and not to individual-level). ...
Coexistence, as a concept and as a management goal and practice, has attracted increasing attention from researchers, managers and decision-makers dedicated to understanding and improving human-wildlife interactions. Although it still lacks a universally agreed definition, coexistence has increasingly been associated with a broad spectrum of human-wildlife interactions, including positive interactions, transcending a conservation focus on endangered wildlife, and involving explicitly considerations of power, equity and justice. In a growingly complex and interconnected human-dominated world, the key to turning human-wildlife interactions into large-scale coexistence is thorough planning. We present an approach for evidence-based, structured, and participatory decision-making in planning for human-wildlife coexistence. More specifically, we propose (i) a conceptual framework for describing the situation and setting the goals, (ii) a process for examining the causes of the situation and creating a theory of change, and iii) a model for transdisciplinary research and collaboration integrating researchers, decision-makers and residents along with the interests of wildlife. To illustrate the approach, we report on the workshop considering the Jaguars of Iguaçu, a conservation project whose strategy includes the improvement of the relationship between ranchers and jaguars outside Iguaçu National Park, Brazil.
... This landscape of tolerance, catalyzed by ecotourism, has already been proposed in other human-wildlife conflict scenarios involving large cats and livestock in Kenya 33 and Botswana 34 . Savannah countries in Africa have been developing wildlife tourism for several decades, and can be used to assess the benefits that ecotourism can bring to large carnivore conservation 35,36 . ...
Conservation of carnivores involves finding solutions to minimize habitat loss and human-wildlife conflict. Understanding the nature of land-use economics can allow us to mitigate both threats. In the Pantanal, the two main economic activities are cattle ranching and ecotourism, each of which directly and indirectly affect the persistence of jaguars ( Panthera onca ). To understand how the geography of these economic activities is related to jaguar populations, we developed a jaguar distribution model (JDM), livestock density model, and ecotourism lodge density model for the Pantanal. Due to the recent wildfires within the Pantanal, we also assess the impact of burnt areas that are suitable for jaguars, cattle ranching, and tourism. Our JDM indicate that 64% of the Pantanal holds suitable habitat for jaguars. However, jaguar habitat suitability was positively correlated with ecotourism, but negatively correlated with areas most suitable for intensive cattle-ranching. This demonstrates a biome-wide scenario compatible with jaguar conservation. Of particular concern, recent wildfires overlap most suitable areas for jaguars. If wildfires become increasingly frequent, this would represent a serious threat to jaguars and many other wildlife populations. We emphasize the global importance of the Pantanal wetland ecoregion as a key stronghold for long-term jaguar conservation.
... This landscape of tolerance, catalyzed by ecotourism, has already been proposed in other human-wildlife con ict scenarios involving large cats and livestock in Kenya 31 and Botswana 32 . Savannah countries in Africa have been developing wildlife tourism for several decades, and can be used to assess the bene ts that ecotourism can bring to large carnivore conservation 33,34 . ...
Conservation of carnivores involves finding solutions to minimize habitat loss and human-wildlife conflicts, and understanding the nature of land-use economics can allow us to mitigate both threats. In the Pantanal, the two main economic activities are cattle ranching and ecotourism, each of which directly and indirectly affect the persistence of jaguars ( Panthera onca ). To understand how the geography of these economic activities is related to jaguar populations, we developed a jaguar distribution model (JDM), livestock density model, and ecotourism lodge density model for the Pantanal. Due to the recent wildfires within the Pantanal, we also assess the impact of burnt areas that are suitable for jaguars, cattle ranching, and tourism. Our JDM indicate that 64% of the Pantanal holds suitable habitat for jaguars. However, jaguar habitat suitability was positively correlated with ecotourism, but negatively correlated with areas most suitable for intensive cattle-ranching. This demonstrates a biome-wide scenario compatible with jaguar conservation. Of particular concern, recent wildfires overlap most suitable areas for jaguars. If wildfires become increasingly frequent, this would represent a serious threat to jaguars and many other wildlife populations. We emphasize the global importance of the Pantanal wetland ecoregion as a key stronghold for long-term jaguar conservation.
... Some natural predators may switch to domestic livestock 8,16-18 , but once exacerbated by habitat loss, these human-wildlife conflicts often drive the landscape-scale extirpation of apex predators 9,10 . Predators may adjust to these changes and thrive in anthropogenic landscapes dominated by an agricultural matrix as suitable prey remains abundant, and humans show tolerance [19][20][21] . Consequently, the threshold of minimum food availability-which can be used to predict the population viability and persistence of apex predators and their coexistence with humans-has been extensively investigated in degraded landscapes 22-24 . ...
Apex predators are threatened globally, and their local extinctions are often driven by failures in sustaining prey acquisition under contexts of severe prey scarcity. The harpy eagle Harpia harpyja is Earth's largest eagle and the apex aerial predator of Amazonian forests, but no previous study has examined the impact of forest loss on their feeding ecology. We monitored 16 active harpy eagle nests embedded within landscapes that had experienced 0 to 85% of forest loss, and identified 306 captured prey items. Harpy eagles could not switch to open-habitat prey in deforested habitats, and retained a diet based on canopy vertebrates even in deforested landscapes. Feeding rates decreased with forest loss, with three fledged individuals dying of starvation in landscapes that succumbed to 50-70% deforestation. Because landscapes deforested by > 70% supported no nests, and eaglets could not be provisioned to independence within landscapes > 50% forest loss, we established a 50% forest cover threshold for the reproductive viability of harpy eagle pairs. Our scaling-up estimate indicates that 35% of the entire 428,800-km 2 Amazonian 'Arc of Deforestation' study region cannot support breeding harpy eagle populations. Our results suggest that restoring harpy eagle population viability within highly fragmented forest landscapes critically depends on decisive forest conservation action.
... Such considerations have also been incorporated in management frameworks including in Higginbottom et al. (2003) and Meyer et al. (2021). Marine wildlife tourism can also provide an important non-extractive alternative to exploitation such as fishing, providing substantial economic, social, conservation, and education benefits (Apps et al., 2018;Buckley, 2009;Higginbottom et al., 2001;Macdonald et al., 2017). This is particularly vital for species with low reproductive potential like sharks, rays, marine mammals, seabirds, and turtles, many of which are facing threats of extinction (Dulvy et al., 2014;Schipper et al., 2008). ...
Wildlife tourism uses various stimuli to attract species and facilitate close encounters. Such activities are often referred to as provisioning, however the term is used interchangeably, and sometimes erroneously, with attracting, feeding, luring, and chumming, all of which lack consistent definitions. Here, we review the current use of provisioning-associated terminology in marine bird, teleost (bony fish), marine mammal, marine reptile, ray and shark tourism, within the scientific literature and on tourism operator webpages. We then propose to reclassify provisioning into Feeding, Attracting, and Modifying habitat, providing eight specific terms that reflect: (1) if the stimulus exploits wildlife appetite or search for preferred habitat; (2) the nature of the attractant (consumable or not); (3) the intention of the activity if using consumable attractants (direct, indirect, or incidental feeding) or modified habitat (intentional or repurposed modification); and (4) which species are affected by the activity (target or non-target species). We applied these terms to wildlife tourism around the world to gain better insight into tourism practices across taxa. Clarifying the terminology describing these wildlife interactions ensures they can be accurately described in the scientific literature, which will in turn help resource managers and industry groups to systematically assess these diverse activities.
... Observing wildlife in its natural habitat has become increasingly popular, with a wide range of tourism opportunities from wellknown terrestrial safaris to the more recent close-up dive encounters with sharks (MacDonald et al., 2017). This greater interest in shark dive tourism activities is supporting local and national economies (e.g., Zimmerhackel et al., 2019). ...
