Article

Perceptions of Parental Acceptance or Rejection: How does it Impact LGB Adult Relationship Quality and Satisfaction?

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Abstract

This study focused on the retrospective accounts of perceptions of parental acceptance/rejection regarding their LGB sexual identity, as well as present perceptions of satisfaction and acceptance in their adult intimate relationships. Participants (n = 147) reported perceiving parental responses to be very accepting towards their LGB sexual identity. They also rated their current adult relationships as ones in which they felt securely attached, accepted, and satisfied. Additionally, these LGB participants reported a notable relationship between their parents' high acceptance and current experience in adult romantic relationships. This study calls attention to the lifetime significance of accepting parents of LGB individuals' identities. Ways the current findings might enhance therapy with LGB families and parents of LGB children are offered at the conclusion of this article.

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... That is, secure attachment is related to higher relationship satisfaction, and insecure attachment reveals an inverse pattern (Fingerhut & Peplau, 2013) (Mohr et al., 2013;Starks & Parsons, 2014) (Starks et al., 2015). However, gay men face unique challenges to secure attachment development, relating to experiences of parental and peer support and minority stress, which impacts on romantic relationship outcomes (Baiocco et al., 2015;Fuller & Rutter, 2018;Pachankis et al., 2008;Starks & Parson, 2014). Furthermore, emerging attachment literature about same-sex couples suggests that an insecure attachment style is linked to depressive symptomology (Cook & Calebs, 2016;Popa-Velea et al., 2019). ...
... It is possible that other coping mechanisms and supports are engaged by gay men to counter the negative effects of stressors related to their sexual minority status (Fuller & Rutter, 2018;Meyer, 2015). For example, accessing supportive social environments, autonomy, identity disclosure, and self-compassion are positive processes that have been shown to significantly contribute to the well-being and relationship satisfaction of gay men (Beard et al., 2017;Ryan et al., 2017;Sommantico et al., 2020). ...
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IntroductionGay men form and maintain romantic relationships in the face of stigma and discrimination, negatively impacting their well-being. Early experiences with caregivers likely influence well-being and may later impact the satisfaction felt in the romantic relationships of gay men.Method Following the 2017 legalization of same-sex marriage in Australia, 198 self-identified gay men were surveyed between June and July2019, to examine the role of well-being in the association between attachment style and relationship satisfaction.ResultsResults revealed securely attached men demonstrated higher levels of well-being and relationship satisfaction. Men with higher levels of anxiety and avoidant attachment had lower well-being and relationship satisfaction. Well-being partially mediated the relationship between attachment style and relationship satisfaction.Conclusions Results highlight the significant contributing role of well-being among gay men in the association between attachment processes and the satisfaction felt in their romantic relationships. Our findings suggest that insecure attachment styles are associated with reduced well-being and may place gay men at risk for poorer relationship outcomes.Policy ImplicationsOur findings support the idea for researchers and clinicians to be mindful of the influence of attachment processes on well-being when working with gay male couples. Ongoing practitioner training should include a focus on these predictors of relationship quality for gay men. As social and public policy continues to move forward, it will be important to monitor how marriage equality evolves and the impact it continues to have on same-sex relationship outcomes.
... This supports past findings that show that acceptance in one context affects perceptions of acceptance in other relationships. Furthermore, this highlights the idea that the SIM strategies fall within a continuum, and GLB individuals may choose to utilize different strategies as they see fit, even in the same contexts (e.g., Anderson et al., 2001;Croteau et al., 2008;Fuller & Rutter, 2018;Parke, 2004). ...
... All in all, these findings reinforce the importance of being more sensitive and aware of the relationships people have with their GLB friends, family members, and coworkers (e.g., Baker & Lucas, 2017;Fuller & Rutter, 2018;Muñoz-Plaza et al., 2002;Toomey & Richardson, 2009). If people are able to show support and acceptance for GLB emerging adults, they will feel more comfortable and be more open about their sexual identities. ...
