Content uploaded by Josh Cuevas
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Josh Cuevas on Jun 07, 2019
Content may be subject to copyright.
A test of two alternative cognitive processing models: Learning styles and dual coding
Abstract
This study tested two cognitive models, learning styles and dual coding, which make contradictory predictions about how learners process and retain visual and auditory information. Learning styles-based instructional practices are common in educational environments despite a questionable research base, while the use of dual coding is less ubiquitous, and thus measured examination of the two methods has implications for practical application. The study involved 204 university students who were surveyed on their preferred learning style and then presented with information that they were prompted to process via either imagery or linguistic means. The results showed there was no significant interaction effect between learning style and condition, suggesting the most basic prediction of the learning styles hypothesis should be rejected. In a regression analysis, none of the four learning styles (visual, auditory, read/write, or kinesthetic) predicted students’ retention of the material. However, there was a highly significant main effect of condition with those in the visual condition retaining twice as much information as those in the auditory condition regardless of learning style, a result that strongly supports dual coding theory. Implications of the findings would suggest that learning styles instruction is an ineffective method for teachers to employ, and that, instead, incorporating principles of dual coding would have a much greater benefit to student learning.
... However, few of these studies have applied an appropriate research design, and there is no supporting evidence for the meshing hypothesis (Cuevas, 2015;Kavale & Forness, 1987;Pashler et al., 2008). Subsequent more carefully-designed studies have also not produced supporting evidence in support of learning styles and, instead, suggest taking an entirely opposite multimodal approach (Aslaksen and Lorås, 2018;Cuevas & Dawson, 2018;Newton & Salvi, 2020;Rohrer & Pashler, 2012). However, an educator who may see learning styles as "a good thing" will find an abundance of educational articles favourably reporting the use of learning styles. ...
... This is because it is processed separately by visual and auditory processing centres, each of which is presumed to have a separate working memory compartment (Hodes, 1998;Paivio, 1990). Cuevas and Dawson (2018), whose research found no support for a unimodal approach to instruction, present evidence instead for dual coding as an instructional tool. Participants in their study were verbally presented with the same 20 statements and instructed to remember these by either creating a corresponding mental image, or by focusing on the sounds of the words. ...
... It was found that better learning occurred for those learners able to combine both visual and auditory information. Cuevas and Dawson (2018) reason that this provides strong evidence for dual coding theory as an instructional approach. A study by Constantinidou and Baker (2002) also found that presenting visual images with an accompanying verbal list helped all learners with recall, regardless of their preferred modality. ...
... Howard-Jones (2014) reported that the popular hypothesis of learning styles is taught among 90% of teachers that reported in five countries. Though the learning styles hypothesis remains a popular teaching strategy among teachers in the UK and United States, the hypothesis is not supported by empirical evidence (Cuevas, 2015(Cuevas, , 2016(Cuevas, , 2016aCuevas et al., 2023, Pashler et al. 2009) and research indicates the approach is not effective for enhancing student learning (Cuevas & Dawson, 2018;Rogowsky et al., 2015), which should concern educators. A different theory focusing on auditory and visual processing, that has not been as popular as the aforementioned, is Dual Coding Theory (DCT). ...
... The work of Pashler et. al (2009) and Cuevas and Dawson (2018) among others have questioned the validity and noted the lack of empirical research on the learning styles hypothesis that is so prevalent in instructional strategies in K-12 schools. The learning styles hypothesis and DCT conceptually are diametrically opposed. ...
... It is important to note the large effect size despite the short duration of the intervention. Cuevas and Dawson (2018) similarly found a large effect size which indicates a substantial influence of the dual coding intervention on retention in a study of additive effects of language processing and visual processing centers. Though this current study was over the course of two-units in an upper-grades classroom, the above study was implemented very briefly in a college classroom. ...
