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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Architecture of mosques and Islamic centers
in Non-Muslim context
Engy Farrag
*
Architecture Department, Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University, Egypt
Received 13 June 2017; revised 29 July 2017; accepted 6 August 2017
Available online 14 September 2017
KEYWORDS
Mosques;
Islamic centers;
Colonialism;
Immigrants
Abstract Islam is the fastest growing religion in the world. The Muslim population increases as
Islam spreads around the world, which leads to an increasing demand for Islamic buildings such
as mosques and Islamic centres. Mosques play an important role in Islam and Muslim life. In sev-
eral countries, in particular, the Western mosques are seen as a newcomer whose building type is
both unique and foreign to local people who are unaccustomed to the visual expression of Islam
in the West.
The mosque is one of the most visual expressions of global Muslim religious identity in non-
Muslim context. The significant numbers of countries have a lot of different architecture styles
of their Islamic buildings. Each mosque has its own individual touch. The most important factors
behind this variation in form and styles can be divided into nature impacts as (local materials and
environment), followed by man-made impacts by (Muslim immigrants, colonialism, funding, and
laws, culture, and traditions).
The study aims to examine each factor and their influences on the architecture of mosques and
Islamic centers in non-Muslim context through analysis and a comparison of a number of examples.
Ó2017 Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. Thisis an
open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
1. Introduction
In many Western capitals such as London, Washington, or
Paris where the mosque or Islamic centre functions as a point
of reference for Muslims in the city, mosques serve to express a
Muslim presence as a symbol of Islam as well as space for
social gatherings, education, and community service [1].
Usually, these buildings are financed by groups of Muslims
of different origins and backgrounds. They also serve as indi-
cators of the role in which immigrant groups see themselves
within the context of a foreign culture [2].
In this context, there are many factors contributing to the
shaping of the typology, design, and role of the mosque in a
multicultural atmosphere. Among those factors are immi-
grants to these countries, laws of the country, the materials
available for construction, the funding available, colonialism
influence, culture, and tradition.
In this paper, these factors will be discussed and their influ-
ence on the architecture of mosques and Islamic centers
through analysis and comparison of a number of examples
in a non -Muslim context that will help create a sample of Isla-
mic buildings suitable while also achieving harmony with their
*Corresponding author.
E-mail address: enjyfarage@yahoo.com.
Peer review under responsibility of Faculty of Engineering, Alexandria
University.
Alexandria Engineering Journal (2017) 56, 613–620
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locations. In addition to express Muslim presence, its identity,
and its sacredness without a loss of validity, identity, or value.
2. Research methodology
The study will be based on a descriptive, deductive, and analyt-
ical approach as follows:
Firstly, this paper begins with the assumption that there are
some factors that influence the design of mosques.
Secondly, study and analyze a selection of samples of mos-
ques and Islamic centers span several different continents
around the world such as Africa, Asia, the Americas and
Europe.
Thirdly, examine the main factors in each building that
determined the architecture and construction.
Fourthly, explain how each factor impacted the design and
construction of the mosque.
Fifthly, analyze results and begin a discussion based on
analyzed examples.
3. Influential factors on architecture of Muslim in different
countries
The major factors shaping the form and function of a mosque.
3.1. Muslim immigrants backgrounds
The great variety of religious diversity and ethnicity among
Muslims in western countries is reflected in the variety of
building design and construction.
People from different countries have their own ethnicities
and cultures. When immigrants arrive in a different country,
they often retain many of their traditional customs and beliefs,
which may range from language to food and clothing styles
and, perhaps most importantly, to religion [3].
A large number of Muslim migrants began emigrating from
a different array of countries, the vast majority of which
moved to England, France, and other parts of Europe as well
as North America during the 1950s and 1960s. About a third
of Muslim migrants to Europe came from the Middle East-
North Africa, and more than five million came from the Pales-
tinian. At the same time, nearly half of Muslim migrants
arrived from the Asia-Pacific region. A significant number of
Muslims also left Pakistan, Bangladesh and India during the
partitioning of the Indian subcontinent and the withdrawal
of the British in 1947. Russia’s Muslim migrant population
(approximately four million) comes mainly from neighboring
countries like: Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Azerbaijan. Over
three million (nearly half) of Germany’s foreign-born Muslim
immigrants came from Turkey, but they also include large
numbers from Kosovo, Iraq, Bosnia-Herzegovina, Morocco,
and Iran. About three million of Muslim immigrants in France
are from the former French colonies of Algeria, Morocco, and
Tunisia [4].
Projects for mosques expressing Muslim presence in non-
Muslim countries essentially started to take shape in the late
of 1940–1950s, which coincided with the end of colonial rule
and the rise of the independent states achieved by Muslims
population of the Islamic world [2].