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This study examined the sexual identity management strategies employed by GLB emerging adults when interacting with their parents, siblings, and close peers. For each context, perceived acceptance of sexual orientation and relationship closeness were examined as predictors of being explicitly out. Being explicitly out was also examined as a predictor of psychological well-being. Data were collected from 98 self-identified GLB individuals, who ranged from 18 to 22 years old and were currently college students from the Philippines. Results showed significant differences in the use of sexual identity management strategies depending on who they are interacting with. There was a greater likelihood to be explicitly out to close friends rather than family members. Perceived acceptance was a consistent predictor of being explicitly out across contexts although relationship closeness was not. However, relationship closeness significantly moderated the relationship between perceived acceptance and being explicitly out to parents. As hypothesized, being explicitly out significantly predicted psychological well-being with parents and siblings. This study expands the scope of the Identity Management Theory by showing how sexual identity is managed differently across various contexts.
... Parental acceptance is a protective factor against psychological distress, depression, anxiety, substance use, and suicidal ideation and attempts, whereas parental rejection increases the risk of experiencing one or more of these outcomes in adolescence and young adulthood (Beckstead & Israel, 2007;Bouris et al., 2010;Diamond, 2003;Haas et al., 2010;Human Rights Campaign, 2013;Ryan et al., 2009, Ryan et al., 2010Saewyc, 2011;Savin-Williams & Ream, 2003). Further, parental rejection is predictive of relationship satisfaction and perceived partner rejection in LGB adults (Fuller & Rutter, 2017). ...
... People who are depressed as a result of IH may incorporate feelings of anxiety, tension, and other negative affects into their relationships with their partners (Coyne et al., 1987;Mohr & Fassinger 2006;Otis et al., 2006). This may lead to feelings of misunderstanding and rejection in relationships, which decrease the quality and satisfaction of one's relationships (Fuller & Rutter, 2017;Mohr & Fassinger 2006;Otis et al., 2006). Because internalized homophobia is strongly influenced by one's family and socioenvironmental culture, it is important to delve into the sociocultural predictors of acceptance and rejection. ...
... For their part, DelPriore and Ronan (2022) recently argued in their study that negative parental responses can manifest as worry, disbelief, denial, anger, despair, or withdrawal of parental support. Building on interpersonal acceptance and rejection theory (IPARTheory; Rohner, 1980;2005;2008), which is closely related to Bowlby's attachment theory, Fuller and Rutter (2018) introduced an interesting notion that encompasses a "continuum of symbolic, emotional, psychological and physical interactions between the parents and child" (Fuller & Rutter, 2018, p. 3). According to them, parental acceptance can therefore be defined as healthy emotional, behavioral and cognitive functioning on the part of parents toward their child. ...
... Additionally, the acceptance and affirmation received from the straight men that some participants were partnered with often left plurisexual women feeling truly seen and understood, and like they were able to safely take up space in their romantic relationships with their Queerness/plurisexuality. Research finding that partner acceptance is a key component of romantic relationship satisfaction among LGB people (Fuller & Rutter, 2018) suggests that such experiences may be important for plurisexual women's relationships. These findings also corroborate recent qualitative research on bisexual people's positive romantic relationship experiences, which found that about half of their participants discussed experiencing bipositivity from their partners communicating acceptance and understanding of their identity (Fuller & Hovland, 2022); However, a majority of these participants experienced neutral or ambivalent responses from their partners about their identity, with much less experiencing overt positivity. ...
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Disparities in physical and mental health have been well documented between plurisexual and monosexual women, but protective factors related to plurisexuality remain largely unexplored. In this study, we aimed to provide an in-depth examination of the nature and perceived effects of plurisexual women’s bipositive experiences, to the extent that others may apply knowledge gained to intentionally foster bipositivity. We recruited 25 plurisexual women to complete a qualitative interview. Using reflexive thematic analysis, we identified 4 themes across participant descriptions of bipositive experiences, including (1) “Me too!” bonding, (2) Showing up: Acceptance and affirmation from monosexual allies, (3) “Ports in the storm”: The importance of queer spaces, and (4) Rosa is bi: Plurisexual representation in the media. Across themes, participants experienced positive social and psychological outcomes resulting from their bipositive experiences. Our findings have implications for developing interventions, supports, and consciousness-raising efforts to foster bipositivity.
... If family therapy is not feasible or desired by the individual, couples' or individual therapy may address the impact of family-of-origin rejection or the subsequent perceptions of isolation or burdensomeness due to the individual's sexual identity. As parental acceptance or rejection of LGB identities is associated with adult relationship satisfaction (Fuller & Rutter, 2018), therapy that emphasizes attachment (e.g., Johnson, 2004) would be a recommended couples' therapy modality to address feelings of isolation or burdensomeness. Finally, individual therapy could incorporate many potential modalities addressing the impact of the rejection and resulting distress. ...