The goal of this quasi-experimental study was to assess the effects of Dual-Coding Theory on domain-specific vocabulary and comprehension in a 5th grade social studies classroom. The pretest/posttest design research was conducted in a rural elementary school (N = 49). Twenty-three students participated in an intervention of dual-coding based strategies. This study sought to determine if the instructional strategies that incorporated dual coding were more effective than traditional social studies strategies to promote domain-specific vocabulary learning and academic achievement. In addition to the measures for vocabulary and comprehension, students completed a motivational questionnaire on their view of social studies to ascertain if their motivation and enjoyment changed after the experiment. ANCOVA analyses showed consistent, statistically significant results indicating that dual coding strategies benefitted students in the area of academic achievement. Dual coding strategies appeared to have had a positive impact on student vocabulary learning and academic achievement.
... The Dual Coding Theory provides insights into the cognitive processes involved in learning. According to the theory (Cuevas & Dawson, 2018;Sadoski & Paivio, 2013), mental representations are processed through two distinct codes: the verbal code and the nonverbal code. The verbal code is specialized for representing and processing language, which may include the visual, auditory, and haptic representation of the language, while the nonverbal code refers to the knowledge of the world in the form of mental images that are derived from experience. ...
... The present study extends the scope of Kuo et al. (2014) and previous research on character acquisition by also examining the activation of verbal codes by nonverbal codes (Cuevas & Dawson, 2018;Sadoski & Paivio, 2013). Results from the character recall tasks revealed that these two directions of referential processing share some similarities but also differ in several respects. ...
Drawing upon research on the visual complexity effect and Dual Coding Theory, this research examined the influence of character properties and the role of individual learner differences in Chinese character acquisition. The participants included 248 Chinese-speaking children in grades 1 through 3 in Taiwan. The study extended the scope of previous research by concurrently examining two types of cognitive processing: activation of verbal codes with nonverbal codes (activation of word form) and activation of nonverbal codes with verbal codes (activation of meaning). Results revealed the asymmetry in the two types of cognitive processing. Regarding the influence of character properties, while characters with less visual complexity and with radical presence are generally more acquirable, the interaction between these two properties was only present in the activation of meaning but not the activation of word form. Individual differences contributing to character acquisition did not mirror each other in the two directions of cognitive processing either. The contribution of radical awareness and visual skills remained the same across grade levels in the activation of meaning but varied with grades and the properties of the characters in the activation of word form. The methodological and theoretical contributions of the study were discussed.
... In a study that tried to differentiate between learning styles and dual coding, participants were read statements with one group instructed to determine how easy it was to form a mental image of the statement, and the other group instructed to determine how easily they could pronounce the statements (Cuevas & Dawson, 2018). Students completed a learning styles inventory to determine their preferred mode of information acquisition. ...
... This avoids the possibility that the instruction intended to be matched for a particular style is simply better across style groups. For example, college students who were prompted to visualize statements (visual matching) remembered more statements than their peers who were prompted to consider the sounds in the statements (auditory matching) across learning style categories (Cuevas and Dawson, 2018). ...
Learning styles have been a contentious topic in education for years. The purpose of this study was to conduct a meta-analysis of the effects of matching instruction to modality learning styles compared to unmatched instruction on learning outcomes. A systematic search of the research findings yielded 21 eligible studies with 101 effect sizes and 1,712 participants for the meta-analysis. Based on robust variance estimation, there was an overall benefit of matching instruction to learning styles, g = 0.31, SE = 0.12, 95% CI = [0.05, 0.57], p = 0.02. However, only 26% of learning outcome measures indicated matched instruction benefits for at least two styles, indicating a crossover interaction supportive of the matching hypothesis. In total, 12 studies without sufficient statistical details for the meta-analysis were also examined for an indication of a crossover effect; 25% of these studies had findings indicative of a crossover interaction. Given the time and financial expenses of implementation coupled with low study quality, the benefits of matching instruction to learning styles are interpreted as too small and too infrequent to warrant widespread adoption.
This study examines the influence of multimodal learning strategies on total learning achievement and literacy-numeracy in prospective biology teacher students. Using the quasi-experimental matching-only pretest-posttest control group design, we tested sixth-semester students enrolled in the biology education program for the odd semester of 2022/2023. One group (class A) received multimodal learning strategies, while the other group (class B) received conventional methods through random sampling. The results indicate that multimodal strategies significantly improve total learning outcomes and literacy-numeracy, regardless of students' VAK learning styles. In particular, learning styles do not significantly affect learning outcomes, demonstrating the effectiveness of multimodal strategies in hydrobiology courses.
