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Innovationskultur und Innovationssysteme in China
Abstract
Chinas Innovationskapazität entzieht sich einer einfachen Bewertung. Während Optimisten China schon als Innovationsnation betrachten, assoziieren Pessimisten chinesische Unternehmen vor allem mit Billigprodukten und Fälschungen. Das vorliegende Kapitel soll zu einer realistischeren Einschätzung von Chinas Innovationskapazität beitragen, indem es die ungleichmäßige Performanz innovationsrelevanter Akteure thematisiert und historische Pfadabhängigkeiten identifiziert. Einen wichtigen Beitrag zum Verständnis des chinesischen Innovationssystems liefert auch die Untersuchung der chinesischen Innovationskultur, die der „westlichen“ noch immer diametral entgegengesetzt ist. Es wird gezeigt, dass Innovation in China nicht als ein kreativer, zufallsabhängiger Prozess mit hoher Misserfolgswahrscheinlichkeit begriffen wird. Stattdessen betrachtet die chinesische Regierung Innovation als ein nationales Projekt, das der Erneuerung politischer, ökonomischer und gesellschaftlicher Strukturen bedarf.
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In 2006 China had become the fifth leading nation in terms of its share of the world's scientific publications. Today it is second only to the United States. This achievement has been accomplished in part by a conscientious effort by the government to improve the research performance of China's universities through a series of programs, the most important of which is the 985 Project. This paper considers the effects of the 985 Project on increasing the rate of publication in international journals by researchers at 24 universities. Using the approach of linear mixed modeling, it was found that the rate of growth in publications by lower tier universities exceeded that of China's two most highly regarded universities after controlling for university R&D funding, university personnel size, and provincial per capita income. It was also found that the rate of growth of publications for universities as a whole increased more quickly after the implementation of the 985 Project.
:The essay provides a critical assessment of China's latest fifteen-year plan for science and technology.
The term national system of innovation has been around for more than 20 years and today it has become widely spread among policy makers as well as among scholars all over the world. This paper takes stock and looks ahead from a somewhat personal point of view. It also gives some insight into how and why the concept came about. The paper argues that a key to progress is to get a better understanding of knowledge and learning as the basis for innovation and to understand how different modes of innovation complement each other and find support in the specific national context. A core of the innovation system is defined and it is illustrated that it is necessary both to understand micro-behaviour in the core and understand “the wider setting” within which the core operates. Concepts used in organization theory referring to fit and misfit may be used to enrich the understanding of the performance of innovation systems. At the end of the paper I discuss some further developments needed to make the concept relevant and applicable to developing countries. Here special attention is given to institutions and capabilities supporting learning. I point to the need to give more emphasis to the distribution of power, to institution building and to the openness of innovation systems.
This book's analysis of economic growth in China from the late nineteenth century to the Pacific War challenges the common notion that the prewar decades were a time of stagnation or decline. Focusing on the modern sectorcotton textile factories, sail and steamship transport, and Western-style commercial bankingRawski demonstrates that, in spite of extreme economic and political uncertainty, the period saw significant economic growth. He portrays the transformation of China's economy as a long-term process spanning both sides of the 1949 political divideeconomic progress did not await the arrival of socialism. China's recent turn toward the capitalist road lends added significance to this study, which illustrates the dynamic potential of the market system in a Chinese cultural setting."
This paper compares the characteristics of international equity joint ventures in the People's Republic of China (PRC) with joint ventures in developing country market economies. The characteristics of Sino-foreign joint ventures were derived from twelve studies published since 1986, including the author's new sample. Twelve joint venture characteristics are reviewed along dimensions of design, management and performance.
Joint ventures in PRC are frequently used, created due to government pressure and with government partners, and often formed with partners from ethnically related countries. Further, many intended joint ventures are never implemented, and those that are implemented have often been set up for a predetermined duration. The foreign partner most commonly has a minority equity position, and those who have used split control have seen stronger performance. Overall joint venture stability has been high, but is expected to decline, and foreign partner satisfaction with performance is low.
This chapter discusses the catch-up process of China post-1949, especially after the initiative of "Open Doors" since 1978. Domestic firms adapted to the intellectual property right system through gradual innovation, especially using utility models, i.e. petty patents. Even though most Chinese firms have not been able to become true innovators, several succeeded in developing innovative capabilities, such as Huawei, a communication equipment manufacturer. The litigation brought by Cisco against Huawei stimulated the formulation and improvement of Huawei's IPR strategy and, gradually, Huawei has developed new collaborative relationships with multinationals. However, this case is rather exceptional and most inventions are carried out by a handful of large firms. China's patent system has played an important role in stimulating innovation for both multinationals and domestic firms even though its net impact on technology transfer and domestic firms' catchup is yet unclear.
