Article

The Short-lived Benefits of Abusive Supervisory Behavior for Actors: An Investigation of Recovery and Work Engagement

Authors:
  • Business School, University of International Business and Economics
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Abstract

Although empirical evidence has accumulated showing that abusive supervision has devastating effects on subordinates' work attitudes and outcomes, knowledge about how such behavior impacts supervisors who exhibit it is limited. Drawing upon conservation of resources theory, we develop and test a model that specifies how and when engaging in abusive supervisory behavior has immediate benefits for supervisors. Via two experiments and a multi-wave diary study across 10 consecutive workdays, we found that engaging in abusive supervisory behavior was associated with improved recovery level. Moreover, abusive supervisory behavior had a positive indirect effect on work engagement through recovery level. Interestingly, supplemental analyses suggested that these beneficial effects were short-lived because, over longer periods of time (i.e., one week and beyond), abusive supervisory behavior were negatively related to supervisors' recovery level and engagement. The strength of these short-lived beneficial effects was also bound by personal and contextual factors. Empathic concern--a personal factor--and job demands--a contextual factor--moderated the observed effects. Specifically, supervisors with high empathic concern or low job demands experienced fewer benefits after engaging in abusive supervisory behavior. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these findings, and propose future research directions.

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... The present research makes three contributions to the ethical leadership literature. First, we expand ethical leadership research by joining the increasing trend turning the focus from a between-person approach to an actor-centric perspective (Qin et al., 2018). By investigating why and when conducting ethical leadership behaviors benefits leaders themselves, we provide a rosy picture of the consequences of ethical leadership. ...
... Procedure and participants Following many previous studies (e.g. Ju et al., 2019;Qin et al., 2018), we recruited our participants through alumni networks of a large university in China. Data were collected from a diverse population to increase the heterogeneity of the participants, which enhances generalization of the research findings. ...
... In line with prior research examining the effect of leadership behaviors on leaders themselves (e.g. Qin et al., 2018), we asked the supervisors to evaluate their ethical leadership for two reasons. First, supervisors are in the best position to know their overall behavior toward their subordinates as a group. ...
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Purpose This study investigates the benefits of ethical leadership behaviors for leaders themselves and the underlying mechanisms and boundary conditions of this effect. Design/methodology/approach Using a multi-time and multi-source survey design, data was collected from both leaders and subordinates across three waves. Findings Ethical leadership behavior was found to be positively associated with the leader’s moral pride, resulting in the leader’s higher in-role performance and perceived manager effectiveness. The effect of ethical leadership behavior was moderated by core self-evaluation (CSE), such that low-CSE leaders benefit more from these behaviors. Practical implications Organizations should encourage ethical leadership behaviors and educate leaders to develop moral pride from conducting these behaviors. Leaders with low CSEs can enhance their in-role performance and overall effectiveness by taking pride in their ethical leadership behaviors. Originality/value The field of study on ethical leadership has predominantly focused on the positive outcomes for recipients, yet it is imperative to examine the self-benefits for leaders as well. This study drew upon affective events theory to posit that ethical leadership behaviors generate moral pride in leaders, leading to improved work-related attitudes and performance outcomes.
... However, the metaanalysis also discusses contradictory findings as there is empirical evidence showing opposite relationships (e.g. Liao et al., 2021;Lin et al., 2019;Qin et al., 2018;Zwingmann et al., 2016). These inconclusive findings might be explained by the excessive use of a variablecentered approach. ...
... reduced productivity and motivation, Fischer et al., 2021), abusive supervision creates a resourcedraining environment, which in turn may negatively relate to leader well-being (Arnold et al., 2017). Contrary to this, Qin et al. (2018) were able to find short-term resource gains for abusive leaders due to a lack of need for self-control. ...
... Franke, 2015). As a resource-draining stressor, it may hinder leaders from engaging in resource-intensive leadership behavior such as transformational leadership (Stein et al., 2020;Stempel et al., 2023) and instead engage in destructive leadership to defend their resources (Qin et al., 2018;Tepper et al., 2017). ...
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Purpose Drawing on COR theory and based on a person-centered approach, this study aims to explore profiles of both leadership behavior (transformational leadership, abusive supervision) and well-being indicators (cognitive irritation, emotional exhaustion). Additionally, we consider whether certain resource-draining (work intensification) and resource-creating factors (leader autonomy, psychological contract fulfillment) from the leaders' work context are related to profile membership. Design/methodology/approach The profiles are built using LPA on data from 153 leaders and their 1,077 followers. The relationship between profile membership and correlates from the leaders' work context is examined using multinomial logistic regression analyses. Findings LPA results in an interpretable four-profile solution with the profiles named (1) Good health – constructive leading, (2) Average health – inconsistent leading, (3) Impaired health – constructive leading and (4) Impaired health – destructive leading. The two groups with the highest sample share – Profiles 1 and 3 – both show highly constructive leadership behavior but differ significantly in their well-being indicators. The regression analyses show that work intensification and psychological contract fulfillment are significantly related to profile membership. Originality/value The person-centered approach provides a more nuanced view of the leadership behavior – leader well-being relationship, which can address inconsistencies in previous research. In terms of practical relevance, the person-centered approach allows for the identification of risk groups among leaders for whom organizations can provide additional resources and health-promoting interventions.
... Six studies found the relationship between mistreatment and work engagement was insignificant with positive (three studies) and negative (three studies) relationships. The studies that reported positive outcomes were collected from student samples (Qiao et al., 2021;Qin et al., 2018). Ten studies did not specify the perpetrator but reported the highest level of anxiety (Duru et al., 2018;Shi et al., 2018), emotional exhaustion (Sui et al., 2019;Tong et al., 2019), burnout, depression (X. ...
... Studies reported that the domain-specific health outcomes (e.g., work engagement) were significantly higher when moderated by individual and personality factors, for example, self-perceived employability and schadenfreude (witnessed incivility). However, Qin et al. (2018) study found the indirect moderating effect of empathic accuracy on the relationship between abusive supervision and work engagement was negative and significant (b = 2.50, p \ .05). ...
... Finally, workplace hierarchies and cultural factors play an essential contextual role in the perception of mistreatment in reviewed articles. Qin et al. (2018) found that abusive behavior had a short-term positive impact on supervisors' recovery and work engagement. Lin et al. (2013) showed that subordinates with low (high) power distance orientation were affected by abusive supervision and had a more dramatic impact on their health and well-being. ...
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Mistreatment in the workplace is a recurring and persistent threat to employee health and organizational productivity. Research has shown that there are five times as many cases of workplace mistreatment reported in China as in the United States. Therefore, we established the mistreatment-employee health relationship in Chinese companies. The search was conducted in the Web of Science, EBSCOhost, PsycInfo, and Google Scholar databases. The search terms used were “China,” “mistreatment,” “abuse,” “neglect,” “exploitation,” and “violence.” The search was not limited by the year of publication. The search found 1,527 articles, 65 of which met the inclusion/exclusion criteria and were used for data analysis and quality assessment. Our results show that the overall prevalence of abuse varies significantly but ranges from 18.5% to 94.6%. Psychological aggression by supervisors and customers was common in the healthcare industry. The experience of abuse was positively correlated with adverse consequences such as emotional fatigue, addiction, and suicidal ideation. By providing evidence of the effects of mistreatment, this study aims to help researchers and practitioners align their policies with global labor standards.
... Supervisors might behave abusively, such as by engaging in hostile verbal and nonverbal behaviors (Tepper, 2000), and the long-term physiological and psychological tension inherent in police work can lead police officers to respond to minor conflicts or threats in a more aggressive manner (Griffin & Bernard, 2003). Furthermore, a recent study indicated that abusive supervision could temporarily enhance subordinates' work engagement (Qin et al., 2018), potentially prompting supervisors who hold this belief to retaliate in a vengeful manner. Thus, supervisors might be encouraged or less hesitant to enact revenge when they experience PUTS. ...
... Whereas continuing positive social exchange can contribute to a high-quality relationship (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995), negative social components, such as hate and dislike, promote negative social exchange processes that can worsen the relationship (Greco et al., 2019). Accordingly, although revenge might make supervisors feel better and establish authority, it might trigger negative reciprocity, worsen the relationship between the supervisor and the subordinate, and influence employee effectiveness (Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007;Priesemuth et al., 2014;Qin et al., 2018). Studies on abusive supervision and authoritarian leadership have consistently shown that hostile leader behavior negatively influences elements of employee effectiveness, such as job performance, cooperative behavior, and proactive behavior (Farh & Cheng, 2000;Mitchell & Ambrose, 2007). ...