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This cross-sectional, retrospective mixed-method exploratory study examined 140 Israeli LGB adolescents' (14–21 year old) perceptions of their parents' level of acceptance at time of same-sex identity disclosure and currently. Approximately 75% of respondents indicated that parents were moderately to fully accepting at time of disclosure. Approximately 15% said their parents were fully or almost fully rejecting at time of disclosure, with about half eventually becoming more accepting. Perceived parental acceptance of gay and lesbian children, but not bisexual daughters, improved over time. Increased parental acceptance was attributed to multiple factors including repeated adolescent-initiated conversations about sexual identity, parental exposure to LGB individuals, and parental love and commitment to the relationship.
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Background It has been suggested that homosexuality is associated with psychiatric morbidity. This study examined differences between heterosexually and homosexually active subjects in 12-month and lifetime prevalence of DSM-III-R mood, anxiety, and substance use disorders in a representative sample of the Dutch population (N = 7076; aged 18-64 years). Methods Data were collected in face-to-face interviews, using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Classification as heterosexual or homosexual was based on reported sexual behavior in the preceding year. Five thousand nine hundred ninety-eight (84.8%) of the total sample could be classified: 2.8% of 2878 men and 1.4% of 3120 women had had same-sex partners. Differences in prevalence rates were tested by logistic regression analyses, controlling for demographics. Results Psychiatric disorders were more prevalent among homosexually active people compared with heterosexually active people. Homosexual men had a higher 12-month prevalence of mood disorders (odds ratio [OR] = 2.93; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.54-5.57) and anxiety disorders (OR = 2.61; 95% CI = 1.44-4.74) than heterosexual men. Homosexual women had a higher 12-month prevalence of substance use disorders (OR = 4.05; 95% CI = 1.56-10.47) than heterosexual women. Lifetime prevalence rates reflect identical differences, except for mood disorders, which were more frequently observed in homosexual than in heterosexual women (OR = 2.41; 95% CI = 1.26-4.63). The proportion of persons with 1 or more diagnoses differed only between homosexual and heterosexual women (lifetime OR = 2.61; 95% CI = 1.31-5.19). More homosexual than heterosexual persons had 2 or more disorders during their lifetimes (homosexual men: OR = 2.70; 95% CI = 1.66-4.41; homosexual women: OR = 2.09; 95% CI = 1.07-4.09). Conclusion The findings support the assumption that people with same-sex sexual behavior are at greater risk for psychiatric disorders.
Article
Parental acceptance-rejection theory (PART) is a theory of socialization which attempts to predict major psychological, environmental, and main tenance systems conditions under which parents the world over are likely to accept or reject their children. It attempts as well to predict significant consequences of parental acceptance-rejection, both for behavioral devel opment and for selected institutionalized expressive features of society. Drawing on the phylogenetic model within the theory we try to identify significant personal and situational factors associated with the ability of some rejected children to cope more effectively than others with parental hostility/aggression, indifference/neglect, or undifferentiated rejection. Holo cultural data and social psychological and developmental data within the U.S. and other nations provide support for the postulates of PART so far tested.
Article
This study reports on the development of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale, a new measure for assessing the quality of marriage and other similar dyads. The 32 item scale is designed for use with either married or unmarried cohabiting couples. Despite widespread criticisms of the concept of adjustment, the study proceeds from the pragmatic position that a new measure, which is theoretically grounded, relevant, valid, and highly reliable, is necessary since marital and dyadic adjustment continue to be researched. This factor analytic study tests a conceptual definition set forth in earlier work and suggests the existence of four empirically verified components of dyadic adjustment which can be used as subscales [dyadic satisfaction, dyadic cohesion, dyadic consensus and affectional expression]. Evidence is presented suggesting content, criterion related, and construct validity. High scale reliability is reported. The possibility of item weighting is considered and endorsed as a potential measurement technique, but it is not adopted for the present Dyadic Adjustment Scale. It is concluded that the Dyadic Adjustment Scale represents a significant improvement over other measures of marital adjustment, but a number of troublesome methodological issues remain for future research.