This study opens a critical perspective on the slow death of socialism and the rebirth of capitalism in the world's most dynamic and populous country. Based on remarkable fieldwork and extensive interviews in Chinese textile, apparel, machinery, and household appliance factories, Against the Law finds a rising tide of labor unrest mostly hidden from the world's attention. Providing a broad political and economic analysis of this labor struggle together with fine-grained ethnographic detail, the book portrays the Chinese working class as workers' stories unfold in bankrupt state factories and global sweatshops, in crowded dormitories and remote villages, at street protests as well as in quiet disenchantment with the corrupt officialdom and the fledgling legal system.
Few observers are unimpressed by the economic ambition of China or by the nation's remarkable rate of growth. But what does the future hold? This meticulously researched book closely examines the strengths and weaknesses of the Chinese economic system to discover where the nation may be headed and what the Chinese experience reveals about emerging market economies. The authors find that contrary to popular belief, cutting edge innovation is not a prerequisite for sustained economic vitality-and that China is a perfect case in point. © 2011 by Dan Breznitz and Michael Murphree. All rights reserved.
Utilizing recently available Chinese and Russian archival sources and pertinent media reports, this article attempts to unravel the truth on the connection between the Great Leap Forward/the People's Commune Movement and the Sino-Soviet split. It aims to address the following questions: what are the actual divergences between China and the Soviet Union on the Great Leap Forward and the People's Commune Movement? How did Mao react to the Soviet attitude? How did Mao's reaction directly connect to the Sino-Soviet split? It reveals the actual divergences between Mao and Khrushchev over the Great Leap Forward and the People's Commune Movement.
The purpose of this article is to present, by means of a model, the determinants of organisational culture which influence creativity and innovation. A literature study showed that a model, based on the open systems theory and the work of Schein, can offer a holistic approach in describing organisational culture. The relationship between creativity, innovation and culture is discussed in this context. Against the background of this model, the determinants of organisational culture were identified. The determinants are strategy, structure, support mechanisms, behaviour that encourages innovation, and open communication. The influence of each determinant on creativity and innovation is discussed. Values, norms and beliefs that play a role in creativity and innovation can either support or inhibit creativity and innovation depending on how they influence individual and group behaviour. This is also explained in the article.
nancial systems and the real economy through fi nancial, industrial and trade links, most countries have chosen to claim this crisis as an external shock imposed on their economies. Viewing the current crisis through the lens of economic history, however, we can see that the impacts of economic crises diff er among countries, among regions and sectors within a country and even among enterprises within a sector. Whereas a crisis can be said to result from external sources, the degree of the shocks will be dependent on certain domestic conditions such as the pattern of growth, the state of the industrial structure, the stage of development and the technological structure and operational mechanisms of enterprises. In this regard, one needs to go beyond the framework by which the business cycles are explained simply by the operation of the monetary and credit systems and seek to fi nd the root causes of crises from the point of view of the real economy, looking especially at what happens to the industrial structure. As one of a few economists who made a contribution to the interpretation of the business cycle from the angle of the real economy, Schumpeter (1961:Ch.6) pointed out that there were some real opportunities for economic development in an economic crisis. While there have been no symptoms of crisis in its fi nancial system— which is connected but not integrated with those in the United States and Europe—China has suff ered from a severe economic slowdown and unemployment, because of a fall in exports brought about by the global fi nancial crisis and the internal imbalance between consumption and investment in the domestic economy. Our observation that the impacts of the fi nancial crisis on the real economy diff er from region to region,
More than 630 million Chinese have escaped poverty since the 1980s, reducing the fraction remaining from 82 to 10 percent of the population. This astonishing decline in poverty, the largest in history, coincided with the rapid growth of a private enterprise economy. Yet private enterprise in China emerged in spite of impediments set up by the Chinese government. How did private enterprise overcome these initial obstacles to become the engine of China’s economic miracle? Where did capitalism come from?
Studying over 700 manufacturing firms in the Yangzi region, Victor Nee and Sonja Opper argue that China’s private enterprise economy bubbled up from below. Through trial and error, entrepreneurs devised institutional innovations that enabled them to decouple from the established economic order to start up and grow small, private manufacturing firms. Barriers to entry motivated them to build their own networks of suppliers and distributors, and to develop competitive advantage in self-organized industrial clusters. Close-knit groups of like-minded people participated in the emergence of private enterprise by offering financing and establishing reliable business norms.