Wildlife provisioning is popular, economically valuable, and a rapidly growing part of marine tourism, with great potential to benefit conservation. However, it remains controversial due to limited understanding of its implications on the behavior and ecology of target species. In this study, we modeled how various abiotic and biotic factors influenced great hammerhead sharks' (Sphyrna mokarran) use of a recreational dive site in Bimini, the Bahamas, where shark-feeding has been conducted since 2012. Further, we calculated bioenergetic models to estimate their daily ration and examined if individual sharks fulfilled their daily energetic requirements from food uptake during dives. Between December 2016 and May 2017, we collected data during 104 provisioning dives in collaboration with a local dive operator. Twenty-eight individual great hammerhead sharks were observed, 11 were philopatric (i.e., identified at the dive site in previous years), and 17 were new (i.e., identified at the dive site for the first time during this study) individuals. On average, four sharks were observed daily, occasionally up to nine individuals, with some individuals spending more than 2 h attending each dive, consuming up to 4.75 kg of provisioned food per dive and returning repeatedly throughout the study period. When we grouped sharks based on their previous experience of the dive site (i.e., philopatric vs. new sharks), we found significantly higher attendance indices, i.e., the number of attended dives divided by the total number dives, and longer presence times during dives in philopatric sharks and different responses toward the number of boats and conspecifics between the two groups. Overall, great hammerhead sharks increased their bait uptake during longer dives and when more boats were present at the dive site. Finally, nine of 12 provisioned great hammerhead sharks were regularly able to fuel their daily energetic requirements from provisioned food alone, with two sharks doing so on 77.8% of all dives. Our study provides insights into how large-bodied marine predators react toward wildlife tourism associated provisioning and allows further discussion about daily energy uptake during provisioning dives, its potential impacts on the ecological role of the target species and associated management measures.
... "Apex predator ecotourism" marketed around the jaguar, "America's Great Cat," could possibly generate new jobs and income as it has for other species (Macdonald et al., 2017). Ecotourism already contributes to local economies in Arizona and New Mexico. ...
Reintroduction—defined here as the return of a species to a part of its range where it has been extirpated—is a critical pathway to conservation in the 21st century. As late as the 1960s, jaguars (Panthera onca) inhabited an expansive region in the central mountain ranges of Arizona and New Mexico in the United States, a habitat unique in all of jaguar range. Here, we make the case for reintroduction, building a rhetorical bridge between conservation science and practice. First, we present a rationale rooted in the philosophy of wildlife conservation. Second, we show that the species once occupied this territory and was extirpated by human actions that should no longer pose a threat. Third, we demonstrate that the proposed recovery area provides suitable ecological conditions. Fourth, we discuss how return of the species could be a net benefit to people, explicitly recognizing a diversity of values and concerns. Fifth, we show that reintroduction is practical and feasible over a realistic time horizon. Returning the jaguar to this area will enhance the recovery of an endangered species in the United States, further its range‐wide conservation, and restore an essential part of North America's cultural and natural heritage.
... Thus, conflicts between shark conservation and potential tourism increase are of particular interest. Following Cisneros-Montemayor et al. (2013), Gallagher et al. (2015), Macdonald et al. (2017), Raudino et al. (2016), and Sorice et al. (2003), (2006)), our analysis indicates a touristic welfare loss of ILS 0.157 million per season to keep shark disturbance to a sustainable level and may raise a call for a long-term resolution of this human-wildlife conflict (Dickman 2010). One example solution would be a dynamic marine protected area, i.e. to close the area to fishing (Chae et al. 2012;Mwebaze and MacLeod 2013;Shiffman and Hammerschlag 2016;Hausmann et al. 2017) or diving at specific times. ...
In the last few winters, shark communities have been aggregating near the Israeli Mediterranean coast, at a specific point, near the Hadera power station. This unusual phenomenon has fascinated residents, visitors, kayakers, divers, and swimmers. We analyze the effects of this intense human interest on the sharks, using contingent behavior, in Hadera and in Ashkelon, where sharks are present and there is available infrastructure for their observation. We also report on changes in shark behaviour due to changes in tourism intensity. We find a change of about ILS 4.1 million annually for both sites but a larger individual consumer surplus in Hadera, where sharks are currently observable. Touristic intensity crosses the threshold level by about 12% and making the socio-equilibrium sustainable for both humans and sharks would have a social cost of ILS 0.157 million. This paper, which is based on the assessment of conservation values to marine and coastal tourists, raises a need for spatial planning in order to protect this endangered species.
... Associated with a number of socioeconomic benefits (Apps, Dimmock, & Huveneers, 2018;Huveneers et al., 2017;Newsome, Rodger, Pearce, & Chan, 2019;Orams, 2002), wildlife tourism has been viewed as a tool to assist local economies transitioning from consumptive to perceived nonconsumptive uses of natural resources (Newsome et al., 2019). To name just a few, examples include lemur-and birdwatching tourism in Andasebe National Park (Newsome & Hassell, 2014), gorilla and chimpanzee tourism in Uganda (Newsome & Hughes, 2016), whale-watching tourism in the Antarctic (Williams & Crosbie, 2007), and shark and ray tourism in the Bahamas and Fiji (Haas, Fedler, & Brooks, 2017;Macdonald et al., 2017). These examples illustrate how the employment of local tour guides and the provision of other services by local communities can result in economic success and growth (Newsome et al., 2019). ...
Tourism-related feeding of wildlife can result in detrimental, human-induced changes to the spatial distribution, social behaviour and health of target species. The feeding of sharks as part of shark-viewing activities has become increasingly popular in recent years to ensure reliable and consistent encounters. A common limitation in determining how feeding affects individuals or populations is the lack of baseline data prior to the establishment of a feeding site. Here, we documented the residency, spatial distribution, activity patterns and daily metabolic rates of juvenile lemon sharks, Negaprion brevirostris, prior to initiating daily feeding for 27 days to assess the effect of short-term feeding. We implanted acoustic transmitters equipped with accelerometers to record movement and activity in six lemon sharks. Sharks progressively anticipated the feeding events during the 27 days of daily feeding, as shown by a change in activity and increased time spent near the feeding site 1 h prior to feeding events. Shark behaviour did not fully return to baseline levels within the documented 90 days of postfeeding recovery. However, neither spatial distribution outside the refuge nor mean daily activity was affected by feeding. Sharks decreased their metabolic rates over the course of the study, but this was probably due to falling water temperature rather than the effect of feeding. Overall, our study shows that anticipatory behaviour in juvenile lemon sharks can occur within 11 days of daily feeding events, but behavioural changes seem confined to fine-scale movement patterns and may not affect these sharks' daily energy needs. The ability to assess the effects of daily feeding at a site where tourism has not been occurring previously provides new information for operators and managers of wildlife tourism to account for and minimize potentially detrimental effects on the target species.
... In particular, revenue generated through hunting and fishing licenses often supports conservation of wildlife and habitats (Heflinger et al. 2013). Nonconsumptive wildlife tourism can also generate funds to advance conservation goals, especially when the industry has both public and political support, and when effective regulation occurs at multiple levels of government (Macdonald et al. 2017). ...
... Federal reintroduction of gray wolves (Canis lupus) to Yellowstone National Park andCentral Idaho in 1995 and has been characterized as one of the great success stories of 20th century conservation (Mech 1995;Randall 2020). Wolves serve as keystone species -contributing to landscape-level restoration through trophic cascade effects on prey populations and the broader ecosystem (Ripple & Beschta 2005;) -as well as charismatic symbols and potential bases for ecotourism revenues (Moore 1995;Lorimer 2015;Macdonald, et al. 2017). These effects are debated, context-specific, and unevenly experienced (Mech 2012;Middleton 2014;Haswell, et al. 2017), however, and wolves' effects on rural residents -particularly through livestock depredation, but compounded by cultural and political polarization surrounding these animals (Nie 2003;Coleman 2009) -have made them an emblematic instance of HWC even 25 years since their return to the intermountain West. ...