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This study proposes that police officers’ supervisors might be unfairly treated by their subordinates. Supervisors would respond in a forgiving or revengeful manner to unfair treatment by a subordinate, and their responses might influence their subordinates’ effectiveness. Thus, this study investigated the relationship between perceived unfair treatment by a subordinate (PUTS), supervisor forgiveness and revenge response, and subordinate effectiveness, and tested the moderating effect of supervisor affective organizational commitment. A group-based survey was conducted in a Taiwanese law enforcement organization, and 93 supervisors and 389 subordinates returned questionnaires. The multi-level analysis showed that (a) PUTS was negatively associated with supervisory forgiveness; (b) supervisory forgiveness was positively related to job performance, cooperative behavior, and proactive behavior; (c) supervisory forgiveness mediated the relationship between PUTS, job performance, and proactive behavior; and (d) supervisors with high affective organizational commitment were more likely to act revengefully toward PUTS than to those with low affective organizational commitment. The findings showed that PUTS is a meaningful construct and that supervisor forgiveness is critical to a positive social exchange between police officers and their supervisors.
... However, this reflects the reality of subordinates' everyday lives and-on a more practical note-can be considered a desirable finding because subordinates do not have to deal with abusive supervision very frequently. While the low base rate of abusive supervision is comparable to former diary studies investigating daily abusive supervision (Liao et al., 2021;Qin et al., 2018;Shen et al., 2021), the low within-person variance of abusive supervision poses the threat of range restriction. Consequently, we may have underestimated the associations of abusive supervision with our mediator and outcome variables (Greco et al., 2015;Venz & Mohr, 2023). ...
... Moreover, longitudinal designs over a longer period (e.g., 4 weeks) or other designs (e.g., weekly diaries) could increase the likelihood to detect abusive supervision as well as give researchers the opportunity to investigate the longer term recovery outcomes of abusive supervision. For example, Qin et al. (2018) found that abusive supervision has positive short-term consequences on supervisors' own recovery level but negative consequences in the long run (i.e., after 1 week). Future research could investigate the association of abusive supervision with subordinates' psychological detachment and relaxation over time periods that extend 1 day. ...
Article
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Recovery from work is highly relevant for employees, yet understanding the interpersonal antecedents of impaired recovery experiences remains unclear. Specifically, because former research neglected supervisor behaviors as a predictor of impaired recovery and abusive supervision is a core stressor, we examine daily abusive supervision as a predictor of subordinates’ recovery experiences (i.e., psychological detachment and relaxation). We draw on research on the recovery paradox and propose that psychological detachment and relaxation will be impaired on days with high abusive supervision, although recovery would have been highly important on those days. We suggest a cognitive mechanism (via rumination) and an affective mechanism (via anger) to explain this paradox. We test coworker reappraisal support as a moderator that buffers the adverse effects of abusive supervision on rumination and anger. In a daily diary study (171 subordinates, 786 days), we found an indirect effect of abusive supervision on psychological detachment via rumination and indirect effects of abusive supervision on psychological detachment and relaxation via anger. Coworker reappraisal support moderated the association of abusive supervision and rumination, such that the relationship was weaker when coworker support was high. Our results suggest that including negative supervisor behaviors, such as abusive supervision, in recovery research is highly relevant. Coworkers can help cognitively process abusive-supervision experiences by providing reappraisal support.
... Moreover, we generated CIs at high and low levels (± 1 SD) of person-organization fit using the Monte Carlo CI 95% (20,000 repetitions) to test the conditional indirect effects. We used group-mean centering for all within-person variables to scrutinize daily within-person fluctuation and grand-mean centering for the between-person variable (Qin et al., 2017). Table 1 displays descriptive statistics, correlations, and intra-class correlations (ICC). ...
... Due to the nested nature of our data (days nested within employees), we applied a multi-level structural equation modeling approach via Mplus 8.3 to test our hypotheses (Muthén & Muthén, 1998. This analytical approach accounts for the interdependence at both levels (Qin et al., 2017), allowing us to separate the relationships at the between-person and within-person levels. As for the steps, we first constructed a null model to measure our study variables' intra-class correlation (ICC; Hox, 2010) to ascertain whether there were sufficient differences among the variables at the between-person level. ...
Article
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Employees’ innovative behavior is a crucial catalyst for public organizations’ survival, development, and growth in service quality and problem-solving capabilities. Drawing on the broaden-and-build theory and self-determination theory, we proposed a conceptual model to delineate the dynamic within-person impact of the universal human experience flow on innovative behavior. We tried to disentangle the underlying mechanisms and boundary conditions by taking into consideration both job involvement and person-organization fit. We followed 106 public organizational employees’ self-reports on daily flow, job involvement, and innovative behavior at work for two consecutive weeks. Data analyzed via multi-level structural equation modeling revealed that daily flow exerts a positive impact on innovative behavior through job involvement at the within-person level. Such impact is moderated by person-organization fit at the between-person level, indicating a more substantial indirect effect of flow on innovative behavior via job involvement for employees with higher (versus lower) person-organization fit. Taken together, our findings elucidate how and when flow predicts innovative behavior on a daily basis, providing empirical evidence for the role of daily flow at work in facilitating employees’ daily innovative behavior. Theoretical and managerial implications for nurturing employees’ innovative behavior in public organizations are put forward.
... On a given day, when driven by a compelling desire to acquire psychological resources (i.e., feeling of power), managers are propelled to participate in behaviors directed at fortifying their dominance and authority in the organizational context (McClelland, 1987). In that regard, these managers are more likely to lean toward expeditious yet unethical means, which is a preferential option that comes with fewer personal costs but "confers psychological benefits derived from a sense of greater autonomy and influence" (Qin et al., 2018(Qin et al., , p. 1959. Supporting this argument, previous research has demonstrated that an intense need for power may lead managers to engage in actions that prioritize personal gain (e.g., selfishness) and the manipulation of others rather than the assistance of others (Winter, 1973). ...
Article
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Increasingly complex and volatile work environments challenge long-term employment and job security. Managers are not exempt from this, because they also often perceive their own jobs to be precarious. Drawing upon conservation of resources theory, we offer a fresh perspective to understand how and when abusive supervision is induced by manager job insecurity on a daily basis. We draw upon manager need for power as a within-person novel explanatory mechanism to explain why job insecurity triggers managers to display abusive supervision on a daily basis. To test our model, we conducted a study over a period of 10 consecutive days, using an experience sampling methodology, in which 126 managers in Chinese banks completed 1,058 daily surveys. In agreement with our hypotheses, we found that manager need for power, triggered by job insecurity, is a proximal cause of abusive supervision on a daily basis, after controlling for several other variables that have been found to lead to abusive supervision. The detrimental effects of daily manager job insecurity are alleviated when managers are equipped with higher levels of trait resilience and daily state mindfulness. Thus, our findings provide a more comprehensive picture of how managers’ stable and dynamic resources operate as beneficial buffers, alleviating the harm resulting from a daily workplace stressor—in this case, job insecurity. Overall, our study traces the fluctuation of a specific resource, and reveals the consequences of manager job insecurity from a leader-centric perspective.
... While jobs are mostly performed through concerted efforts with supervisors, the supervisor's role in innovative behavior is crucial (Basu and Green, 1997). Abusive supervision is a major source of stress that employees face in organizational settings, which causes psychological pain and depletes their resources (Tepper, 2007;Whitman et al., 2014;Qin et al., 2018). Abusive supervision may weaken the nonlinear relationship between P-J fit and innovative behavior by discouraging the innovative efforts of vulnerable employees due to fewer resources (i.e., those with poor P-J fit) as well as those undergoing a minor decline in their P-J fit (i.e., those with less than perfect P-J fit). ...
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Although literature suggests that a higher person-job fit leads to more innovative behavior, some recent studies have shown inconsistent results with the assumption of such a linear relationship between the two constructs. Considering these inconsistent findings, the present study aims to examine a curvilinear relationship between person-job fit and innovative behavior. Innovative behavior represents an individual's actions that come up with, realize, and apply novel ideas within the job environment, and person-job fit, which pertains to the value congruence between the job and individual, can be a critical predictor of innovative behavior. Drawing on the triphasic model of stress and the conservation of resources theory, this study hypothesizes that person-job fit has a non-linear relationship with innovative behavior, and that abusive supervision moderates this relationship. The regression analysis results of the 180 employee-supervisor dyadic data revealed that person-job fit and innovative behavior have a non-linear relationship. Furthermore, the non-linear relationship is (1) weakened (linearly positive) when abusive supervision is high and (2) strengthened when abusive supervision is low. By integrating multiple theoretical lenses, the present study offers a more sophisticated understanding of individual employees' psychological reactions to job fit discrepancies and their innovative outcomes in organizational settings. Theoretical and practical implications and directions for future research are also discussed.
... Huang et al. (2015) even warned managers against applying authoritarian leadership over long periods. Other harmful leadership behaviors, such as abusive supervision (Qin et al., 2018), produce long-term destructive implications, despite positive influences in the short run (Krasikova et al., 2013). It would be helpful to explore the long-term impact of authoritarian leadership and the trajectory of its effects over time. ...