By the 1960s the immigrant communities began to feel the
desire to express their presence by articulating new mosques.
Projects that had been initiated in the 1950s like the Imam
Ali Mosque in Hamburg, Fig. 1 built between 1960 and 1973
and funded jointly by the Iranian community in Germany
and religious institutions in Iran [5].
3.1.1. Mosques and Islamic centers in France
World War I in 1914 was the main reason for direct migration
between Europe and North Africa. A lot of North Africa
countries such as Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco sent soldiers
to fight alongside the French. In the early decades of the twen-
tieth century, these North African settlers interacted in the cul-
ture process on the French mainland [6].
The photos show influence of Moorish architecture or
Mude
´jar style architecture (Berber–Islamic architecture of
West North Africa, Al-Andalus (Spain), Al-Garb Al-
Andalus (Portugal)) on France’s Islamic buildings. The square
minaret of grand mosque in Paris and Islamic Cultural Centre
of the Servant of the Holy Mosques in France were inspired by
North African architecture from the Zitouna mosque in Tuni-
sia (Fig. 2). Some elements of Paris mosque as: horseshoe
arches, its courtyards, and green-tiled roofs were borrowed
from the El-Qaraouiyyıˆn Mosque in Fez, Morocco (Fig. 3).
3.2. Funding
Funding and financial resources, an essential element that
affects mosque development can affect the size of mosque,
form, style, construction, architecture elements, and details.
More significant funding can create a wealthy mosque while
poor funding generally creates minimum facilities in the
mosque.
Fig. 1 The influence of Iranian Muslim immigrants on archi-
tecture of Imam Ali mosque, Germany http://www.deutsche-
islam-konferenz.de/DIK/EN/Magazin/Lebenswelten/Rama-
dan2013/ramadan-2013-node.html?docId=4601970.
614 E. Farrag
Mosques in the West built as statements of Muslim identity
are usually financed either entirely or in part by Muslim gov-
ernments, especially those in the Arab world, which have been
responsible for financing more mosques outside of their coun-
tries than any other Muslim group [2].
In some western countries, mosques as any other house of
worship either churches or synagogues—are not legally able
to receive any state funding. As a result, the main source to
fund new mosques projects is through donations from individ-
uals, charitable organizations, and outcome grants.
The examples show the different resources of funding,
whether a grant from outside (King Fahad Islamic Center)
or from individuals (Masjid Chulia) and its impact on shaping
the form and function of the mosque.
3.2.1. Islamic centers in Latin America
King Fahd Islamic Cultural Centre, one of the largest mosques
in South America, it was completed in 1996 with total area
measures 34,000 m
2
, which was granted by the Argentinian
government. The main source of funding was provided from
the Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques. The construction
was financed by the Saudi king who amounted to US $15 mil-
lion, the mosque contains prayer hall, library, two schools and
residences with a park. It was designed by Saudi architect
Zuhair Fayez. The mosque size and landscape has been criti-
cized for its sterile appearance, particularly the strange minar-
ets [7].
– The design of the Islamic centre was inspired from both
Mecca building style and Latin American. In this sense,
the design reflects the self-identity and aspirations of the
group that takes the initiative in the project (Fig. 4).
On the other side, an example of individual financial
source.
3.2.2. Mosque in Asia, Singapore
Masjid Chulia, or Jamae Mosque, is one of Singapore’s oldest
mosques built by Chulia Indian migrants who came to work
mostly as traders and money changers in 1826 [8].
Jamae Mosque has an eclectic architectural style, taking
elements from both East and West like a curious oddity in Chi-
natown. The mosque components are a foyer, the main prayer
hall, and the ancillary prayer hall and a shrine.
Less funding can make poor design; the mosque has a mix-
ture between Indo-Islamic style and neoclassic, in addition to
architectural style from the west as shown by the pitched roof
in Fig. 5.
Fig. 2 Left: Grand mosque in Paris, Right: The Minaret of al
zitouna mosque Tunis. And bottom: Islamic Cultural Centre of
the Servant of the Holy Mosques – France. Edit by: researcher.
Fig. 3 Left: The courtyard of Grand mosque in Paris, Right: The courtyard of Qaraouiyyıˆn Mosque in Fez, Morocco. Source: https://
nz.pinterest.com/pin/493003490435431403/.
Architecture of mosques and Islamic centers 615
3.3. Laws and regulations
The building of religious buildings in some western countries
often raise concerns about an increase in traffic in prayer
times, and some people fear the mosque will make too great
a mark on the cityscape.