Article
One hundred eleven self-identified gay, lesbian, and bisexual (GLB) youths who had disclosed sexual orientation to parents and 53 GLB youths who had not disclosed to parents participated in a study that examined (1) the associations between parent-child relationship quality in childhood to GLB youths’ coming out; (2) the associations between GLB youths’ coming out to parents, on the one hand, and GLB youths’ identity and psychological maladjustment, and alcohol and drug consumption, on the other hand; and (3) the unique associations between past and current family relationship characteristics and GLB youths’ current identity and psychological adjustment, and alcohol and drug consumption. Results showed that, compared to undisclosed youths, disclosed youths reported higher levels of acceptance from their mothers and fathers in childhood, and lower levels of rejection by fathers in childhood. Also, as compared to undisclosed youths, a smaller proportion of disclosed youths reported they had engaged in alcohol and drug consumption behaviors. Among disclosed youths, past and current parental acceptance and rejection accounted for unique variance of youths’ current identity and psychological maladjustment, whereas current rejection of sexual orientation accounted for unique variance of current youths’ alcohol and drug consumption. Research and clinical implications of these findings are discussed.
Article
This report explores suicide protective and risk factors for lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB) youth and offers a Cumulative Factor Model constructed from these factors. Numerous studies to date have concluded that a youth's sexual minority identity is a key risk factor for suicide. Few studies however have explored the internal and external protective factors that may cumulate to increase or reduce suicidal ideation and risk among this LGB population. Counseling implications for both assessment and intervention strategies are discussed in light of this cumulative factor approach to understand and potentially stem LGB youth suicide.
Article
Same-sex couples are presented widiin tiieir cultural contexts to examine how those contexts might influence me strength and resilience of their relationships. We are particularly interested in the ability of the couple relationship to fulfill family functions that serve the social, psychological, and physical needs of each of the partners and society (Patterson, 2002a). Three family functions: family formation and membership, nurturance and socialization, and protection of vulnerable members, are particularly germane to same-sex couples. We examine several topic areas related to these three functions in order to assist clinicians in identifying factors that may prohibit same-sex couples from becoming and remaining strong and resilient.
Article
In this chapter, we examine the reciprocal translation between resilience research and the practice of positive psychology. We begin by introducing the resilience framework, its key concepts, and core models. Next, we highlight the implications of a resilience framework for practice and encourage a complementary appreciation for the application of resilience-based practice to the evaluation and refinement of resilience theory. Finally, we discuss several impediments to effective translations between theory and practice, and provide suggestions for surmounting obstacles to a mutually informing relation between the science of resilience and the practice of positive psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
A central question in the field of developmental psychopathology is: What is the psychological legacy of maltreatment? Numerous studies have documented the behavioral sequelae of maltreatment, which include impaired functioning across the social and personal domains. Nonetheless, the field has made little headway in identifying the specific psychological mediators of these behavioral effects. Over the past few years, the authors have been developing and testing a theory that addresses this question. They contend that the core psychological message that various forms of maltreatment convey to children is that of rejection. This message leads children to develop a heightened sensitivity to rejection. They have termed this disposition "rejection sensitivity," and have begun to document how it undermines relationships and impairs functioning in both college students and early adolescents. To date, their studies have focused primarily on documenting the role of rejection sensitivity in fostering a hostile and aggressive interpersonal style, which can promote violence in peer and romantic relationships. This chapter describes their theoretical model and the program of research is being undertaken to test and refine the model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
assess the status of theory and empirical data on internalized homophobia / a framework adopted from J. Brewer and A. Hunter (1989) is used to evaluate the status of internalized homophobia as a construct / these writers suggest that "for measurements to be useful in building and testing theories, the measures must provide good empirical estimates of the social phenomena about which we theorize" / an important question is how the simplification involved in operationalizing and measuring a phenomenon affects the realism of the resulting theory [begin] with an examination of the conceptual issues involved in the definition, operationalization, and assessment of internalized homophobia / review . . . the empirical work in this area / data on the construct validity of internalized homophobia are presented / [argue] that the construct of internalized homophobia can serve as a central organizing concept for gay and lesbian affirmative psychology (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Discusses how couple therapists can help same-sex partners (1) deal with homophobia, (2) make their couple commitments and relationship roles less ambiguous, and (3) build a more closely knit network of social support. For each of these issues, the authors describe problem-specific dynamics and related therapeutic techniques. The authors then discuss how therapists (especially heterosexual therapists) can prepare themselves personally and professionally for this kind of work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