Federal reintroduction of gray wolves (Canis lupus) to Yellowstone National Park and Central Idaho in the mid-1990s was widely hailed as one of the great conservation successes of the 20th century, and has become an emblematic touchstone for rewilding – an emerging discourse and set of practices for conservation in the Anthropocene. As wolves have grown in number and range, however, so too has socio-political conflict, particularly around predation as threat to livestock production. Reaction appears to far exceed wolves’ material impacts, however, and persists 25 years after reintroduction despite development and deployment of compensation measures and coexistence strategies. The wolf is thus also an exemplary instance of human-wildlife conflict, an increasingly prominent and intractable concern for megafauna conservation around the world. And while volumes have been written on wolves in Yellowstone, there has been relatively little scholarly attention to Idaho even as it highlights the challenges of shared space across the working landscapes of the American West.
Between 2015 and 2018, I conducted a case study of the Wood River Wolf Project (WRWP), a collaboration between sheep ranchers, environmental organizations, and governmental agencies in Blaine County, Idaho that has pursued wolf-livestock coexistence for over a decade. Grazing thousands of sheep on its project area in the Sawtooth Mountains while boasting the lowest depredation loss rates in the state, the WRWP has garnered international attention as a model of nonlethal management, holding out the possibility of a peaceful end to the wolf wars. Based in ethnographic and archival research and drawing insights from political ecology and critical “more-than-human”
geography, I ask what we might learn from this critical case, guided by two overarching questions: First, how can we account for the persistence and seemingly disproportionate
intensity of conflict surrounding wolves in the American West? And second, what are the necessary preconditions for and obstacles to scaling up and sustaining collaborative coexistence?
In the included articles, I explore the Project’s emergence and practices and how these have evolved over time, as partners have contended with political economic pressures and the delisting of wolves from federal protection and transition to Idaho state management. I highlight the value of qualitative research methods for questions of human-wildlife conflict, and the fundamentally situated and relational quality of risk perception and decision-making. I argue that anti-wolf hostility cannot be read simply as cultural-historical animosity, nor as mere biopolitical concern over an agricultural pest, but rather must be understood amid so-called “New West” transitions and ongoing legal-political tensions over the governance and use of public lands. This story stresses the inseparability of political economic, cultural-symbolic, and environmental concerns, connecting the wolf question to regional transformations, divergent land use priorities, and contemporary right-wing populism. I show how the political-symbolic enrollment of wolves by different social actors through a cultural politics of wilderness in fact perpetuates polarization and undermines on-the-ground efforts at coexistence between conservation and rural livelihoods – even as I highlight alternative political possibilities around themes of commoning and convivial conservation.
... With burgeoning human populations, available habitat for wildlife has both declined severely and become increasingly degraded (Dobrovolski et al., 2013;Woodroffe, 2000). Yet as conservation practices are developed, researchers have strived to make their science more policy-relevant and inform practitioners in implementing feasible solutions (Campos-Silva and Macdonald et al., 2017). Logging is the most widespread driver of habitat degradation in tropical forests worldwide. ...
Characterizing wildlife conservation problems is essential to properly inform conservation planning, and requires detailed knowledge on critical life stages, such as reproduction. Large tropical raptors often require large emergent trees to build their huge nests. However, large emergents are also in heavy demand by the timber industry. Here, we review the literature to characterize nesting structures used by Earth's largest eagle, Harpy Eagles (Harpia harpyja) and examine to what extent nest-tree selectivity is targeted by selective logging. We show that Harpy Eagles selected specific forest canopy structures as nesting platforms. Nests were large (mean size 152 × 99 cm) and typically located on the main fork of 28 emergent tree species, 92.8% of which are commercially targeted by the timber industry. AIC-based stepwise regression indicated that, compared with non-nesting emergent trees, nest trees were 19.6% taller at the first bifurcation; had crowns 26.6% wider; had 33.3% fewer branches < 45°, which were on average 35% lower-angled. Tree size varied widely across the range of nesting tree species, but peaked near the Equator, and were high-statured in unflooded forest compared with flooded forests. Our results show that commercial loggers target the same set of species and individuals on which Harpy Eagles nest, questioning whether large tracts of selectively logged Amazonian primary forests still provide suitable nesting habitat for this mega-raptor. We conclude that suitable Harpy Eagle nesting trees have been rapidly lost over the species last stronghold, and this information may prove useful to the upcoming species evaluation by IUCN.
... Over these decades, the tourism industry has developed very rapidly. Tourism evidently improves sustainability especially in rural by prosperity enhancement (1)(2)(3), community empowerment (4)(5)(6), and environmental stewardship (7,8). Tourism has become a pillar of economies, a passport to prosperity, and a transformative force for improving millions of lives; hence the world can and must harness the power of tourism (9). ...
Over these decades, tourism industry has developed very rapidly. Tourism evidently improves sustainability especially in rural by prosperity enhancement. Japan is nominated as the decade's fastest-growing major destination with a 334% rise of arrival from 2010-2017. Moreover, Japan pulls out a tourism goal, aiming 40 million arrivals with JPY 8 trillion receipts by the year 2020. Rural areas are promoted to be tourist destination as an effort for sustaining rural landscape. But, it is not the case for Kita Village. Kita Village is one of famous rural heritage destinations located in Kyoto Prefecture with excellent Satoyama landscape. Residents of Kita Village agreed to preserve the Satoyama landscape through tourism. Maintaining a heritage site is not easy nor cheap. Economic needs couldn't be denied to sustain the area. Tourists' visitation is increasing each year, yet the tourism income is low. Therefore, increasing tourism income became an important issue in Miyama to sustain the Satoyama landscape. Literature have shown domestic and international tourists are different. With the increasing international tourists in Kita Village, this study aimed to explore each group and compare their consumption behavior. Tourists' consumption behavior is studied to understand the tourism demands to increase tourism income in Kita Village, aiming for local revitalization and Satoyama landscape preservation. Data collected through a questionnaire survey in Spring. Results showed that expenditure between domestic and international tourists in Kita Village is not significantly different, JPY1954 for domestic tourists and JPY1994 for international tourists, yet the tourism attitudes between the two groups were different. Domestic and international tourists are significantly different in age, companion, transportation, times visited Miyama, duration, motivation, activity preference, and price preference. Expenditure is affected by marital status, age, duration, satisfaction, motivation, product preference, and price preference. This study managed to discover that the low tourism receipt from international tourists is mainly due to the incompatibility of the type of program. While for domestic tourists, the low tourism receipt is mainly due to the high price offered. It is suggested to make tourism program development as priority for tourism development.
... Federal reintroduction of gray wolves (Canis lupus) to Yellowstone National Park and Central Idaho in 1995 and 1996 has been characterized as one of the great success stories of 20th century conservation (Mech, 1995;Randall, 2020). Wolves serve as keystone speciescontributing to landscape-level restoration through trophic cascade effects on prey populations and the broader ecosystem (Ripple & Beschta, 2005, 2012)-as well as charismatic symbols and potential bases for ecotourism revenues (Lorimer, 2015;Macdonald et al., 2017;Moore, 1995). These effects are debated, context-specific, and unevenly experienced (Haswell, Kusak, & Hayward, 2017;Mech, 2012;Middleton, 2014), however, and wolves' effects on rural residents-particularly through livestock depredation, but compounded by cultural and political polarization surrounding these animals (Coleman, 2009;Nie, 2003)-have made them an emblematic instance of HWC even 25 years since their return to the intermountain West. ...