Teaching young children foreign languages, particularly Arabic, optimizes their developmental potential. This community service program aims to implement and analyze effective strategies for introducing Arabic vocabulary that children can memorize and articulate proficiently. The activities are participatory and involve local residents at PAUD An-Nur Serba Jadi IV, Sunggal District, Deli Serdang. The strategies employed include introduction, approaches, routine activities, the use of visual media, memorization through singing and movement, individual and group evaluations, and the provision of rewards. The program results indicate a 53% increase in the recognition of Arabic vocabulary, with a breakdown showing a 12% increase in Cycle 1 and a 65% increase in Cycle 2. The enjoyable learning-through-play method, which aligns with the characteristics of early childhood, has proven effective in enhancing vocabulary recognition and memorization. Recommendations for future community service initiatives include expanding the vocabulary scope, extending the duration of activities, and fostering collaboration with students' parents to create a conducive Arabic-speaking environment for children. Collaboration between academics, education practitioners, and policymakers is also necessary to optimize foreign language education from an early age.
This study used descriptive research design to assess the relationship of the learning modalities and learning styles of SPED students and student interns during the COVID-19 Pandemic. The instrument was adopted by O’Brien (1985). The data was interpreted using descriptive and relational analytical schemes to analyze the result. The following statistical tools were used to treat data: percentage, weighted mean, and relationship strength. The 281 respondents answered the questionnaire through Google Forms. The study showed a strong relationship between the following variables: (a) students’ visual learning modality and visual learning style (rs = 0.873); (b) students’ auditory learning modality and auditory learning style (rs = 0.526); and (c) students’ kinesthetic learning modality and learning style (rs = 0.737). This signifies that students with a more visual learning style utilize visual learning modalities. It also signifies that students were more exposed to auditory learning styles performed in class using the auditory learning modality. Furthermore, students with a kinesthetic learning style tend to utilize the kinesthetic learning modality more. CTE special and inclusive SPED students of NORSU-Guihulngan Campus are adopting learning modalities suitable for their needs during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Furthermore, there are special conditions that need to be emphasized so that they can achieve academic success in this new normal set-up. The university must establish a learning environment where they are provided with adequate resources, including audio-visual materials. Blended learning must be continuously adopted. However, it should be flexible enough to cater to the various needs of the SPED students while considering their learning styles.
The focus of this quasi-experimental study was to determine how using digital learning communities that incorporate technology and meaningful feedback affects students’ writing achievement and if students’ familiarity with technology impacts their achievement level. This research also examined the relationship between student performance and familiarity with technology. Two third-grade classrooms participated in an 8-week intervention. The experimental group participated in the digital learning community while the comparison group participated in traditional pen-paper writing. Pre- and post- writing samples in addition to a 9-criteria rubric were used to assess the learners’ academic writing skills. A 12-question survey was conducted to explore students’ experience with technology. A paired samples t-test, a Pearson correlation, and ANCOVAs were used to analyze the data. The findings show that successful integration of technology, student experiences, and explicit feedback had significant effects on the treatment group in increasing their writing achievement. Results indicated that students did not have to be familiar with technology to be successful with the intervention. Additionally, the students who started with a lower self-efficacy score tended to make more gains.
Visual information brings about a type of information processing ca involves the simultaneous use of both a verbal and a nonverbal code. Understanding the human information processing system and the role of visuals within it. deepens ourunderstanding of visual literacy. Nonverbal mental processes can be used successfully to visualize important informationduring learning. Several studies report that dual coding has been used to improve learning and accuracy. Such methods are not widely proven but show promise to help learners capitalize on the advantages of being visual literate.