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Extant research demonstrates the destructive nature of authoritarian leadership in the workplace, yet its widespread use suggests that a more balanced view of this leadership style may be needed to identify whether this form of leadership engenders favorable reactions in specific circumstances. Integrating insights from appraisal theory and the compensatory control model, we posit that authoritarian leadership can evoke anxiety among employees in less disruptive settings, whereas it evokes feelings of awe in highly disruptive contexts. These anxiety and awe reactions then influence employees’ downstream leader-focused behaviors (i.e., leader-directed avoidance and affiliation) and general work behaviors (i.e., counterproductive behavior and job performance). Thus, whether reactions to authoritarian leadership are dysfunctional or functional is contingent on event disruption as a key boundary condition. Results from an experience sampling study (Study 1), a multiwave and multisource field study (Study 2), and laboratory experiments (Studies 3a and 3b) largely confirm these predictions. The findings underscore the importance of event disruption for predicting employee reactions to authoritarian styles of leadership.
... Lastly, future work may also increase the experimental reality, that is "if the situation is involving to the participants if they are forced to take it seriously if it has an impact on them" (Wilson et al., 2010, p. 54). This could for example be achieved by building on the experimental scenario designed by Qin et al. (2018). In their experiment participants could influence the financial compensation for the experiment through their behavior. ...
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Understanding mindsets is crucial to understanding coaching behavior. Recent research has demonstrated that growth mindsets have both positive (i.e., increased outcome expectancy) and negative (i.e., increased blame attributions) effects on prosocial behavior. However, little is known about the role of these two opposing effects in work settings, especially when considering the history of competence- and morality-related failure of people receiving coaching. To address this gap, we conducted four experiments (N = 2,295), which consistently revealed that a growth mindset (mediated through outcome expectancy) was positively related to willingness to coach. However, there was no evidence of detrimental effects via blame attributions, regardless of the recipient’s failure history. Therefore, promoting growth mindsets in organizations likely contributes to a supportive workplace culture.
... Next, we invited 18 subject-matter experts (7 professors and 11 PhD candidates in organizational behavior) to rate the extent to which these items matched the definition of AI talk using a 5-point scale (1 = "Item is an extremely bad match," 5 = "Item is an extremely good match"). The average score was 4.88, which is comparable to expert scores in previous studies (e.g., Chen et al., 2021;Colquitt et al., 2014;Gardner, 2005;Qin et al., 2018;Qin et al., 2021;Rodell, 2013). Interrater agreement (r wg ; James et al., 1984) among experts was .96. ...
Article
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Artificial intelligence (AI) is becoming increasingly common in organizations, and more and more employees are talking about AI with their coworkers (i.e., AI talk). However, we have limited knowledge of what effects AI talk has on employees’ psychological states and subsequent behaviors. Drawing on self-efficacy theory, we propose that talking about AI is positively associated with AI self-efficacy (i.e., the degree to which individuals think they can successfully complete AI-related tasks), which in turn increases proactive coping behavior to adapt to AI (i.e., AI crafting). Furthermore, we suggest that leader AI-focused attention moderates these positive indirect effects such that these relationships are strengthened when leaders focus more attention on AI (i.e., leader AI-focused attention is high). To test our theoretical model, we conducted an experiment and a multi-wave field study in organizations using AI. This research reveals the effects of AI talk on AI crafting via AI self-efficacy, which expands the existing AI literature and job crafting literature and provides a more comprehensive understanding of AI in the workplace.
... The measurement items of challenge (CTA) and hindrance (HTA) appraisals in regard to platform algorithm control applied in this study refer to Searle and Auton [17] and Ding [20]. The items measuring the constructs of work engagement (WE) were proposed by Schaufeli et al. [48] and Qin et al. [49]. The measurement items for prosocial service behaviors (PSBs), comprising role-prescribed service behavior (RSB) and extra-role service behavior (ESB), were adapted from Tsaur et al. [26]. ...
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Algorithmic technological progress presents both opportunities and challenges for organizational management. The success of online labor platforms hinges on algorithmic control, making it imperative to explore how this control affects gig workers’ prosocial service behaviors. Drawing from affective event theory, our study delves into the factors influencing gig workers’ prosocial service behaviors in the online labor platform setting. We utilize the challenge–hindrance appraisal framework to highlight the pivotal role of algorithmic control. To rigorously test our hypotheses, we gathered empirical data from an online questionnaire survey of 660 gig workers. Our results indicate that challenge appraisals and hindrance appraisals in regard to platform algorithm control have a nuanced dual impact on gig workers’ prosocial service behaviors. This relationship is clarified by the mediating function of work engagement. A challenge appraisal of platform algorithmic control can positively influence gig workers’ prosocial service behaviors. However, hindrance appraisal of platform algorithmic control can negatively influence gig workers’ prosocial service behaviors. Interestingly, workplace interpersonal capitalization boosts the effect of challenge appraisal on employees’ prosocial service behaviors. However, it does not mitigate the adverse effects of hindrance appraisal on such behaviors. This study has multiple theoretical implications, and it also provides valuable practical insights into organizational management.
... Toxic supervision, a common damaging leadership behaviour, is defined as leaders neglecting employees' efforts, publicly criticising people, violating commitments, and emotionally assaulting individuals in the workplace (Fang et al., 2023). Toxic supervision is becoming more widespread in organisations (Wang et al., 2022), as executives use bullying tactics to display dominance or alleviate stress (Qin et al., 2018;Hansol, et al., 2019). Toxic supervision can affect subordinates' psychological and physical health, lower their job enthusiasm, hamper team growth, raise organisational expenses, and have a negative impact on long-term organisational development (Fang et al., 2023). ...
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This quantitative research explores the moderating role of resilience in the relationship between toxic supervision, dehumanisation, and the performance of small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in Zamfara State. Using a survey and cross-sectional research technique, data were obtained from 658 employees of SMEs in Zamfara state, Nigeria. The research increased the sample size by 30% to account for any non-response error, ensuring that the analysis was robust. Using Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), the data demonstrate strong direct and moderating effects. First, toxic supervision has a negative influence on SME performance, underscoring the critical role of leadership behaviour. Furthermore, dehumanisation was shown to have a considerable negative effect on SME performance, highlighting the need to preserve humane treatment in the workplace. Notably, resilience appeared as an important moderator, buffering the negative impacts of toxic supervision and dehumanisation on SME performance. The study underscores the importance of building employees’ resilience in the workplace to act as buffer of the negative work trends like dehumanisation and toxic supervision by management of organisations. The model accounted for 42.8% of the variation in SME performance, demonstrating moderate explanatory power, and had a Q-Square value of 0.155, indicating medium predictive significance. This research adds to our knowledge of organisational behaviour in SMEs by providing insights into techniques for building resilience and improving performance in difficult working situations.
... Instigating harmful behaviors (e.g., engaging in abusive supervision) has rarely been studied, and when it has, it has produced inconsistent results. More specifically, behaving abusively related to positive-deactivated states in one study (Qin et al., 2018) and negative-deactivated states in another (Shen et al., 2021). Moreover, research clearly shows that surface acting (i.e., modifying the display of one's emotions, usually by covering up genuinely felt emotions) in interactions with customers can ruin the day. ...
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Workdays are the main temporal building blocks of people's experiences at work, and many factors potentially contribute to having a good versus a bad day at work. Still, empirical findings on these ingredients are scattered and a bigger picture is missing. This article reviews day-level and experience-sampling studies (k = 382 studies) to describe what makes for a good versus bad day at work. We derive outcome criteria for good versus bad days from the circumplex model of effect and identify specific pre-work factors (sleep, pre-work events, and pre-work experiences) and at-work factors (situational conditions, states and experiences, behaviors, results of one's actions, and work breaks) as their core ingredients. We highlight temporal trends in this rapidly growing research area and critically assess the current state of the literature with respect to theoretical and methodological issues. We link empirical findings that have emerged from our literature review to a homeostatic human sustainability perspective, offer directions for future research, and discuss the practical implementation of research findings.
... Moreover, even though the results of CFAs and Harman's single-factor test suggested that our focal constructs were distinct from each other, common method variances are likely to exist in the data (Malhotra et al., 2006). In future studies, scholars should adopt a longitudinal design or get multi-source data to reduce common method variances and demonstrate whether there is a reverse causal relationship between leader popularity and leadership effectiveness (Qin et al., 2018). ...
Article
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Since most tasks in today’s workplace involve collaboration. The popularity of individuals in the workplace has emerged as a significant and intriguing research subject. This study, utilizing social capital theory, investigates how leader popularity influences leadership effectiveness. We collected data from 156 leaders and 485 employees across various Chinese companies using a multi-source, multi-wave approach. Our findings indicate a positive relationship between leader popularity and leadership effectiveness. Team cohesion mediates the positive impact of leader popularity on leadership effectiveness. Furthermore, leader openness moderates the relationship between leader popularity and team cohesion. Leader openness moderates the indirect relationship between leader popularity and leadership effectiveness through team cohesion. This indirect relationship is stronger when leader openness is high. The study’s conclusion supports integrating the concept of popularity into organizational behavior research. It also offers practical insights for organizations and leaders to enhance leadership effectiveness.