Threats posed by wild predators to livestock production have too often resulted in human-wildlife conflict, to the detriment of these keystone species and broader biodiversity conservation. Long-standard practices of lethal control are increasingly seen as costly, controversial, and ineffective, however, with nonlethal alternatives ever more prominent. In addition to assessing these tools’ ecological effectiveness, there remains a key role for the social sciences, particularly qualitative research, in identifying obstacles to and opportunities for the long-term sustainability and scaling up of these coexistence interventions.
The Wood River Wolf Project (WRWP), a collaboration among ranchers, environmental organizations, and government agencies in Blaine County, Idaho, has pursued coexistence between gray wolves and domestic sheep since 2008, demonstrating and developing nonlethal techniques and garnering regional and international attention as a model for collaborative coexistence. Yet the Project has also struggled with changing conditions and internal challenges. Investigation of this prominent effort – its history and practices as well as the broader socio-political and economic context – highlights the challenges of adaptive governance in the face of reduced capacity and hostile legal-political contexts, while providing important insights for practitioners and policymakers promoting wildlife coexistence in shared landscapes.
... The attraction of being fed regularly in the same area would mean that photography, hunting, and science could all benefit from this form of management. Macdonald et al (2017) found that tourism is more likely to support predator conservation and recovery when supported by government and under conditions where effective management strategies were implemented. This aspect of wolf conservation will be important in bridging the negative societal perception of large predators such as wolves. ...
The following study tested the viability of managing wolf populations via the presence of managed "wolf restaurants". Wolf restaurants in this context refers to supplementary feeding of wolves in close proximity to their den or areas where wolves frequent within their territory. An individual based model was built using the Netlogo software. The model was used to computationally test this theory as it has not yet been attempted in the field. This form of management was tested in two simulated wilderness areas; a large area (3000km 2 ) and a smaller area (312km 2 ). This study found that in a large wilderness area with a stable wolf population and medium densities of wild prey, nutrition management was effective in reducing dispersion by 33% and livestock depredation by 55%. The model was then tested for a smaller wilderness area. It was discovered that when prey density was high and wolf restaurants were present, livestock depredation was reduced by 450% and movement ecology was reduced by as much as 300% compared to unmanaged wolves in the same environment. The results of this model suggest that wolf nutrition management is possible to mitigate instances of wolf-human conflicts in large wild communities, but that smaller ecological islands of wilderness with high prey density is where it has the potential to work best. The smaller simulated wilderness area emulates that which wolves are moving into throughout Europe. Wolf nutrition management can be used as a tool to enhance the success of future wolf reintroductions and re-establishments.
... The attraction of being fed regularly in the same area would mean that photography, hunting, and science could all benefit from this form of management. Macdonald et al (2017) found that tourism is more likely to support predator conservation and recovery when supported by government and under conditions where effective management strategies were implemented. This aspect of wolf conservation will be important in bridging the negative societal perception of large predators such as wolves. ...
The following study tested the viability of managing wolf populations via the presence of managed "wolf restaurants". Wolf restaurants in this context refers to supplementary feeding of wolves in close proximity to their den or areas where wolves frequent within their territory. An individual based model was built using the Netlogo software. The model was used to computationally test this theory as it has not yet been attempted in the field. This form of management was tested in two simulated wilderness areas; a large area (3000km 2 ) and a smaller area (312km 2 ). This study found that in a large wilderness area with a stable wolf population and medium densities of wild prey, nutrition management was effective in reducing dispersion by 33% and livestock depredation by 55%. The model was then tested for a smaller wilderness area. It was discovered that when prey density was high and wolf restaurants were present, livestock depredation was reduced by 450% and movement ecology was reduced by as much as 300% compared to unmanaged wolves in the same environment. The results of this model suggest that wolf nutrition management is possible to mitigate instances of wolf-human conflicts in large wild communities, but that smaller ecological islands of wilderness with high prey density is where it has the potential to work best. The smaller simulated wilderness area emulates that which wolves are moving into throughout Europe. Wolf nutrition management can be used as a tool to enhance the success of future wolf reintroductions and re-establishments.
... This would be the case if they are founded on a common vision of self-enforcement (Bentz et al., 2014) to maintain sustainable and economically viable standards of shark diving practices; to advocate shark conservation; to create, espouse, and evaluate established codes of conduct; to participate actively in research and monitoring; and to collaborate with the authorities through comanagement approaches. There is already some evidence of successful norm setting in shark diving by operators, resulting in government decisions to protect sharks, and of cooperation between dive centers, resulting in cocreation and coenforcement of codes of conduct, compliance, and pride in the local shark diving industry (Bentz et al., 2014;Macdonald et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2014). ...
Shark diving tourism is an activity that can contribute significantly to coastal economies, while also offering tremendous help to shark conservation efforts. Nevertheless, like any form of wildlife-based tourism, shark diving poses management challenges revolving around ethical and safety considerations. Safety in shark diving normally focuses on operational self-efficacy and adherence to shark diving codes of conduct to prevent incidents such as shark bites and to minimize ecological harm. However, safety issues in shark diving can arise from personal choices to exceed standard certification limits. Any detrimental results are capable of casting doubts on the sustainability of shark diving, thus jeopardizing its future as well as shark conservation. This study addressed compliance with shark diving codes of conduct and standard diving safety by examining the knowledge, attitude, and behavior of people who engage in free scuba diving with predatory sharks. The research made use of mixed methods of data collection, including interviews with shark divers at two popular shark diving destinations in Southeast Africa (n = 86) and an online questionnaire survey among shark divers (n = 89). The results showed that divers had positive attitudes towards sharks and shark diving. However, a notable proportion declared that they had exceeded certification limits and broken codes of conduct during shark diving. In particular, diving experience and being a professional diver were correlated significantly with poor safety attitudes and behavior. The results highlight the need to create an understanding among scuba divers of the connection between shark diving safety and conservation, including the negative implications of safety breaches, whether big or small, for the future of shark diving tourism and of sharks.
... Wildlife tourism is the fastest growing sector of the tourism industry (Wearing & Neil, 2009), bringing in billions of dollars globally Vianna, Meeuwig, Pannell, Sykes, & Meekan, 2011;Wunder, 2000) and with it, a myriad of management and conservation challenges (reviewed in Green & Giese, 2004;Newsome, Dowling, & Moore, 2005;Trave, Brunnschweiler, Sheaves, Diedrich, & Barnett, 2017;Macdonald et al., 2017). Owing to their reputation as iconic predators, sharks are particularly popular ecotourism attractions (Apps, Dimmock, Lloyd, & Huveneers, 2016;Gallagher & Hammerschlag, 2011). ...
Shark and ray tourism is growing in popularity and often necessitates attractants like bait and chum to encourage close encounters. Such practices remain contentious amongst stakeholders as they may affect the species they target. We used lipid and fatty acid profiles to investigate the effects of South Australia's cage-diving industry on the diet and nutritional condition of white sharks Carcharodon carcharias (n = 75). We found no evidence of dietary shifts or reduced nutritional condition after a >3 week period of tourism-exposed residency at the Neptune Islands where the cage-diving industry operates. White sharks fed on a variety of prey groups, similar to other populations around Southern Australia that are not exposed to ecotourism provisioning. These findings indicate that current cage-diving operations in South Australia do not alter white shark diet and nutritional condition where prey resources are abundant.
... Depredation of captured fish by sharks is likely to have implications for maintaining ecosystem health, fisheries management, ensuring the social and economic value of fishing and shark welfare [67][68][69]. The loss or damage of fish through depredation comprises an additional source of mortality that could alter ecosystem structure, particularly if this is not explicitly incorporated in stock assessments [4,7,70]. ...