– In Novogrudok, Belarus mosques are built of wood, owing
to a law only allowing churches to be built out of stone, as
an evidence of Christian favoritism over Islam [9].
Many countries like Switzerland have banned the construc-
tion of new minarets and in many other European states some
politicians have demanded a ban on new mosques [10].
– In Germany, the law forbids the call to prayer, so the Azan
is ‘‘written”on the minaret of the mosque Fig. 6 as calligra-
phy [9].
3.4. Colonialism
Just as many previous factors, such as immigrants, funding,
and laws can explain their influence on mosques elements,
colonialism too can explain the points of the variety in archi-
tecture style in different countries.
3.4.1. In Nigeria
The emergence of the colonial style in Nigeria has affected the
culture and traditions that weakened the connection between
the traditional form and modern architecture [11].
Before the British colonization of Nigeria, mosques were
built and designed mainly with the traditional forms by local
builders and their families while, after the British rule, mosque
construction was built by community members and some few
by foreign engineers [11].
After the independence of Nigeria in 1960, the traditional
mosques began to disappear and in their places, new different
spaces with multi-functional elements appeared such as the
seminar room and multipurpose hall. Furthermore, some of
the symbolic and visual elements had disappeared like the
domed mud roof construction, supported by mud arches.
The ablution/entrance in the Zaria mosque was replaced with
four iwans as shown Fig. 7. The Kano mosque and traditional
symbolism along with motifs were replaced with abstract
motifs and painted Arabic inscriptions [11,12].
– The architecture of the mosque shifted from traditional
building materials to new construction and different
materials.
Fig. 4 The King Fahd Islamic Cultural Centre and its minaret. Source: http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=1876884.
Fig. 5 The photo explains elements that borrowed from east and
west in Masjid Chulia, Singapore. Source: www.masjidjamaechu-
lia.sg edit photo by: researcher.
Fig. 6 Penzberg’s cubic mosque, Germany. The Azan is ‘‘writ-
ten”as calligraphy on the minaret. Source: https://www.
pinterest.com.
616 E. Farrag
3.5. Local culture and tradition
3.5.1. In West of Africa
The Great Djenne
´Mosque in Mali, Africa is the centre of the
religious and cultural life of Mali and the community of Djenne
´.
As well as the site of a unique annual festival (Plastering of the
Great Mosque) known as ‘‘Crepissage de la Grand Mosque
´e”
(Fig. 8).
During the annual festival, the Djenne
´’s community partic-
ipates in the maintenance of mosques and the re-plastering of
the external mosque through an annual festival. In the days
leading up to the festival, the plaster is prepared in the pits,
it requires several days to cure and requires being periodically
shaken, a task usually falling to young boys who play in the
mixture, thus stirring up the content. Another group of men
carries plaster from the pits to the mosque’s workers while
women provide water for the mixture. Elder people also partic-
ipate in the festival by being on site, sitting on the terrace walls
and offering advice [13].
3.6. Local material and environment
Differences appear in the architecture of Muslims living in
places like Africa, India, and China where local materials
and regional traditions, with little influence from the architec-
ture of Islamic countries.
For instance, Mosque of Djenne
´, the first Great Mosque
built in Africa and the largest mud-built structure in the world
with a unique West African style in using earth as the primary
building material [13,14].
The mosque is made up of a number of materials including
adobe, sand, mortar, plaster, as well as bundles of ronier palm
which used for decoration and serve as scaffolding for annual
repairs Fig. 8. The Niger River is the main source of the mud
used for the adobe bricks and plaster. The mud is mixed with
rice husks and straw and fermented for a month when it
becomes very tough, viscous, and rain resistant Fig. 9.Mud
Fig. 7 Left :Zaria mosque . Right: Kano mosque the photos show mosque architecture, from pre-colonial to post-colonial period.
Source: https://www.pinterest.com.
Fig. 8 The Great Djenne
´Mosque in Mali, Africa in Crepissage
festival. Source: http://newsdesk.si.edu/photos/mud-masons-mali-
replastering-grand-mosquestanding-meet-the-masons-of-djenne-
mali-224225/.
Architecture of mosques and Islamic centers 617
is also used in Djenne
´to decorate fabrics which has been dyed
with local vegetable dyes [15,16].
– A significant number of mosques in Africa (Ghana and
Nigeria) are made by mud [1] also such The Mosque of
Larabanga, Ghana [17] (Fig. 10).
3.6.1. In India
In ancient India, the majority of the building was wooden
because wood was so available while the masonry in arches
and domes were unfamiliar. In the middle Ages when wood
became rare, the Indians replaced the wood as a framework
construction with stone instead of timber [15].