... Foulk et al. (2018) focused on the negative well-being outcomes of abusive leadership behaviors on leaders and found that these behaviors led to decreases in leaders' daily need fulfillment and ability to relax at home. Conversely, Qin et al. (2018) found that daily abusive leadership behaviors were beneficial to leaders' recovery on the same day and resulted in improved work engagement the next day, while empathic concern and job demands moderated these effects. However, in relatively long periods (i.e., one week and beyond), abusive leadership behavior led to decreased recovery levels and work engagement of leaders, suggesting that the beneficial effects of abusive leadership behaviors were short-lived. ...
Chapter
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Organizational research on personality and leadership has been heavily influenced by the Great Man theory of leadership and predominantly assumed that personality traits cause leadership, not vice versa. Thus this literature has largely overlooked the possibility that leadership may also shape personality processes. Advancing this line of research from a dynamic perspective, in this chapter we first review research on static relationship between personality (and related constructs) on leadership. We then take stock of the limited research endeavors looking at how leadership processes and personality processes may be reciprocally influence each other in dynamic fashions. We last propose a theoretical framework, a Neo-Socioanalytic Model of Personality and Leadership Process. We hope this chapter may stimulate more research on the dynamics between leadership and personality.
... These robots assist human employees with tasks such as delivering meals to customers and helping with customer check-ins and check-outs. All surveys were sent via WeChat, a popular messaging app with billions of active users in China (Lin et al., 2021;Qin et al., 2018;Waheed & Zhang, 2022, for recent research using WeChat data collection). To ensure confidentiality, we used unique identification codes to match participants' survey responses across the three waves. ...
Article
The increasing application of robots in the workplace has made employee collaboration with robots a prevalent phenomenon. Existing literature on human-robot collaboration has both implicitly and explicitly highlighted the benefits of such collaboration, such as promoting efficiency and productivity. Drawing upon self-regulation theory, this study challenges this prevailing assumption by revealing a potential dark side of employee collaboration with robots, specifically its potential to lead to burnout. Our findings, derived from an experiment and a multi-wave field survey, demonstrate that employee collaboration with robots can lead to a self-esteem threat, which in turn results in burnout. Moreover, the perceived intelligence of robots moderated the indirect effect of employee collaboration with robots on burnout through self-esteem threat. This effect was more pronounced when the perceived intelligence of robots was high, as opposed to low. This study offers fresh insights into the consequences of employees collaborating with robots. It also highlights the need for future research to focus on the psychological well-being of employees engaged in such collaborations.
... Third, we considered stewardship behavior as an interindividual variance variable and used an interindividual research design to examine its effects on employees' work-family interface. However, stewardship behavior and employee emotions may exhibit intraindividual dynamic characteristics, which can fluctuate daily (Koopman et al., 2016;Qin et al., 2018). More importantly, these daily fluctuating changes have a significant impact on employees' work-family interface. ...
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Purpose – Stewardship behavior is an important embodiment of the spirit of employee ownership, which is critical to the sustainability of companies, especially under the influence of the COVID-19 epidemic. Most previous studies have focused on how to motivate employees’ stewardship behavior, but little is known about how stewardship behavior affects employees themselves. Hence, drawing on the conservation of resources (COR) theory, we explored how employee stewardship behavior affects their work–family interface. Design/methodology/approach – In this study, structural equation modeling was conducted using two-wave survey data from 323 employees through three internet companies in Southern China. Findings – Results reveal that engaging in stewardship behavior is positively correlated with both positive emotion and emotional exhaustion. Positive emotion and emotional exhaustion, in turn, mediate the effects of stewardship behavior on work–home interface. Family motivation influences the strength of the relationships between positive emotion or emotional exhaustion and work–family interface, that is, high family motivation strengthens the positive association between positive emotion and work–family enrichment, and weakens the positive association between emotional exhaustion and work–family conflict. Practical implications – This study suggests that managers should give employees more support and care to ease the worries of engaging in stewardship behavior. Also, organizations should recruit employees with high family motivation, which can reduce the negative effects of stewardship behavior on work–family interface. Originality/value – Based on an actor’s perspective, this study examines both the positive and negative effects of stewardship behavior on employees themselves, thereby increasing understanding of the dual effect of stewardship behavior. In addition, this study further elucidates the mechanisms that moderate the positive and negative effects of individual family motivation on their engagement in stewardship behavior within the COR theory.
... Given the nested structure of the data, with multiple days of data recorded for each individual, this study employed Mplus8.3 to conduct a multilevel path analysis to test the hypothesis proposed in the paper. Drawing on previous research, 32 we treated the daily measured intra-individual variables (leader's FoMO, challenge stress, hindrance stress, and leader's creativity) as the within level (Level 1). We set the interpersonal cross-level moderating variable (role breadth self-efficacy) as the between-level (level 2). ...
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Purpose Fear of Missing out (FoMO) is a widely observed phenomenon in the workplace. Previous research has primarily focused on employees’ FoMO, with limited exploration of leaders’ FoMO and its impact on their creativity. This study aims to investigate how leaders’ FoMO affects their creativity, based on the transactional stress theory. Patients and Methods Using an experience sampling method, we collected 836 observations from 102 leaders across various industries in China for two consecutive weeks (10 working days). Subsequently, hierarchical regression analysis and structural equation modeling were employed to test the hypotheses. Results This study suggests that both challenge stress and hindrance stress mediate the relationship between leaders’ FoMO and their creativity. Role breadth self-efficacy moderates the relationship between leaders’ FoMO and challenge stress and hindrance stress, and moderates the positive and negative mediating effects of challenge stress and hindrance stress in the relationship between leaders’ FoMO and their creativity. Conclusion Research has shown that leaders’ FoMO can either enhance creative performance by increasing challenge stress or inhibit it by increasing hindrance stress. Role breadth self-efficacy significantly amplifies the positive relationship between leaders’ FoMO and challenge stress, while moderating the negative effect of leaders’ FoMO on hindrance stress. Innovations Firstly, this study expands workplace FoMO research by illustrating the double-edged sword effect of leaders’ FoMO on their creativity. Secondly, this study contributes to the academic community’s comprehension of the underlying mechanisms linking leaders’ FoMO and its outcomes by demonstrating the mediating role of challenge stress and hindrance stress. Thirdly, the study shows the boundary conditions for the effects of leaders’ FoMO by validating the moderating role of their role breadth self-efficacy.
... Actually, we find that this inconsistency aligns with certain findings in the existing ESM literature. For instance, Qin et al. (2018) found that abusive supervision yields short-lived benefits for the actor (e.g., higher recovery level), whereas it still proves to be detrimental in the long term. This factual evidence partially bolsters and extends the body of knowledge concerning the positive utility of humor, which uses one-time survey to measure humor and its outcomes, such as Cooper et al. (2018) and Shih and Nguyen (2022). ...
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Salesperson humor usage (SPHU) is often linked with positive outcomes, but little is known about its potential negative effects on salespeople. This study uses ego depletion theory to investigate the negative spillover effect of daily SPHU on work–family conflict via experience sampling method, using data from 109 salespeople over 10 workdays. Results show that daily SPHU is positively associated with daily work–family conflict through increased daily ego depletion. Moreover, the study examines daily supervisor developmental feedback as a context‐relevant moderator that can alleviate the relationship between daily SPHU and ego depletion. By detailing the mediating and moderating mechanisms of daily SPHU spill‐over in a sales interaction context, this study not only supports the perspective of ego depletion in understanding the dark sides of daily SPHU but also offers insights for organizations to inhibit its negative effects.
... A total of 532 full-time HCNs participated in this study. Survey data were collected at two time points to reduce common method effects (Feng et al., 2018;Podsakoff et al., 2003), with a two-week interval (Qin et al., 2018;Wang et al., 2022). In the first survey (T1), participants were asked about their DOI (i.e., identification with their MNCs and subsidiaries, respectively) and demographic information (e.g., job level, gender, age). ...
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... We recruited 172 participants in United States using Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk), an online crowdsourcing marketplace that has been used extensively in previous studies (Buhrmester, Kwang, & Gosling, 2011;Ju, Huang, Liu, Qin, Hu, & Chen, 2019;Qin, Huang, Johnson, Hu, & Ju, 2018a;Qin, Chen, Yam, Huang, & Ju, 2020). All participants were required to be currently working in a team. ...
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... 16 Second, in response to calls for a deeper comprehension of within individual determinants, our research adds to the body of knowledge on abusive supervision. 84,85 Excessively difficult goals or high-performance work systems had a positive impact on abusive supervision, according to previous research into the contextual predictors of the behavior. This was due to the fact that these factors made supervisors feel stressed and temporarily anxious and angry. ...