Shark encounters while fishing in Western Australian waters have been perceived to be increasing by some fishers in recent years. A lack of quantitative information remains a significant obstacle to determining the nature and magnitude of these encounters. A probability-based survey was implemented to assess the occurrence of and attitudes toward shark encounters by commercial fishers, charter tour operators and private boat-based recreational fishers during 2015/16. Of the 906 fishers interviewed, 52% indicated they had experienced at least one shark encounter while fishing during the previous year. The loss or damage of fish was involved in over half of these encounters while charter fishing and nearly a third while recreational fishing. The level of concern towards shark depredation was highest among charter tour operators statewide and all sectors in the Gascoyne bioregion. Multiple logistic regression analyses indicated fishing method and bioregion were the most important predictors of encounters. Depredation through fish loss below or at the surface was highest for pelagic or demersal line fishing in the North Coast and Gascoyne bioregions. Overwhelmingly, the majority of fishers in all sectors were satisfied with their fishing experience despite the occurrence of shark encounters. Future research on shark depredation would benefit from focusing on fishing methods and bioregions where depredation events were highest, with consideration of associated behavioural and environmental characteristics likely to influence depredation rates. The approach outlined here could easily be applied to other human-wildlife interaction studies where representative views of stakeholders are required for policy development and effective management.
Understanding large carnivore demography on human-dominated lands is a priority to inform conservation strategies, yet few studies examine long-term trends. Jaguars (Panthera onca) are one such species whose population trends and survival rates remain unknown across working lands. We integrated nine years of camera trap data and tourist photos to estimate jaguar density, survival, abundance, and probability of tourist sightings on a working ranch and tourism destination in Colombia. We found that abundance increased from five individuals in 2014 to 28 in 2022, and density increased from 1.88 ± 0.87 per 100 km 2 in 2014 to 3.80 ± 1.08 jaguars per 100 km 2 in 2022. The probability of a tourist viewing a jaguar increased from 0% in 2014 to 40% in 2020 before the Covid-19 pandemic. Our results are the first robust estimates of jaguar survival and abundance on working lands. Our findings highlight the importance of productive lands for jaguar conservation and suggest that a tourism destination and working ranch can host an abundant population of jaguars when accompanied by conservation agreements and conflict interventions. Our analytical model that combines conventional data collection with tourist sightings can be applied to other species that are observed during tourism activities.
Entender los patrones demográficos de los grandes carnívoros al interior de paisajes antrópicos es fundamental para el diseño de estrategias de conservación efectivas. En el Neotrópico, el jaguar (Panthera onca) es una de estas especies cuyas tendencias poblacionales y tasas de supervivencia en paisajes productivos son desconocidas. Para entender mejor estas dinámicas, integramos nueve años de fototrampeo junto a fotos de turistas para estimar la densidad, supervivencia, abundancia y probabilidad de avistamiento de esta especie en una finca ganadera y destino turístico en Colombia. Entre 2014 y 2022 encontramos que la abundancia incrementó de cinco a 28 individuos y la densidad de 1.88 ± 0.87 jaguares/ 100 km 2 a 3.80 ± 1.08 jaguares/ 100 km 2. La probabilidad de avistamiento por turistas aumentó de 0% en 2014 a 40% en 2020 antes de la pandemia del Covid-19. Nuestros resultados presentan las primeras estimaciones robustas de abundancia y supervivencia de este felino en paisajes antrópicos dónde el manejo de sistemas productivos combinados con turismo e intervenciones para la mitigación del conflicto puede albergar poblaciones abundantes de jaguares, demostrando su importancia para la conservación de esta especie. Nuestro modelo, al combinar datos convencionales con avistamientos, podría ser aplicado a otras especies observadas durante actividades turísticas.
Dada a elevada diversidade nas estratégias de história de vida, os elasmobrânquios (tubarões e raias) tornam-se interessantes modelos para o estudo de relações entre a fisiologia e interações ecológicas no ambiente marinho. Embora os esforços para a conservação dos elasmobrânquios, que é atualmente o segundo grupo de vertebrados mais ameaçado do planeta, tenha estimulado um aumento no número de estudos sobre os padrões ecológicos e impactos antrópicos, pouco ainda se sabe sobre sua fisiologia. Assim, nesta tese de doutorado foram investigadas as variações fisiológicas sazonais e espaciais associadas ao estágio de vida e comportamento de tubarões de diferentes histórias de vida, utilizando múltiplas ferramentas não-letais para fornecer uma melhor compreensão dos padrões energéticos e reprodutivos, além de uma base fisiológica que ajude a prever os efeitos de distúrbios ambientais nos tubarões. O capítulo 1 aborda as variações inter- e intraespecíficas na ecologia nutricional de tubarões de diferentes estratégias de história de vida em um sistema insular oceânico protegido, o Arquipélago de Fernando de Noronha. Foram abordados também as variações nos padrões de dieta e condição nutricional e metabólica relacionados à reprodução de fêmeas de tubarões-tigre Galeocerdo cuvier (capítulo 2) e machos de tubarões-lixa Ginglymostoma cirratum e tubarões-galha-preta Carcharhinus limbatus (capítulo 3). Os capítulos 4, 5 e 6 abordam os efeitos da vida urbana na condição nutricional e padrões alimentares de tubarões com diferentes estilos de vida, o tubarão-lixa, o tubarão-galha-preta e o tubarão-tigre, respectivamente. Os resultados mostraram que a influência da urbanização na qualidade da dieta dos tubarões parece ser mais pronunciada em espécies sedentárias, como o tubarão-lixa, quando comparado com espécies mais ativas. Por fim, o capítulo 7 trouxe uma abordagem inédita na pesquisa de tubarões, combinando múltiplos marcadores fisiológicos com informações obtidas através de ultrassonografia e da telemetria acústica passiva para entender relações entre os aspectos fisiológicos e comportamentais de tubarões-tigre expostos ao turismo de alimentação. Os resultados demonstraram que o estágio de vida, a regulação endócrina e a condição nutricional influenciam e/ou são influenciadas pelo tempo que os tubarões passam interagindo com o turismo de alimentação. Em conjunto, os resultados mostraram que os biomarcadores nutricionais, reprodutivos e metabólicos utilizados nesta tese fornecem uma poderosa ferramenta para descrever padrões ecológicos complexos dos tubarões, especialmente quando combinados com outras tecnologias para rastreamento da movimentação e identificação do estágio reprodutivo dos tubarões.
Chondrichthyan fishes are ecologically and economically important, yet many are overfished or at elevated risk of extinction. Researchers report a desire to perform policy‐relevant science that can generate data in support of effective conservation and management plans, but also report a lack of clarity about how to most effectively to do that. To address this gap, we created a list of research and policy priorities for chondrichthyan species of conservation concern in US waters using a modified expert solicitation horizon scan approach. Thirty‐five policy‐relevant research priorities and twenty‐seven policy priorities are presented here, a list which can help to guide scientists and conservationists to maximize the effectiveness of their research and policy advocacy.
Human activities increasingly result in disturbance of wild animal populations. Behavioral responses vary according to the type, duration, frequency and intensity of disturbance. Exposure to disturbance, for example, arising from ecotourism, may promote tolerance of humans and drive a decrease in vigilance and avoidance behaviors, whereas disturbance resulting from extractive activities is typically more intense and is likely to be perceived as a threat. To understand how animals cope with land transformation and human presence, it is imperative to study their responses under different disturbance regimes. We performed behavioral sampling of groups of the giant otter, a charismatic top carnivore, exposed to ecotourism, extractive activities (mining and fishing) and control sites without disturbance to compare their responses. Foraging efficiency was impacted by fish abundance and thus was reduced in mined and fished areas. Giant otters in lakes with managed ecotourism did not show avoidance of research vessels and demonstrated reduced rates of defensive behavior compared to control lakes. Groups from lakes with fishing and gold mining showed increased avoidance, suggesting that these types of disturbance may involve more direct conflict. Our findings suggest that noninvasive disturbance such as ecotourism may promote giant otter tolerance to the presence of humans, whereas extractive activities may be perceived as riskier. Current protected area conservation strategies of strict ecotourism regulation and the maintenance of no‐access oxbow lakes may ensure the maintenance of behavioral flexibility in giant otter populations. However, resource depletion and more intense human‐giant otter interactions in disturbed areas may not be sustainable. Further studies are necessary to determine whether distinct disturbance regimes drive longer‐term demographic effects.