20 lesbian women (aged 24–44 yrs), each of whom was in a committed couple relationship, were asked how their parents' attitudes toward (1) their partner and (2) their lesbianism affected their relationships with their partners. Most of the respondents maintained that the adverse consequences of parental disapproval were overshadowed by the benefits to the couple. Also discussed are the negative impact of secrecy on the couple and the positive effects on the couple of an affirmed lesbian identity. The counselor working with lesbian couples should not passively "accept" their lifestyle but actively affirm the validity of their relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
This article reviews the research on resilience in order to delineate its significance and potential for understanding normal development. Resilience refers to the process of, capacity for, or outcome of successful adaptation despite challenging or threatening circumstances. Three resilience phenomena are reviewed: (a) good outcomes in high-risk children, (b) sustained competence in children under stress, and (c) recovery from trauma. It is concluded that human psychological development is highly buffered and that long-lasting consequences of adversity usually are associated with either organic damage or severe interference in the normative protective processes embedded in the caregiving system. Children who experience chronic adversity fare better or recover more successfully when they have a positive relationship with a competent adult, they are good learners and problem-solvers, they are engaging to other people, and they have areas of competence and perceived efficacy valued by self or society. Future studies of resilience will need to focus on processes that facilitate adaptation. Such studies have the potential to illuminate the range and self-righting properties of, constraints on, and linkages among different aspects of cognitive, emotional, and social development.
Article
Substantial evidence indicates a link between exposure to family violence in childhood and troubled social relationships. We draw on attachment and social-cognitive theory to formulate a model of the mechanisms underlying this association. The model proposes that early experiences of overt rejection (e.g., physical maltreatment) or covert rejection (e.g., emotional neglect) are internalized as sensitivity to rejection. In this study, we operationalize sensitivity to rejection in social-cognitive terms as a tendency to expect and be concerned about rejection across a range of social situations. We hypothesize that rejection sensitivity mediates the link between exposure to family violence and adult attachment behavior. Data from a survey of 212 undergraduates support this hypothesis and also provide evidence that indicates sensitivity to rejection underlies both avoidant and ambivalent patterns of insecure adult attachment behavior. Overall, the results illustrate the power of a process approach to explaining the developmental sequelae of maltreatment.
Article
A sample of committed gay and lesbian cohabiting couples engaged in two conversations after being apart for at least 8 hours: (a) an events of the day conversation and (b) a conflict resolution conversation. Physiological data were collected during the conversations and a videotape record was made. Couples viewed the videotapes and rated their affect during the interaction. The video records were coded with a system that categorized specific affects displayed. Models derived from physiology, from the perception of interaction, and from specific affective behavior were related to relationship satisfaction, and to the prediction of relationship dissolution over a 12-year period. Results supported previous findings that satisfaction and stability in gay and lesbian relationships are related to similar emotional qualities as in heterosexual relationships.
Article
This study examined the effects of social support components and providers on mental health and sexual orientation (SO) milestones of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) youths. Data were collected on 461 self-identified LGB adolescents and young adults. Family acceptance and support yielded the strongest positive effect on self-acceptance of SO, whereas friends' support and acceptance yielded the strongest positive effect on disclosure of SO. Family support had the strongest negative effect on youth's mental distress, whereas friends' and family support had the strongest positive effect on well-being. These findings highlight the importance of the daily perceptions of LGB youth within social and familial settings, indicating that both positive and negative aspects of support affect youths' mental health and identity development.
Article
Despite a large body of literature addressing relationship quality and domestic violence in women's same-sex relationships, few studies have empirically examined how stress specific to living as a lesbian or bisexual woman might correlate with these relationship variables. Degree of outness, internalized homophobia, lifetime and recent experiences of discrimination, butch/femme identity, relationship quality, and lifetime and recent experiences of domestic violence were assessed in a sample of 272 predominantly European American lesbian and bisexual women. Lesbian and bisexual women were found to be comparable on most relationship variables. In bivariate analyses, minority stress variables (internalized homophobia and discrimination) were associated with lower relationship quality and both domestic violence perpetration and victimization. Outness and butch/femme identity were largely unrelated to relationship variables. Path analysis revealed that relationship quality fully mediated the relationship between internalized homophobia and recent domestic violence.