The Jama Mosque, Fig. 11 is cladding with red sandstone,
and white marble in the domes, ceilings and the floor of the
prayer hall [18].
3.6.2. Mosques in China
The main reason of using local material in china was main-
tained. Earth or crude stones were popular building materi-
als in Chinese architecture. Bricks and Stones, wood were
used in a lot of construction areas for centuries [19]. Tradi-
tional large Chinese buildings were mainly built of timber
wood as a local material in construction. All the weight of
the building is supported by a wooden frame usually, large
trimmed logs are used as load-bearing columns and lateral
beams for framing buildings and supporting the roofs [19].
For example: The Niujie Mosque Fig. 12 was one of the
first to be constructed in in 996 A.D in China. It was con-
structed in Chinese style with a building structure of brick
and wood [20].
4. Results and discussion
– There are two main impacts (man-made – natural) which
including these factors that influence on mosques architec-
ture in non-Muslim context (Table 1)
The main factor of influence and control on architecture of
Islamic buildings in a large number of countries is Muslim
immigrants (Table 1). For many Muslim immigrants, the
importance of creating familiar mosques with the same
attributes that are found in their origin countries to express
the Muslim presence in a multicultural context, thus a lot of
religious buildings don’t belong to their location (Iranian
style in Germany – Moorish style in France).
Funding (financial resources) plays an important part in the
building of mosques. Such mosques usually reflect the taste
of their sponsors, such as the Saudi Arabian style of the
King Fahd Islamic Centre in Latin America.
Fig. 9 The photo shows material sourcing of djenne mosque. Source: UNESCO.org Diagram by Sally Aul. https://aulsystemssites-
building.wordpress.com/2014/09/.
Fig. 10 The Mosque of Larabanga, Ghana. Source: http://
wildeafrica.blogspot.com.eg/2015/03/this-building-may-well-be-
oldest.html.
618 E. Farrag
The construction of new mosques in a number of western
countries are a highly charged issue, This is evident in laws
and regulations towards mosques thus, that is reflected on
mosques architecture in this countries.
The traditional mosques in Nigeria from the onset of the
colonial to the post-colonial era have discarded that tradi-
tional symbolism, building materials, their construction
methods, their styles, and design of Northern Nigeria.
Regarding the culture and local environment: the mosque
means a lot for the citizens of West Africa as shown in Mali
mosque in West Africa. It is more than a mosque – it is the
most prominent symbol of the city and a community space
for festivals and market square.
In term of material, it performs an important role in shap-
ing the mosques. Earthen mosques are the most seen in
Africa because of the available materials for construction
completely made of the earth, such as straw for walls and
pillars, mixed clay with fibrous materials and available tim-
ber in the roof.
– There is more than one factor which influences on mosques
architecture in the same country as seen in France: Muslim
migrants, funding, laws, and colonialism.
– -Based on the above examples mentioned in the analysis,
the affective factors on architecture of mosques in some dif-
ferent countries can be classified as follow:
Fig. 11 jama-masjid-in-Delhi, India. Source: http://www.mapsofindia.com/my-india/travel/jama-masjid-in-delhi-a-mosque-with-an-
awe-inspiring-grandeur.
Fig. 12 Left: Niujie Mosque in Beijing in China. Right: wooden structure system in China. Source: https://www.pinterest.com.
Table 1 Factors that affect the architecture of mosques and Islamic centers in non-Muslim countries. Source: Researcher, 2017.
Factors that influence of mosque’s architecture Africa Asia America Europe
Manmade factors Muslim immigrants ddd d
Funding ddd d
Laws and regulations dd
Colonialism ddd d
Local culture and tradition dd
Natural factors Local materials and environment dd
Architecture of mosques and Islamic centers 619
5. Conclusion
The functional and visual characteristics of mosque architec-
ture have to deal with its new environment and context—one
that has its own pre-existing historical, culture, traditions
and visual vocabulary.
Mosques built in foreign context are characterized by two
tendencies: Firstly, the design is influenced by the local con-
text, modified by the Muslim immigrant’s community, the
group who fund or by local regulations and laws; and sec-
ondly, the design makes references to regional traditions.
Finally, the architectural form and design of Muslim build-
ings are usually influenced by one dominant style from one
country or region, depending on who is financing, designing,
or leading the project.
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Further reading
[21] M. Bayoumi, Shadows and light: colonial modernity and the
grand mosque of Paris, Yale J. Crit. 13 (2) (2000) 267–292.
[22] J. Hoeg, Western Islamic Architecture: A Concise
Introduction, Dover Publication, 2005.
[23] B. Metcalf (Ed.), Making Muslim Space in North America and
Europe, University of California Press, Berkeley, 1996.
620 E. Farrag