Wildlife tourism benefits apex predators in numerous ways, including providing contributions to scientific inquiry. Here we report novel observations of puma Puma concolor families consuming lesser rhea Rhea pennata pennata eggs ob- served during predator tourism. Such pay-off based (i.e. immediate reward) social learning could cascade within the local puma population and impact rheas further. Social and hunting behaviours are difficult to study indirectly, highlighting oppor- tunities for tourism to contribute novel information.
There is growing evidence that wildlife‐based tourism can be a valuable pathway to transform the environmental knowledge, attitudes and behaviours of tourists, if complemented by effective conservation messaging and proactive interpretive experiences.
Yet, such conservation messaging is not always a priority for many wildlife‐based tourism operators, who often avoid exposing happy tourists to the daunting biodiversity crisis. In this paper, we argue that failing to encourage tourists to do more on behalf of wildlife represents a missed opportunity for conservation.
Based on a comprehensive review of the academic literature, we show that conservation messaging is virtually absent from many mainstream wildlife‐based tourism operations, often failing to connect global audiences to conservation issues.
We found that the scholarly literature on the effectiveness of different techniques, approaches and contents of conservation messaging in wildlife‐based tourism is meagre at best. Yet, alternative forms of communicating conservation‐related messages are opening new avenues to broaden the conservation potential of wildlife‐based tourism.
We suggest a set of principles for improving the implementation of conservation messaging in wildlife‐based tourism operations in order to maximize their educational potential. We end by calling for further research efforts on the factors implicated in effective conservation messaging in wildlife‐based tours in order to pave the way for a new era of conservation‐oriented tourism.
Sharks are a taxon of significant conservation concern and associated public interest. The scientific community largely supports management policies focusing on sustainable fisheries exploitation of sharks, but many concerned members of the public and some environmental advocates believe that sustainable shark fisheries cannot and do not exist and therefore support total bans on all shark fisheries and/or trade in shark products. The belief that sustainable shark fisheries cannot and do not exist persists despite scientific evidence showing that they can and do, and are important to livelihoods. Additionally, many concerned members of the public are only aware of one threat to sharks and are unaware of other threats—or of most available policy solutions. Here we assess whether the popular press plays a role in spreading misinformation and misunderstanding about these issues via the agenda-setting, priming, and cultivation roles of the media, with the goal of better understanding the causes and consequences of public confusion.
The large felid carnivores are among the most endangered, and the most challenging, species to conserve on this increasingly human-dominated planet. In modern times, large felid carnivores were widely distributed in the continents of Asia, Africa, and the Americas. Unfortunately, global human expansion, loss of prey species, hunting and poaching, and retaliatory killings after livestock predation have greatly reduced and fragmented their original ranges and decimated their populations. In this chapter, large felid carnivore characteristics, usual habitats, ecology, and predatory behaviors are reviewed. Changes in great cat distribution, changes in wild prey populations resulting in a shift to increased livestock predation, and the resulting human-felid conflicts are discussed. Preservation of remaining wild large felid carnivore populations has become a global conservation priority as populations have plummeted over the last century. Current approaches to better understand and conserve these apex keystone predators and to maintain ecosystem integrity are discussed. Current strategies and policies to ameliorate and resolve the intricate and difficult problems of predator-human conflict are examined. The complex issues of “problem carnivores” and “man-eaters” are discussed. Finally, recommendations on creative, fluid, and scientifically sound strategies that might be employed to address these conflicts in a manner acceptable to all key stakeholders are discussed.
This letter to the editor describes the surge of “photo-friendly” stacks of stones as an emerging tourism-associated threat to rock-dwelling biodiversity.
Elasmobranch populations in The Bahamas offer a unique juxtaposition to the widespread decline of many species around the world, largely due to management and conservation initiatives implemented over the last 25 years. Several industries have been built around the diverse and abundant elasmobranch assemblages found in The Bahamas, however a comprehensive assessment of the non-consumptive economic value of this resource has yet to be undertaken. In this study, we identified various sectors that benefit from elasmobranch populations in The Bahamas, which included tourism, film and television and research. We incorporated data from operator and participant surveys, government sources and information available on the Internet to calculate the economic value and location of these various sectors. This study establishes The Bahamas dive industry as the largest in the world, contributing approximately $113.8 million USD annually to the Bahamian economy in direct and value added expenditures. Elasmobranch tourism generated 99% of the total revenue, and the balance generated by film and television and research. The relative economic importance of shark diving was greater in economically disadvantaged out-islands where specific charismatic species are sought. This was also in locations where a large proportion of the revenue generated by those activities does not enter the Bahamian economy. The sustained national stewardship demonstrated by the Bahamian government will ensure that this important economic resource continues to be productive, but also highlights the need for regional Caribbean-wide commitment to the management of highly migratory species that are important to many economically depressed areas of The Bahamas.
Despite legal protection, deliberate killing by local people is one of the major threats to the conservation of lions and other large carnivores in Africa. Addressing this problem poses particular challenges, mainly because it is difficult to uncover illicit behavior. This article examined two groups of Maasai warriors: individuals who have killed African lions (Panthera leo) and those who have not. We conducted interviews to explore the relationship between attitudes, intentions and known lion killing behavior. Factor analysis and logistic regression revealed that lion killing was mainly determined by: (a) general attitudes toward lions, (b) engagement in traditional customs, (c) lion killing intentions to defend property, and (d) socio-cultural killing intentions. Our results indicated that general attitudes toward lions were the strongest predictor of lion killing behavior. Influencing attitudes to encourage pro-conservation behavior may help reduce killing.
Marine protected areas (MPAs) are commonly employed to protect ecosystems from threats like overfishing. Ideally, MPA design should incorporate movement data from multiple target species to ensure sufficient habitat is protected. We used long-term acoustic telemetry and network analysis to determine the fine-scale space use of five shark and one turtle species at a remote atoll in the Seychelles, Indian Ocean, and evaluate the efficacy of a proposed MPA. Results revealed strong, species-specific habitat use in both sharks and turtles, with corresponding variation in MPA use. Defining the MPA's boundary from the edge of the reef flat at low tide instead of the beach at high tide (the current best in Seychelles) significantly increased the MPA's coverage of predator movements by an average of 34%. Informed by these results, the larger MPA was adopted by the Seychelles government, demonstrating how telemetry data can improve shark spatial conservation by affecting policy directly.
The proposition that wildlife conservation can sometimes be enhanced through allowing and even promoting the harvesting of wildlife is a sensitive issue. For the last 30 years, conservation has tended to focus on protecting rather than using wildlife. Yet conservation through sustainable use (CSU) is now a mainstream conservation strategy, and research on sustaining rather than stopping uses is commonplace. This paper discusses some of the fundamental and confusing elements of the CSU concept. Two case histories are discussed: Saltwater Crocodiles Crocodylus porosus in the Northern Territory of Australia, and Hawksbill Turtles Eretmochelys imbricata in Cuba. That wildlife populations are themselves highly dynamic entities, capable of adapting to harvest reductions, is well established, but often not appreciated. To advance conservation, research at the dynamic population level of resolution needs to take precedence over research on individual population dynamics.