Drawing on the foundational theories of John Dewey and Kurt Lewin, we examine recent developments in theory and research on experiential learning and explore how this work can enhance experiential learning in higher education. We introduce the concept of learning space as a framework for understanding the interface between student learning styles and the institutional learning environment. We illustrate the use of the learning space framework in three case studies of longitudinal institutional development. Finally, we present principles for the enhancement of experiential learning in higher education and suggest how experiential learning can be applied throughout the educational environment by institutional development programs, including longitudinal outcome assessment, curriculum development, student development, and faculty development.
Drawing on the foundational theories of John Dewey and Kurt Lewin, we examine recent developments in theory and research on experiential learning and explore how this work can enhance experiential learning in higher education. We introduce the concept of learning space as a framework for understanding the interface between student learning styles and the institutional learning environment. We illustrate the use of the learning space framework in three case studies of longitudinal institutional development. Finally, we present principles for the enhancement of experiential learning in higher education and suggest how experiential learning can be applied throughout the educational environment by institutional development programs, including longitudinal outcome assessment, curriculum development, student development, and faculty development.
This paper examines the research evidence behind two alternate and mutually exclusive learning models-learning styles and dual coding. The most common incarnation of each model is based on learning modalities, and each makes predictions about how learners process auditory and visual stimuli. Learning styles have found wide acceptance in public perception and throughout education at all levels, yet the majority of empirical research suggests that the model is not accurate and that learning styles instruction has no effect on student learning. Dual coding is more strongly supported by empirical research yet less well known and less commonly used in practice. The analysis examines evidence from a wide variety of sources, including experimental studies, correlational research, teacher-education texts, and neuroimaging studies. The findings reveal that dual coding is likely to be the more accurate model and that it offers more potential for both research and in practical application.
This paper examines the research evidence behind two alternate and mutually exclusive learning models-learning styles and dual coding. The most common incarnation of each model is based on learning modalities, and each makes predictions about how learners process auditory and visual stimuli. Learning styles have found wide acceptance in public perception and throughout education at all levels, yet the majority of empirical research suggests that the model is not accurate and that learning styles instruction has no effect on student learning. Dual coding is more strongly supported by empirical research yet less well known and less commonly used in practice. The analysis examines evidence from a wide variety of sources, including experimental studies, correlational research, teacher-education texts, and neuroimaging studies. The findings reveal that dual coding is likely to be the more accurate model and that it offers more potential for both research and in practical application.
The study was conducted among students with some or no background in science and technology subjects (non S&T students) who enrolled in the Faculty of Information Management in a Malaysian public university during semester 2009/2010. It aims to identify students' learning styles on technical courses in order to provide inputs to instructors' design for a curriculum to suit students' learning styles. The objectives of the study are: 1, to identify the preferred learning styles of non-S&T students on technical courses; and 2, to examine the differences in learning styles between male and female students, their academic achievements, and their programs of study. The instrument used to identify students' learning styles is the Barsch Learning Style Inventory (BLSI) consisting of 24 simple questions. Altogether 122 completed responses from 200 students were used for data analysis. Findings indicate that Visual is the most preferred while Kinesthetic is the least preferred learning style. This result applies to both male and female students in all programs of studies and at different levels of academic achievements. The findings are useful for curriculum designers, instructors, and those involved in teaching/learning, and curriculum development. Students themselves can take advantage of the learning techniques that will best suit their identified style.
Behavioral, patient, and electrophysiological studies have been taken as support for the assumption that processing of abstract words is confined to the left hemisphere, whereas concrete words are processed also by right-hemispheric brain areas. These are thought to provide additional information from an imaginal representational system, as postulated in the dual-coding theory of memory and cognition. Here we report new event-related fMRI data on the processing of concrete and abstract words in a lexical decision task. While abstract words activated a subregion of the left inferior frontal gyrus (BA 45) more strongly than concrete words, specific activity for concrete words was observed in the left basal temporal cortex. These data as well as data from other neuroimaging studies reviewed here are not compatible with the assumption of a specific right-hemispheric involvement for concrete words. The combined findings rather suggest a revised view of the neuroanatomical bases of the imaginal representational system assumed in the dual-coding theory, at least with respect to word recognition.