This rapidly growing private enterprise economy diffused throughout the coastal regions of China and, passing through a series of tipping points, eroded the market share of state-owned firms. Only after this fledgling economy emerged as a dynamic engine of economic growth, wealth creation, and manufacturing jobs did the political elite legitimize it as a way to jump-start China’s market society. Today, this private enterprise economy is one of the greatest success stories in the history of capitalism
We examine the impact of China's hukou system, which is an institution controlling population movement, on social and economic outcomes at the individual level. Using data from a recent Chinese household survey, we find that people who obtained urban hukou late in their lives fared significantly less well than other urban residents. They have fewer years of education, are less likely to hold state sector jobs and to have employer-provided healthcare benefits, and are more likely to be self-employed or unemployed. A rural–urban comparison that controls for factors commonly believed to affect migration decision reveals that the two major contributing factors to rural–urban inequality are low educational attainment among rural population and low rewards to education in rural employment. Since the hukou system denies rural population the access to education and urban employment, we argue that the hukou system is a major contributing factor to rural–urban inequality. We also estimate the value of an urban hukou to rural individuals. Journal of Comparative Economics33 (1) (2005) 133–157.
A paradoxical phenomenon in China’s transitional economy is that markets developed under predominant public ownership, which nevertheless has declined with the development of markets. Previous studies reveal that initial political and economic conditions of reform and fiscal decentralization gave rise to local public enterprises’ leading role in early marketization. This paper explains the subsequent fall of such a role. Building and expanding on recent studies of privatization, we argue that market development and competition have constrained the abilities of local public enterprises to address revenue and employment imperatives, whereas local governments’ sales-oriented growth strategies have exacerbated governance problems. Panel data are analyzed to provide provisional test of pertinent hypotheses.
Why some firms die while others survive? Survival has long been recognized as a basic goal for a manufacturing firm. At least in the long term, survival should be related to various measures of performance, such as market share and profitability. Advocates of population ecology have argued that life chances of organizations are affected by population density at the time of founding. According to this argument, organizations founded during periods of intense competition will have persistently higher age-specific rates of mortality than those founded during periods with lower numbers of competitors. At least for the case of manufacturing firms, there may be more profound causes than competitive turmoil that explain a firm's survival chances. These have to do with the evolution of technology in an industry. Population density may only be a reflection of underlying driving forces based on technological change that determine the form and level of competition, the attractiveness of entry, and ultimately the structure of an industry.
This paper develops a dynamic general equilibrium model of economic growth. The model has a steady-state equilibrium in which some firms devote resources to copying these products. Rates of both innovation and imitation are endogenously determined on the basis of the outcomes of R&D races between firms. Innovation subsidies are shown to unambiguously promote economic growth. Welfare is enhanced, however, only if the steady-state intensity of innovative effort exceeds a critical level. Copyright 1991 by University of Chicago Press.
This paper examines the current problems in transferring technology into China through FDI. Empirical evidence shows that the extent of technology transfer is fairly limited but at the level expected given China's developing country status and technological capacities. Given the size and growth of the market, however, substantial opportunities exist for increased technology transfer with appropriate policy changes. The potential for utilizing FDI as an instrument of technological development in a Chinese context is greater than theory would suggest.
China's economic reform since 1978 has brought profound change, not only to the functioning of the state organization, but also to the structuring of the space economy. Prior to the reform, the Maoist regime introduced a system of state socialism featuring a centrally planned economy, an anti-commercialist ideology and a development strategy that aimed at the rapid growth of industrial output. Important characteristics of the Maoist plan-ideological space included an uneven economic landscape dominated by the northern manufacturing heartland, a rigid urban hierarchy vertically integrated by a few large cities, and an 'invisible wall' separating urban and rural settlements. The post-reform market-regulatory regime has decentralized the power of decision-making, allowed a market economy to 'grow out of the plan', and freed state control over some peripheral areas that are not indispensable to the growth of the national economy. This has given rise to a distinct developmental landscape marked by the rapid expansion of new production space in South China, small towns and the vast countryside. Spatial restructuring in post-reform China has been primarily a result of state disarticulation rather than increased state intervention. A distinction needs to be made between 'nation-state' and 'local-state' for a better understanding of the operating mechanism of regional development. To solve the mystery of China's spatial restructuring requires a comprehensive approach that moves beyond the traditional East-West regional dichotomy and concentrates on the shifting emphasis of the production space between North and South China, between large cities and small towns, and between cities and the countryside. Copyright Joint Editors and Blackwell Publishers Ltd 1999.
Evidence in industrialized countries shows that universities can supply the crucial underpinnings of dynamic industrial clusters within metropolitan regions. A key component of China’s recent reforms in the national innovation system is the promotion of university-based research and technology transfer. The primary purpose of this paper is to examine the interactions between two elite universities in Shanghai (Fudan University and Shanghai Jiaotong University) and the metropolitan economy. In particular, it analyzes major institutional changes within the universities and policy changes at local and national levels that have allowed more business engagement. As the universities gain greater autonomy, they are adopting distinctive approaches to commercializing academic research and managing industrial linkages.
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