In recent years, wildlife policies that consider the participation of stakeholders have been promoted. An understanding of the stakeholders' attitudes towards conservation and existing policies are critical in designing new policies or sustainable conservation strategies. This paper examines stakeholders' (local people, park staff and professional hunter guides) attitudes, towards the Bénoué Wildlife Conservation Area (BWCA) and towards Cameroonian wildlife policy. The BWCA encompasses the Bénoué National Park and its surrounding hunting concessions that also include some villages. Both the Park and the hunting concessions are two categories of protected areas. Data were collected using informal interviews and questionnaires administered to 114 households from three communities, 17 park staff and seven professional hunter guides. Local people's attitudes towards protected areas depended on the management category of the particular protected area. Local people were positive towards the existence of the Park, but negative towards the system of hunting concession areas. There was local variation between communities concerning these attitudes. Local people were generally positive to maintaining the present Park area, but preferred a reduction in the size of the hunting concessions. Both Park staff and professional hunter guides expressed concern about present management strategies and the extent of illegal resource exploitation. Despite having poor knowledge of the current Cameroonian wildlife policy, most of the local households expressed support for it, but called for increased local involvement in management, off-take and the harvesting of benefits from both Park and hunting concession activities. The Park staff were sceptical about local participation in this context and saw such endeavours as a threat to a sound biodiversity management scheme. The findings indicate the need to strengthen current wildlife policy, promote the involvement of local people and empower the Park staff, both in terms of resources and in terms of skills in interacting with local people. The revised policy should be designed so as to vary according to the category of protected area and allow site-specific adaptations. Local people must experience reduced incurred costs and increased incomes from the Park. An environmental education programme is recommended to extensively disseminate the policy to user groups in the area.
This article investigates the changing forms of human engagement with tigers—in terms of manner of interaction, perceptions, experiences, and activation of the senses—in a four-fold sequence of settings. It outlines the process by which the fascinating ‘Otherness’ of the tiger in the wilderness has been gradually attenuated, as he was mastered by humans, first by virtual extermination, and then by increasingly strict forms of subjugation, eventually to become an apparently harmless plaything for patting tourists. The article dwells upon the tiger's resistance to domination, expressed in occasional outbursts of aggression, perceived by his masters as ‘accidents’. It concludes that the consequences of contemporary tourism for the conservation of wild tigers are predominantly negative, even as tourism encourages the proliferation of captive tigers, and argues that without political will the problems engendered by tiger tourism cannot be resolved, even with the best professional advice.
Aim
Predators often have important roles in structuring ecosystems via their effects on each other and on prey populations. However, these effects may be altered in the presence of anthropogenic food resources, fuelling debate about whether the availability of such resources could alter the ecological role of predators. Here, we review the extent to which human‐provided foods are utilised by terrestrial mammalian predators (> 1 kg) across the globe. We also assess whether these resources have a direct impact on the ecology and behaviour of predators and an indirect impact on other co‐occurring species.
Location
Global.
Methods
Data were derived from searches of the published literature. To summarise the data we grouped studies based on the direct and indirect effects of resource subsidies on predators and co‐occurring species. We then compared the types of predators accessing these resources by grouping species taxonomically and into the following categories: (1) domesticated species, (2) mesopredators and (3) top predators.
Results
Human‐provided foods were reported to be utilised by 36 terrestrial predator species in 34 different countries. In the presence of these resources we found that: (1) predator abundance increased, (2) the dietary preferences of predators altered to include the food subsidy, (3) life‐history parameters such as survival, reproduction and sociality shifted to the benefit or detriment of the predator, and (4) predators changed their home ranges, activity and movements. In some instances, these modifications indirectly affected co‐occurring species via increased predation or competition.
Main conclusions
The availability of human‐provided food to predators often results in behavioural or population‐induced changes to predators and trophic cascades. We conclude that there is an urgent need to reduce the access of predators to food subsidies to minimise human–wildlife conflicts and to preserve the integrity of ecosystem functioning in human‐influenced landscapes world‐wide.
Context:
Human–wildlife conflict is a global problem and increasing worldwide as people and wildlife compete for limited resources. Conflict between people and crocodiles, especially in Africa, is recognised as a serious problem. The people of the Chiawa Game Management Area are heavily dependent on the Zambezi River for several resources from potable water and irrigating fields to a source of food (subsistence and small-scale commercial fishing).
The research within the area of ecotourism still appears to be at its infancy stage. The definitional perspective of the concept is lacking both in terms of scope and criteria used, as well as in aspects of its planning and operationalisation. There are a variety of ecotourism definitions all reflecting a range of paradigms and perspectives. The view that this article has taken is that the definition of ecotourism is not really necessary if the discussion focuses on the concepts rather than the issues implied by ecotourism. Hence, it seems that ecotourism definitions could range from passive to active stances incorporating the three common concepts in the form of trade-off scenarios. The three common concepts within ecotourism are natural-based, educational, and sustainable (which includes economic and social criteria). Within these components, both benefits and costs exist, and in some circumstances there is disequilibrium towards greater costs. Fundamentally, ecotourism could merit wider credibility, but only when the different actors involved avoid overmarketing, and control the overuse of its products by consumers. In light of these pitfalls, this paper focuses on the three components of ecotourism and includes a review of ecotourism’s definitions followed by an examination of its natural-based, sustainability and educational components. It concludes with the future state of ecotourism research in light of the changes in trends in the tourism industry.
Human–wildlife conflict (HWC) is a significant and growing problem, with mitigation measures being increasingly dependent on sociopolitical landscapes. We surveyed 766 people from two Australian states to assess their understanding of shark attack mitigation measures. Although beach users were relatively aware of existing mitigation measures, the efficacy of aerial patrol was overestimated, as was the risk of shark attack. The latter, as well as the innate fear of shark attacks, is likely to explain the high level of worry related with shark attack and fits within the affect heuristic that can influence how people respond to risk situations. Beach users did not, however, choose beaches based on existing mitigation measures. Results highlight the need for improved education about the risks of shark attack and for further research into the emotional response from low probability–high consequences incidents.
Large carnivores face serious threats and are experiencing massive declines in their populations and geographic ranges around
the world. We highlight how these threats have affected the conservation status and ecological functioning of the 31 largest
mammalian carnivores on Earth. Consistent with theory, empirical studies increasingly show that large carnivores have substantial
effects on the structure and function of diverse ecosystems. Significant cascading trophic interactions, mediated by their
prey or sympatric mesopredators, arise when some of these carnivores are extirpated from or repatriated to ecosystems. Unexpected
effects of trophic cascades on various taxa and processes include changes to bird, mammal, invertebrate, and herpetofauna
abundance or richness; subsidies to scavengers; altered disease dynamics; carbon sequestration; modified stream morphology;
and crop damage. Promoting tolerance and coexistence with large carnivores is a crucial societal challenge that will ultimately
determine the fate of Earth’s largest carnivores and all that depends upon them, including humans.