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... Second, we focused on transformational leadership in our study. However, other leadership constructs have also been shown to be associated with leader well-being, such as servant leadership (e.g., Liao et al., 2020), destructive leadership (e.g., Qin et al., 2018) or leader-member relationships (LMR; London et al., 2023) and could therefore be relevant to be studied (in combination) in future research. Furthermore, it would be interesting to investigate moderators of the relationships, such as differential follower reactions to transformational leadership (Tepper et al., 2018). ...
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... Therefore, we suggested that supervisor empowering behavior, which is a kind of exchange process (Huang et al., 2010), can promote supervisor state gratitude when such exchange process is regarded as a success by the supervisor. Since researchers have uncovered that empowering behavior can prevent leaders from expending resources on the work empowered (Qin et al., 2018), with this benefit brought by empowered subordinates, supervisors may view their empowering behavior as a successful exchange process, and feel grateful to their subordinates. ...
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Purpose The present research aims to investigate perseverance and daily affect as antecedents of daily vigor at work. Furthermore, this research examines whether relational conflict acts as a cross-level moderator that influences the association between employees’ daily affect and daily vigor at work. Design/methodology/approach Using the experience sampling method (ESM), this research collected data twice a day over 10 workdays with a sample of 103 restaurant employees in China. Findings The results of hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) analyses show that perseverance and daily positive affect were positively related to daily vigor at work. The association between daily negative affect and daily vigor at work was nonsignificant. Moreover, relational conflict attenuated the relationship between daily positive affect and daily vigor at work and strengthened the association between daily negative affect and daily vigor at work. Originality/value This research adds to the literature on the antecedents of vigor by revealing how perseverance and daily affect impact daily vigor at work. By investigating relational conflict as a moderator, this research highlights the important role of interpersonal relationships in shaping the relationship between daily affect and daily vigor at work. The use of the ESM helps to enhance the ecological validity of our results.
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Drawing on implicit leadership theory, this study examines the key conditions under which leader humility facilitates the career outcomes of employees. First, considering both similar-attraction and opposite-attraction perspectives within implicit leadership theory, we propose two competing hypotheses, and suggest that leader humility interacts with follower narcissism to predict perceived leader competence. Second, in accordance with implicit leadership theory, we propose that humble leaders are perceived to be more competent when the power distance climate is relatively lower. Further, we suggest that perception of their leaders as competent is positively related to followers' career satisfaction and proactive career behavior. To test our model, we implemented a multi-wave, time-lagged survey with 187 subordinate–supervisor dyads from 79 teams. The results demonstrate that followers who are highly narcissistic or who are members of groups with a lower power distance climate are more likely to regard humble leaders as competent, which allows them to experience enhanced career satisfaction and engage in more proactive career behavior. Both the theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
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Concern about personal finances is one of the most widespread and salient sources of stress. We advance our emerging understanding of the work-related impacts of financial stress by examining the consequences of personal financial stress on leadership behavior. Drawing on compensatory control theory, we propose that financial stress positively relates to abusive supervision via a lowered sense of personal control. Integrating social role theory, we propose that these effects are stronger for leaders who are men than leaders who are women. We test our model in a vignette-based study using a sample of leaders (N = 201) and a second multiwave, multisource field survey study among leaders and their subordinates (N = 119 leader–subordinate dyads). Across both studies, we found that financial stress was positively associated with abusive supervision via lack of control and that this relationship was stronger for men than women. In Study 2, we examined an alternative tend-and-befriend theoretical account, proposing that leaders who are women exhibit more communion-striving motivation and empathic leadership as a result of financial stress. We found some support for this alternative pathway, though not gender differences in it, and in doing so we uncovered novel outcomes of financial stress. Our results offer implications for supporting employee financial health and uncover a context wherein men (and their subordinates), rather than women, experience the costs of misalignment with societal gender expectations.
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Do abusive supervisors benefit from their own harmful behaviors, or do they experience the same repercussions as their victims do? This article extends a growing stream of research that aims to understand how bad actors process their own negative actions, when they are most impacted by their adverse behaviors, and how their job performance is influenced as a result. We ground this research in a moral emotions perspective to suggest that enacted abusive supervision elicits prominent moral responses (i.e., shame or guilt), which subsequently influence the supervisor’s own work conduct. Specifically, we suggest that feelings of guilt will prompt an abusive boss to compensate for their negative behaviors by increasing performance efforts, whereas supervisors with feelings of shame will withdraw and exhibit lower work performance. Multiple mediation results from Study 1 revealed that abusive supervisors predominantly experience shame and, in turn, reduced performance. In Study 2, we expand on these findings by considering the moderating role of supervisor core self-evaluations (CSE). We find that the negative relationship between enacted abuse and supervisor performance (through shame) is exacerbated when managers possess a fragile sense of self (i.e., low CSE). Overall, the current article adds to the argument that abusive supervisors do not profit from their own negative behaviors and that they, too, suffer performance setbacks.
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Given Machiavellianism's strong historical and theoretical roots in power and politics, there are surprisingly few empirical studies, if any, that directly examine how Machiavellians attain and maintain power in organizations. Understanding this is important because Machiavellian employees have managed to effectively gain power to reach managerial positions of influence in organizations despite their negative reputation. Further, there are contradictory theories and peripheral empirical findings that suggest they gain power either by strategically forging important connections or through coercive force. We propose that a Mach middle manager perspective can help illuminate which power‐gaining strategy is used. Drawing from the Machiavellianism literature and power dependence theory, we theorize how Mach middle managers gain coercive power through abusive supervision on those with less power (their subordinates), while building close guanxi with those with more power (their senior manager) to obtain relational empowerment. Moreover, we theorize that they maintain power by increasing both power‐gaining strategies when Mach middle managers perceive a high threat to hierarchy from subordinates, suggesting these parallel relations are positively connected. We found support for our theoretical model using data from a multi‐confederate experimental lab study and two multi‐wave field studies. The theoretical and empirical implications of our findings are discussed.
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Purpose The relationship between perceived overqualification and knowledge sharing has always been a hot topic, but scholars have come to different conclusions on this issue. The purpose of this study is to integrate conflicting conclusions by considering the moderating role of rewards for knowledge sharing and the mediating role of intrinsic motivation in the relationship between perceived overqualification and knowledge sharing based on self-determination theory. Design/methodology/approach The authors collected three-wave survey data from 246 research and development employees in four companies in China. Findings The results showed that when rewards for knowledge sharing was higher, employees with perceived overqualification would have higher intrinsic motivation, which could promote their knowledge-sharing behavior. However, when rewards for knowledge sharing was lower, employees with perceived overqualification would have lower intrinsic motivation, thus inhibiting their knowledge-sharing behavior. This result supported the informational function rather than the controlling function of rewards for knowledge sharing. Originality/value By considering the important boundary condition of rewards for knowledge sharing, this study reconciles the contradictory conclusions on the relationship between perceived overqualification and knowledge-sharing behavior. At the same time, the authors tell organizations that they can increase the knowledge-sharing behavior of overqualified employees through rewards for knowledge sharing.
Chapter
Throughout this book, it has been posited that the social license to operate refers to the extent of stakeholder acceptance of business operations. It is a matter of corporate conformance (Gottschalk and Hamerton, Corporate Social License: A Study in Legitimacy, Conformance, and Corruption, Palgrave Macmillan, 2023; Lewis and Carlos, Administrative Science Quarterly 67:1093–1135, 2022).
Chapter
While this book is primarily concerned with recovery of the social license to operate for deviant or offending business organizations, it is acknowledged the concept of recovery within the wider business literature requires evaluation, with points of convergence and divergence highlighted. This chapter evaluates research which addresses a variety of corporate recovery challenges with established and developing concepts considered in detail, including Organisational Value Recovery, Work-Related Identity Loss Recovery, and Relational Energy in Crisis Recovery. A further important focus for this chapter is Strategic Organizational Deviance, an emerging concept which explores how corporate entities might influence their environments so that rather than adapting to current opinions about what is right and wrong. A significant business-cultural shift which posits the possibility that innovative enterprises and other organizations might maintain reputation with little or no change after a period of criticism and refusals by various stakeholders.
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Purpose The main purpose of our study is to investigate the impact of daily leader humor behaviors on healthcare workers’ daily psychological state and behavioral outcomes. Design/methodology/approach Based on the conservation of resources (COR) theory, this study proposes that daily leader humor behaviors are positively related to healthcare workers’ daily positive affect, which in turn affects their next-day helping behaviors towards patients. These predictions hinge on healthcare workers’ difficulty in maintaining display rules. We conducted a lagged experience sampling methodology (ESM) survey of 621 complete daily observations from 93 healthcare workers who work in direct contact with patients at a large public hospital in China across consecutive 10 working days. Findings Results of multilevel path analysis demonstrate that daily leader humor behaviors are positively related to healthcare workers’ same-day positive affect, and this positive affect enhances their next-day helping behaviors towards patients. Furthermore, healthcare workers’ higher difficulty in maintaining display rules attenuates the benefits of daily leader humor behaviors. Originality/value Building on the COR theory and adopting a diary research design, this study shows daily fluctuations in leader humor behaviors and proposes a mechanism through which daily leader humor behaviors indirectly affect healthcare workers’ next-day helping behaviors. Thus, our study disclosed possible means for healthcare organizations to improve service quality.