Article
The relations among measures of attachment, spouse behavior, and marital satisfaction were assessed in a broad sample of 193 married couples, using both questionnaire and diary methods. Insecure attachment was associated with less favorable reports of spouse behavior, as assessed by diary checklists. Marital satisfaction was predicted by attachment measures and reports of spouse behavior. The relation between attachment security and marital satisfaction was moderated, but not mediated, by reported spouse behavior. Specifically, insecure individuals’ evaluations of their relationships were more reactive to recent spouse behavior, an effect that was especially marked for fearful participants and for those in longer-term marriages. Some gender differences in patterns of prediction were obtained. The results are discussed in terms of the working models associated with attachment styles, and the processes by which relationship satisfaction may be eroded over time.
Article
This study used a sample of 293 lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth to examine factors that differentiated youth whose parents knew of their sexual orientation from youth whose parents did not know. Earlier awareness and disclosure of same-gender attractions, greater childhood gender atypicality, and less internalized homophobia were characteristic of youth whose parents were aware of youths’ sexual orientation. Youth with aware parents reported more past verbal victimization on the basis of sexual orientation from parents, yet more current family support and less fear of future parental victimization on the basis of their sexual orientation.
Article
Three hundred fifty lesbian, gay, and bisexual youths aged 14 to 21 years were questioned about suicidal thoughts and behaviors, families' reactions to youths' sexual orientation, and suicidality among relatives and friends. Results confirmed an association between sexual orientation and suicidality. Nearly half (42%) had sometimes or often thought of suicide; one third (33%) reported at least one suicide attempt. Many related suicidal ideation and suicide attempts to their sexual orientation. Most attempts followed awareness of same-sex feelings and preceded disclosure of sexual orientation to others. One quarter said a family member had made a suicide attempt, and nearly three quarters said a close friend had attempted suicide.
Article
The quality of romantic relationships and their associations with both partners' personality traits and social networks were studied in 100 younger couples. The similarity of partners was modest with respect to personality traits, and moderate to large with respect to the perceived quality of the partner relationship and their social networks. While similarity in personality was unrelated to relationship quality, dyadic analyses showed that one's perceived quality of relationship was better predicted by one's own personality (i.e. actor effects) than by the personality of one's partner (i.e. partner effects). Moreover, relationship quality could to some extent be predicted by the quality of the social network once the personality traits of each partner were controlled. Results are discussed from a transactional view of personality and relationships. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Article
Data collected from both members of a dyad provide abundant opportunities as well as data analytic challenges. The Actor–Partner Interdependence Model (APIM; Kashy & Kenny, 2000) was developed as a conceptual framework for collecting and analyzing dyadic data, primarily by stressing the importance of considering the interdependence that exists between dyad members. The goal of this paper is to detail how the APIM can be implemented in dyadic research, and how its effects can be estimated using hierarchical linear modeling, including PROC MIXED in SAS and HLM (version 5.04; Raudenbush, Bryk, Cheong, & Congdon, 2001). The paper describes the APIM and illustrates how the data set must be structured to use the data analytic methods proposed. It also presents the syntax needed to estimate the model, indicates how several types of interactions can be tested, and describes how the output can be interpreted.
Article
The decade between 1998 and 2008 saw rapid increases in research on adolescent sexual orientation development and related health issues, both in the quantity and in the quality of studies. While much of the research originated in North America, studies from other countries also contributed to emerging understanding of developmental trajectories and social influences on the health of sexual minority adolescents. This paper reviews the body of research from the past decade on adolescent sexual orientation, focused on issues of measurement, developmental trajectories, evidence related to health disparities, and the risks and protective factors that help explain the health and developmental challenges some lesbian, gay, and bisexual adolescents experience. Although many sexual minority adolescents face stigma and rejection within their families, their schools, or their communities, it should be noted that most successfully navigate the developmental tasks of adolescence and attain similar levels of health and well-being as their heterosexual peers, often despite the stigma and discrimination they encounter. Further research is needed to understand population trends as well as individual patterns of development, cultural variations in both development and health disparities, the interplay of general and unique risk factors that contribute to various health disparities and protective factors that buffer those risks, and interventions to promote the healthy development of sexual minority adolescents.