Context Ecotourism and human recreational activities are increasing and can have a significant impact on fauna. The analysis of faecal glucocorticoid concentrations is a non-invasive method of measuring physiological stress responses of wildlife to various factors (i.e. human disturbances). Aims The aim of the present study was to determine whether increased physiological stress levels in wildcats (Felis silvestris) were a response to the level of tourism allowed within different zones in a natural park and/or a response to the seasonal reproductive state of wildcats. Methods The study was conducted from May 2005 to June 2009 at the Natural Park Montes do Invernadeiro (north-western Spain). The Natural Park is divided into the following three zones according to the level of tourism allowed: restricted public-use, restricted zone and integral reserve. An enzyme immunoassay technique was used to quantify cortisol metabolites and sex hormones from each of 110 fresh wildcat faecal samples collected from walked transects on forest roads within each zone. The number of visitors was recorded as a measure of tourist pressure. Key results The general linear model indicated that park zone and faecal progesterone levels were the factors that explained the variation in the faecal glucocorticoid metabolite levels. Cortisol metabolite concentrations were higher in some park zones where tourism intensity was higher (restricted public-use zone). Faecal cortisol metabolite concentrations were more elevated during gestation (spring) and during the young dispersal period (autumn). Key conclusions Therefore, we recommend that some zones of park (integral reserve) continue being maintained free of visitor impact and that visitor numbers be specially controlled during the animals' sensitive periods (gestation) in the zone of restricted public use and in the restricted zone.
Fencing is commonly used as a tool in wildlife management in Africa, particularly in the southern part of the continent. Fencing confers a number of advantages to wildlife managers including: the ability to utilize small habitat fragments and conserve wildlife in otherwise human-dominated landscapes by reducing edge-effects on large mammals; enabling intensive management practices (e.g. holding of wildlife in pre-release pens, separating genders or individuals, and protecting specific habitat types from certain species); and acting as a tool in disease control. Fencing is a potentially important tool in reducing human-wildlife conflict, and can assist in protecting wildlife from illegal hunting. Finally, fencing is important in the allocation of ownership and/or user-rights over wildlife and was important in providing the legal basis for the development of wildlife-based land uses on private land. However, there are a number of problems associated with the use of fencing, which can be categorized as ecological, epidemiological, social and financial. Ecological and epidemiological issues include: the inhibition of ecological processes such as migration; high levels of mortality of some species (particularly reptiles) along fence lines; and failure to achieve key objectives relating to disease control. Social issues include: negative community perceptions towards fences in some areas due to a feeling that they are an exclusive imposition; and, the importance of fence as sources of material for snares for illegal hunters. Financial issues include: the fact that fencing influences (and in some cases limits) land use options; and that fencing is costly to erect and maintain. Solutions to some of these problems include: using the minimum amount of fencing possible to achieve management objectives; where possible enlarging wildlife areas encompassed by fencing, or amalgamating adjacent areas; re-thinking the use of fences for veterinary purposes and using alternative strategies (such as commodity-based trading, or relaxation of veterinary controls in favour of wildlife-based land uses); conducting adequate environmental and social impact assessments to minimize ecological problems and social conflicts resulting from the construction of fencing; and re-designing fences to reduce mortality due to entanglement.
Arguments for conservation of sharks based on their role in the maintenance of healthy marine ecosystems have failed to halt the worldwide decline in populations. Instead, the value of sharks as a fishery commodity has severely reduced the abundance of these animals. Conservation may be assisted by the development of an alternative approach that emphasizes the economic value of sharks as a non-harvested resource. Our study quantifies the value of a tourism industry based on shark diving. Using data collected from surveys, as well as government statistics, we show that shark diving is a major contributor to the economy of Palau, generating US$18 million per year and accounting for approximately 8% of the gross domestic product of the country. Annually, shark diving was responsible for the disbursement of US$1.2 million in salaries to the local community, and generated US$1.5 million in taxes to the government. If the population of approximately 100 sharks that interact with tourists at popular dive sites was harvested by fishers, their economic value would be at most US$10 800, a fraction of the worth of these animals as a non-consumptive resource. Fishers earn more selling fish for consumption by shark divers than they would gain by catching sharks. Shark diving provides an attractive economic alternative to shark fishing, with distribution of revenues benefiting several sectors of the economy, stimulating the development and generating high revenues to the government, while ensuring the ecological sustainability of shark populations.
A rise in the popularity of ecotourism has coincided with voluminous definitional discourse. Amongst stakeholders, confusion has resulted from the disparate nature of these definitions. In the absence of a common definition or set of key tenets the challenge has been to ensure operational ecotourism that adheres to the theoretical underpinnings of the concept. Without some semblance of definitional consensus, ecotourism may be on a precarious course whereby the ethics upon which the activity is conceptualised, the natural environment upon which the activity depends, and the legitimacy of the industry are at risk. The ambition of this research is to disentangle a set of themes from the evolving definitional debate in order to provide a framework for the development of ecotourism policy and applications. Recurring themes are identified through the application of content analysis methodology to select contemporary definitions. Those themes that appear most frequently are then introduced as an ecotourism conceptual framework based on key tenets. The tenets are meant to represent a set of established fundamental beliefs central to ecotourism: (1) nature-based; (2) preservation/conservation; (3) education; (4) sustainability; (5) distribution of benefits; and (6) ethics/responsibility/awareness.
One of the most habitual practices in the sub-field of ecotourism, from both academic and industry perspectives, is the development of definitions. Although the reasons for such a proliferation of definitions is unknown, it appears as though the trend will continue. This research sought to better understand the concept of ecotourism through an examination of 85 definitions of the term (chiefly from the perspective of 20 variables), using a content analysis methodology. The variables most frequently cited in the definitions include: (i) reference to where ecotourism occurs, e.g. natural areas; (2) conservation; (3) culture; (4) benefits to locals; and (5) education. From the perspective of time, the data indicate that the years ranging from 1991 to 1996, were the most productive in terms of the development of ecotourism definitions, and more specifically 1994 to 1996, when a number of the most comprehensive of these were coined. Conservation, education, ethics, sustainability, impacts and local benefits were variables which were better represented in the more recent definitions, showing a changing emphasis in how the term has been conceptualised over time.
These study reports the results derived from a pilot research study based on a phenomenographic research approach with 50 respondents in the Northern Territory of Australia. The data permitted a perceptual map to be drawn which identifies tourist fascination with crocodiles as being based on attributes of potential threat, danger, power, links with the prehistoric, and survivorship. However the study also found that when asked to describe the Northern Territory, crocodiles did not immediately come to mind, even though, arguably, the reptile is etched upon the ethos of the 'Top End'. However prompted responses quickly elicited mention of crocodiles. There was also a preference to see crocodiles within their natural terrain. Some evidence of a minority of tourists being prepared to mitigate their behaviours was also found, and hence this study may have wider implications.
Saltwater crocodiles are a popular tourism attraction throughout Northern Australia. But who are they popular with? Past research has indicated ambiguous feelings towards crocodiles, with some people fascinated by them and others disliking them (Shackley, 1996). Are there any specific correlations between wishing to see saltwater crocodiles and other variables? This research note examines some of those other variables, notably socio-demographics, preferences for other wildlife attractions like dolphin watching, and sensitivity towards environmental issues. As predicted by Ryan (1998) an inverse relationship between dolphin watching and crocodile viewing is found. Males are found to be rather more disposed towards crocodiles as a tourist attraction, but little relationship exists between visitor statements on a measure of environmental sensitivity (the New Environmental Paradigm1) and their behaviours or attitudes towards crocodiles as a protected species that are used as a wildlife tourist attraction.
Over the past century, the world’s cheetah population has undergone severe reduction in both numbers and range. This is due to factors such as habitat fragmentation resulting from human development, the depletion of their natural prey base as land becomes dominated by agriculture and the resultant conflict with humans for livestock and farmed game. Although long-term studies have provided useful information regarding the ecology and biology of the cheetah, the real conservation challenge lies in a better understanding of human behavior and attitudes toward the cheetah. Only by addressing human issues can cheetah conservation strategies be implemented across large areas of their range. This article examines and discusses novel approaches aimed at modifying human behavior in those areas most critical for future cheetah conservation. These approaches could also be valuable in other areas where human conflict is a significant threat to the persistence of large carnivores.
Since they were declared a protected species in 1971, populations of saltwater crocodiles ( Crocodylus porosus) have inc