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Research on social networking primarily focuses on the long‐term benefits of upward networking on career success. However, how it influences employees in the short term is largely overlooked. Integrating conservation of resources theory and self‐control strength model, we developed a moderated dual‐pathway model that simultaneously examines the immediate benefit and cost of upward networking and investigates how trait self‐control moderates the dual‐pathway mechanism. Based on two experiments and a time‐lagged experience sampling study, we examined the moderated effects of trait self‐control, as well as the conditionally indirect relationship between upward networking and work engagement through the resource gain of perceived impact at work and the resource loss of ego depletion. We found that, on the one hand, for employees high in trait self‐control, engaging in upward networking is likely to be related to perceived impact at work and indirectly affects work engagement. On the other hand, for employees with low trait self‐control, engaging in upward networking is likely to increase ego depletion and indirectly affects work engagement. Overall, our findings contribute to theories of social networking and self‐control and specifically highlight the complexity of upward networking, which both empowers and burdens employees in terms of immediate work outcomes.
Chapter
Leadership has a responsibility to subordinates and organisations, and abusive leadership needs further study to determine its effects on leaders, subordinates, and organisations. Abusive leadership is associated with different terms and generated by different situations, so the aim of this study is to establish a unified framework of the antecedents of abusive leadership, including its types, factors, and effects. This study conducted protocol research as a systematic review of the literature, and its objective was developed through an analysis of articles (n = 70) organised into four clusters. The analysis identified many types of leadership, leadership styles, and management styles, which developed according to the orientation of the leader (task and/or subordinate), and according to it, inefficient leadership could lead to an abusive leadership. Also, leadership in general is a product of contextual factors, personal (leader/supervisor) behaviour, and subordinate characteristics, and abusive leadership situations have effects on the subordinate and team levels. This study has multilevel theoretical and practical implications, including personal and organisational ones, and some limits, which are why further research on this topic is recommended.
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Although prior studies have begun to focus on how employees recover from abusive supervision experiences, how leaders ruminate on and recover from their abusive supervision remains unclear. On the basis of cognitive theories of rumination, we propose that abusive supervision is linked to two forms of rumination after work (i.e., affect-focused rumination and problem-solving pondering), which subsequently influence leaders’ next-day work engagement. Specifically, we suggest that affect-focused rumination and problem-solving pondering will hinder and facilitate leaders’ next-day work engagement, respectively. We also identify the past focus and future focus of leaders as moderators in the relationship between abusive supervision and the two forms of rumination. Using an experience sampling methodology for 10 workdays with data from 59 leaders, we find that leaders’ abusive supervision hinders their next-day work engagement through affect-focused rumination, which is aggravated by past focus and mitigated by future focus. However, the problem-solving pondering path is not supported. We conclude by discussing the theoretical and practical implications of our findings and proposing future research directions.
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Despite the ubiquity of workaholism and workplace incivility, extant research lacks sufficient empirical support on the underlying mechanisms between them, which hinders curtailing the uncivil behavior of workaholics. To systematically investigate the underlying mechanisms, we proposed two mediators: emotional exhaustion and psychological entitlement. The former illustrates why workaholics engage in uncivil behaviors uncontrollably from the existing conservation of resources perspective, which captures the behavioral dimension of workaholism. The latter explains why workaholics engage in workplace incivility voluntarily from a novel moral licensing perspective, which captures the overlooked cognitive dimension of workaholism. Further, we incorporate supervisor-subordinate guanxi as a critical moderator that helps differentiate the above two mediators. Results across two studies suggested that supervisor-subordinate guanxi alleviates the indirect effects of workaholism on workplace incivility via emotional exhaustion, while magnifying the indirect effects via psychological entitlement. Overall, these findings provide evidence that workaholism can also psychologically free employees to engage in subsequent uncivil behaviors.
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Leader behavior can vary daily, and leaders face multiple demands and problems in one day. Therefore, studying how leader behaviors interplay on the day-level (i.e., daily leadership profiles) is essential. Building on conservation of resources theory as a meta-theory, we investigated which daily leadership profiles exist and whether profile membership changes across one week. Additionally, we examined whether the leadership profiles are differentially related to leaders' daily well-being (i.e., emotional exhaustion, positive and negative affect), mediated by their daily experienced thriving and time pressure. In a diary study over five workdays (N = 289 leaders), we found three qualitatively different daily leadership profiles: one dominated by passive behaviors (passive), one dominated by transformational and contingent reward behaviors (transformational-rewarding), and one with elevated transformational and all transactional behaviors (comprehensive). The transformational-rewarding and the comprehensive profile showed greater stability across the week than the passive profile. Days in the transformational-rewarding profile were most beneficial for leaders' well-being. In contrast, days in the comprehensive profile seemed to be a double-edged sword for leaders, as indicated by higher experienced thriving and positive affect and simultaneously enhanced experienced time pressure, emotional exhaustion, and negative affect. Taken together, we illuminate the interplay of leadership behaviors on the day-level and the differential associations with leaders' well-being.
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Although many studies have explored the benefits of empowering leadership for followers, the beneficial effect of such behavior for actors who demonstrate empowering leadership has been overlooked. Applying conservation of resources theory, we propose and test a model that determines why and when empowering leadership benefits actors. We use an experience sampling survey to examine the effect of empowering leadership on actors’ daily work engagement. In particular, we focus on the moderating role of power distance orientation and the mediating roles of negative affect and sleep quality, which operate sequentially. The results based on responses from 160 supervisors in two Chinese organizations indicated that empowering leadership in the morning was negatively related to negative affect in the afternoon and positively related to sleep quality at night and next-day work engagement. The strength of this beneficial effect was moderated by power distance orientation, such that supervisors with a high degree of power distance orientation obtained fewer benefits from empowering leadership than those with a low degree of power distance orientation. The theoretical and practical implications of these findings for the leadership, affect, sleep, power distance, and conservation of resources literatures are discussed.
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The problem of abusive supervision is prevalent in organizations across the board. However, the dark side of leadership is under-researched. The focus of this article is abusive managers’ coping strategy with the guilt of being abusive with subordinates. First, a review has been provided about abusive supervision, which was followed by different literature on coping strategies. Following the discussion on the methodology, findings on coping strategies adopted by managers were presented. Implications and limitations were also discussed at the end. Using qualitative research methodology and by interviewing 21 managers across four countries in seven different sectors data analysis revealed that managers adopt up to eight different types of coping strategies and the most used coping strategies are seeking social support, planning to reduce abusive behaviour, blaming others and acceptance. Moderately used coping strategies are self-control, the mental undoing of the transgression, rationalization and mental disengagement. No manager was found to adopt positive reinterpretation, resignation and plan to make up for the transgression as a coping strategy for their abusive behaviour towards employees.
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Ethical leadership exerts a powerful influence on employees, and most studies share a basic premise that leaders display the same level of ethical leadership to all subordinates. However, we challenge this assumption and suggest that subordinates’ characteristics and supervisors’ characteristics may jointly influence supervisor ethical leadership behavior. Drawing upon research on person–supervisor fit and moral identity, we explore the questions of whether and how supervisor–subordinate (in)congruence in moral identity affects the emergence of supervisor ethical leadership behavior. Using multi-level and multi-source data, the results of cross-level polynomial regressions revealed that the less aligned a supervisor’s moral identity was with a subordinate’s, the more negative sentiments the supervisor held toward the subordinate, which, in turn, influenced the supervisor’s ethical leadership behavior. We also argue that not all types of congruence are alike. Our results confirmed that supervisor negative sentiments toward subordinates were higher in low–low congruence dyads than in high–high congruence dyads. Results also confirmed that by reducing supervisor negative sentiments toward subordinates, supervisor–subordinate congruence in moral identity had an indirect positive effect on supervisor ethical leadership behavior. Overall, this research highlights the importance of taking both subordinates’ and supervisors’ traits into consideration in understanding the emergence of ethical leadership.
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The literature to date has predominantly focused on the benefits of ethical leader behaviors for recipients (e.g., employees and teams). Adopting an actor-centric perspective, in this study we examined whether exhibiting ethical leader behaviors may come at some cost to leaders. Drawing from ego depletion and moral licensing theories, we explored the potential challenges of ethical leader behavior for actors. Across 2 studies which employed multiwave designs that tracked behaviors over consecutive days, we found that leaders’ displays of ethical behavior were positively associated with increases in abusive behavior the following day. This association was mediated by increases in depletion and moral credits owing to their earlier displays of ethical behavior. These results suggest that attention is needed to balance the benefits of ethical leader behaviors for recipients against the challenges that such behaviors pose for actors, which include feelings of mental fatigue and psychological license and ultimately abusive interpersonal behaviors.
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Studies that combine moderation and mediation are prevalent in basic and applied psychology research. Typically, these studies are framed in terms of moderated mediation or mediated moderation, both of which involve similar analytical approaches. Unfortunately, these approaches have important shortcomings that conceal the nature of the moderated and the mediated effects under investigation. This article presents a general analytical framework for combining moderation and mediation that integrates moderated regression analysis and path analysis. This framework clarifies how moderator variables influence the paths that constitute the direct, indirect, and total effects of mediated models. The authors empirically illustrate this framework and give step-by-step instructions for estimation and interpretation. They summarize the advantages of their framework over current approaches, explain how it subsumes moderated mediation and mediated moderation, and describe how it can accommodate additional moderator and mediator variables, curvilinear relationships, and structural equation models with latent variables.
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Drawing from an approach-avoidance perspective, we examine the relationships between subordinates' perceptions of abusive supervision, fear, defensive silence, and ultimately abusive supervision at a later time point. We also account for the effects of subordinates' assertiveness and individual perceptions of a climate of fear on these predicted mediated relationships. We test this moderated mediation model with data from three studies involving different sources collected across various measurement periods. Results corroborated our predictions by showing (a) a significant association between abusive supervision and subordinates' fear, (b) second-stage moderation effects of subordinates' assertiveness and their individual perceptions of a climate of fear in the abusive supervision-fear-defensive silence relationship (with lower assertiveness and higher levels of climate-of-fear perceptions exacerbating the detrimental effects of fear resulting from abusive supervision), and (c) first-stage moderation effects of subordinates' assertiveness and climate-of-fear perceptions in a model linking fear to defensive silence and abusive supervision at a later time. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record
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In this study, we examined how leaders' customer interactions influence their tendency to abuse their followers. Specifically, we drew from ego-depletion theory to suggest that surface acting during customer interactions depletes leaders of their self-control resources, resulting in elevated levels of abusive supervision. Furthermore, we hypothesized that the effect of surface acting on abusive supervision is moderated by leaders' trait self-control, such that leaders with high trait self-control will be less affected by the depleting effects of surface acting than their peers. Results from a multiwave, multisource leader-follower dyad study in the service and sales industries provided support for our hypotheses. This research contributes to several literatures, particularly to an emerging area of study-the antecedents of leaders' abusive behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
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We theorize that engagement, conceptualized as the investment of an individual's complete self into a role, provides a more comprehensive explanation of relationships with performance than do well-known concepts that reflect narrower aspects of the individual's self. Results of a study of 245 firefighters and their supervisors supported our hypotheses that engagement mediates relationships between value congruence, perceived organizational support, and core self-evaluations, and two job performance dimensions: task performance and organizational citizenship behavior. Job involvement, job satisfaction, and intrinsic motivation were included as mediators but did not exceed engagement in explaining relationships among the antecedents and performance outcomes.
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Although a large body of work has examined the benefits of transformational leadership, this work has predominantly focused on recipients of such behaviors. Recent research and theory, however, suggest that there are also benefits for those performing behaviors reflective of transformational leadership. Across two experience sampling studies, we investigate the effects of such behaviors on actors' daily affective states. Drawing from affective events theory and self-determination theory we hypothesize and find that engaging in behaviors reflective of transformational leadership is associated with improvement in actors' daily affect, more so than engaging in behaviors reflective of transactional, consideration, initiating structure, and participative leadership. Behaviors reflective of transformational leadership improved actors' affect in part by fulfilling their daily needs. Furthermore, extraversion and neuroticism moderated these effects such that extraverts benefitted less whereas neurotics benefitted more from these behaviors in terms of affective changes. We consider the theoretical and practical implications of these findings and offer directions for future research.
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Energy is emerging as a topic of importance to organizations, yet we have little understanding of how energy can be useful at an interpersonal level toward achieving workplace goals. We present the results of 4 studies aimed at developing, validating, and testing the relational energy construct. In Study 1, we report qualitative insights from 64 individuals about the experience and functioning of relational energy in the workplace. Study 2 draws from 3 employee samples to conduct exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses on a measure of relational energy, differentiating relational energy from related constructs. To test the predictive validity of the new relational energy scale, Study 3 comprises data from employees rating the level of relational energy they experienced during interactions with their leaders in a health services context. Results showed that relational energy employees experienced with their leaders at Time 1 predicted job engagement at Time 2 (1 month later), while controlling for the competing construct of perceived social support. Study 4 shows further differentiation of relational energy from leader-member exchange (LMX), replicates the positive relationship between relational energy (Time 1) and job engagement (Time 2), and shows that relational energy is positively associated with employee job performance (Time 3) through the mechanism of job engagement. We discuss the theoretical implications of our findings and highlight areas for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
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Proposed as a theory of motivation, the basic tenet of conservation of resources (COR) theory is that humans are motivated to protect their current resources and acquire new resources. Despite its recent popularity in the organizational behavior literature, several criticisms of the theory have emerged, primarily related to the central concept of resources. In this review, we address concerns regarding the conceptualization, conservation, acquisition, fluctuation, and measurement of resources. We highlight gaps in the COR literature that can be addressed by integrating research from other areas of psychology and management. In this manner, we hope to push the COR literature forward by resolving several concerns and providing suggestions for future research that might address other concerns.
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Drawing on resource drain theory, we introduce self-regulatory resource (ego) depletion stemming from family-to-work conflict (FWC) as an alternative theoretical perspective on why supervisors behave abusively toward subordinates. Our two-study examination of a cross-domain antecedent of abusive supervision stands in contrast to prior research, which has focused primarily on work-related factors that influence abusive supervision. Further, our investigation shows how ego depletion is proximally related to abusive supervision. In the first study, conducted at a Fortune 500 company and designed as a lagged survey study, we found that after controlling for alternative theoretical mechanisms, supervisors who experience FWC display more abusive behaviors toward subordinates, and that this relationship was stronger for female supervisors and for supervisors who operate in environments with greater situation-control. These results were then replicated and expanded in an experience sampling study using a multi-organization sample of supervisors. This allowed us to study the FWC-abusive supervision relationship as it emerges on a day-today basis and to examine ego depletion as an explanatory mechanism. Consistent with our hypotheses, we found that FWC is associated with abusive supervision, ego depletion acts as a mediator of the FWC-abusive supervision relationship, and that gender and situation-control serve as moderators.
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Surprisingly little research investigates employee breaks at work, and even less research provides prescriptive suggestions for better workday breaks in terms of when, where, and how break activities are most beneficial. Based on the effort–recovery model and using experience sampling methodology, we examined the characteristics of employee workday breaks with 95 employees across 5 workdays. In addition, we examined resources as a mediator between break characteristics and well-being. Multilevel analysis results indicated that activities that were preferred and earlier in the work shift related to more resource recovery following the break. We also found that resources mediated the influence of preferred break activities and time of break on health symptoms and that resource recovery benefited person-level outcomes of emotional exhaustion, job satisfaction, and organizational citizenship behavior. Finally, break length interacted with the number of breaks per day such that longer breaks and frequent short breaks were associated with more resources than infrequent short breaks.
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We conducted a meta-analysis and empirical review of abusive supervision research in order to derive meta-analytic population estimates for the relationships between perceptions of abusive supervision and numerous demographic, justice, individual difference, leadership, and outcome variables. The use of psychometric correction enabled us to provide weighted mean correlations and population correlation estimates that accounted for attenuation due to measurement error and sampling error variance. Also, we conducted sensitivity analyses that removed the effects of large samples from analyses. Then, we conducted subgroup analyses using samples drawn from the United States to provide population correlation estimates that corrected for attenuation due to measurement error, sampling error variance, and indirect range restriction. Finally, we examined measurement artifacts resulting from various adaptations of Tepper’s abusive supervision measure. The results reveal that although the associations between perceptions of abusive supervision and outcome variables appear to be universally negative, the magnitude of the relationships between perceptions of abusive supervision and antecedent and outcome variables varies according to the design features of studies. Contributions to theory and practice, strengths and limitations, and directions for future research are discussed.
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As advances in communication technologies have made organizations more easily connected to their workforce outside of normal work hours, there is increased concern that employees may experience heightened work-nonwork conflict when away from the office. The current study investigates the effects of electronic communication received during nonwork time using an experience sampling methodology to examine withinperson relationships among elements of electronic communication (affective tone, time required), emotional responses (anger, happiness), and work-to-nonwork conflict in a sample of 341 working adults surveyed over a seven-day period. Hierarchical linear modeling results suggested that both affective tone and time required were associated with anger, but only affective tone was associated with happiness. Further, anger was associated with work-to-nonwork conflict and mediated the effects of affective tone and time required on work-to-nonwork conflict. Results also revealed cross-level moderating effects of abusive supervision and communication sender together, as well as segmentation preference. Implications of these findings for future theorizing and research on electronic communication during nonwork time are discussed.
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Integrating the expanding job embeddedness (JE) literature, in this article we advance a multifoci model of JE that is theoretically grounded in conservation of resources (COR) theory. From COR theory, we posit that employees' motivation to acquire and protect resources explains why they become embedded and how they behave once embedded. Our COR-based JE model highlights contextual antecedents that clarify how employees become embedded within different foci. Its multifoci theoretical lens also illustrates how different forms of work-focused embeddedness differentially affect work outcomes and how they interact with nonwork foci to influence those outcomes. Along with directions for further research, we further discuss theoretical and practical implications of our integrative formulation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
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Although the general picture in the organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) literature is that OCB has positive consequences for employees and organizations, an emerging stream of work has begun to examine the potential negative consequences of OCB for actors. Drawing from the cognitive-affective processing system framework and conservation of resources theory, we present an integrative model that simultaneously examines the benefits and costs of daily OCB for actors. Utilizing an experience sampling methodology through which 82 employees were surveyed for 10 workdays, we find that daily OCB is associated with positive affect, but it also interferes with perceptions of work goal progress. Positive affect and work goal progress in turn mediate the effects of OCB on daily well-being. Moreover, employees' trait regulatory focus influences the strength of the daily relationships between OCB and its positive and negative outcomes. We conclude by discussing theoretical and practical implications of our multilevel model.
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A meta-analysis of single-item measures of overall job satisfaction (28 correlations from 17 studies with 7,682 people) found an average uncorrected correlation of .63 (SD = .09) with scale measures of overall job satisfaction. The overall mean correlation (corrected only for reliability) is .67 (SD = .08), and it is moderated by the type of measurement scale used. The mean corrected correlation for the best group of scale measures (8 correlations, 1,735 people) is .72 (SD = .05). The correction for attenuation formula was used to estimate the minimum level of reliability for a single-item measure. These estimates range from .45 to .69, depending on the assumptions made.
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One way that employees contribute to organizational effectiveness is by expressing voice. They may offer suggestions for how to improve the organization (promotive voice behavior), or express concerns to prevent harmful events from occurring (prohibitive voice behavior). Although promotive and prohibitive voice are thought to be distinct types of behavior, very little is known about their unique antecedents and consequences. In this study we draw on regulatory focus and ego depletion theories to derive a theoretical model that outlines a dynamic process of the antecedents and consequences of voice behavior. Results from two multiwave field studies revealed that promotion and prevention foci have unique ties to promotive and prohibitive voice, respectively. Promotive and prohibitive voice, in turn, were associated with decreases and increases, respectively, in depletion. Consistent with the dynamic nature of self-control, depletion was associated with reductions in employees’ subsequent voice behavior, regardless of the type of voice (promotive or prohibitive). Results were consistent across two studies and remained even after controlling for other established antecedents of voice and alternative mediating mechanisms beside depletion.
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We examine daily leader sleep as an antecedent to daily abusive supervisory behavior and work unit engagement. Drawing from ego depletion theory, our theoretical extension includes a serial mediation model of nightly sleep quantity and quality as predictors of abusive supervision. We argue that poor nightly sleep influences leaders to enact daily abusive behaviors via ego depletion, and these abusive behaviors ultimately result in decreased daily subordinate unit work engagement. We test this model through an experience sampling study spread over ten work days with data from both supervisors and their subordinates. Our study supports the role of the indirect effects of sleep quality (but not sleep quantity) via leader ego depletion and daily abusive supervisor behavior on daily subordinate unit work engagement.
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Daily emotional labor can impair psychological well-being, especially when emotions have to be displayed that are not truly felt. To explain these deleterious effects of emotional labor, scholars have theorized that emotional labor can put high demands on self-control and diminishes limited regulatory resources. On the basis of this notion, we examined 2 moderators of the daily emotional labor process, namely day-specific sleep quality and individual self-control capacity. In particular, in 2 diary studies (NTOTAL = 171), we tested whether sleep quality moderates the influence of emotional dissonance (the perceived discrepancy between felt and required emotions) on daily psychological well-being (ego depletion, need for recovery, and work engagement). In addition, we examined 3-way interactions of self-control capacity, sleep quality, and emotional dissonance on indicators of day-specific psychological well-being (Study 2). Our results indicate that the negative relations of day-specific emotional dissonance to all day-specific indicators of well-being are attenuated as a function of increasing day-specific sleep quality and that self-control capacity moderates this interaction. Specifically, compared with low self-control capacity, the day-specific interaction of emotional dissonance and sleep quality was more pronounced when trait self-control was high. For those with low trait self-control, day-specific sleep quality did not attenuate the negative relations of emotional dissonance to day-specific well-being. Implications for research on emotional labor and for intervention programs are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
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Employees routinely make judgments of 3 kinds of justice (i.e., distributive, procedural, and interactional), yet they may lack clear information to do so. This research examines how justice judgments are formed when clear information about certain types of justice is unavailable or ambiguous. Drawing from fairness heuristic theory, as well as more general theories of cognitive heuristics, we predict that when information for 1 type of justice is unclear (i.e., low in justice clarity), people infer its fairness based on other types of justice with clear information (i.e., high in justice clarity). Results across 3 studies employing different designs (correlational vs. experimental), samples (employees vs. students), and measures (proxy vs. direct) provided support for the proposed substitutability effects, especially when inferences were based on clear interactional justice information. Moreover, we found that substitutability effects were more likely to occur when employees had high (vs. low) need for cognitive closure. We conclude by discussing the theoretical contributions and practical implications of our findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
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Two studies were conducted to address the potential nonlinear relationship between emotional exhaustion and voice. Study 1 developed and tested a model rooted in conservation of resources theory in which responses to emotional exhaustion are determined by individual-level and group-level conditions that influence the perceived safety and efficacy of voice and drive prohibitive voice behaviors by giving rise to either resource-conservation-based or resource-acquisition-based motivation. Specifically, there was a curvilinear (U-shaped) relationship between emotional exhaustion and prohibitive voice under conditions of (i) high job security and (ii) high interactional justice climate, but a linearly negative relationship when these resources were low. Study 2 replicated and extended these findings to include an empirical examination of these effects on promotive versus prohibitive voice. Results confirmed the findings of Study 1, provided evidence of differences in the nomological networks of promotive and prohibitive voice, and indicated that prohibitive voice is more salient to the experience of high emotional strain. Implications of the findings and areas for future research are discussed. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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This paper reviews studies concerned with abusive supervision and provides a constructive revision of Tepper's 2007 model. As a result of our review of the recent research, we revised the 2007 Tepper model and added additional variables and casual paths to increase its explanatory potential. The model we propose distinguishes between abusive supervisory behavior and abusive supervisory perceptions, suggesting that each of these variables needs to be studied separately until we know more about how they are related. The revised model also explicitly recognizes possibilities for reverse causation and stresses the importance of subordinates' individual differences such as attribution style, negative affectivity, and implicit work theories, which have the potential to account for significant variability in subordinates' perceptions of abuse. Suggestions for future research based on the original relationships identified by the Tepper review as well as the variables and causal paths suggested in the revised model are provided. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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The justice literature has paid considerable attention to the beneficial effects of fair behaviors for recipients of such behaviors. It is possible, however, that exhibiting fair behaviors may come at a cost for actors. In this article, we integrate ego depletion theory with organizational justice research in order to examine the consequences of justice behaviors for actors. We used an experience-sampling method in a sample of managerial employees to examine the relations of performing procedural justice and interpersonal justice behaviors with subsequent changes in actors' regulatory resources. Our results indicate that procedural justice behaviors are draining, whereas interpersonal justice behaviors are replenishing for actors. Depletion, in turn, adversely affected the performance of citizenship behavior, and depletion mediated relations of justice behavior with citizenship. Furthermore, 2 traits that impact self-regulatory skills-extraversion and neuroticism-moderated the replenishing effects of engaging in interpersonal justice behaviors. We conclude by discussing implications and avenues for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
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Many theories of moral behavior assume that unethical behavior triggers negative affect. In this article, we challenge this assumption and demonstrate that unethical behavior can trigger positive affect, which we term a "cheater's high." Across 6 studies, we find that even though individuals predict they will feel guilty and have increased levels of negative affect after engaging in unethical behavior (Studies 1a and 1b), individuals who cheat on different problem-solving tasks consistently experience more positive affect than those who do not (Studies 2-5). We find that this heightened positive affect does not depend on self-selection (Studies 3 and 4), and it is not due to the accrual of undeserved financial rewards (Study 4). Cheating is associated with feelings of self-satisfaction, and the boost in positive affect from cheating persists even when prospects for self-deception about unethical behavior are reduced (Study 5). Our results have important implications for models of ethical decision making, moral behavior, and self-regulatory theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
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The present study examines a mediated moderation model of the effects of conscientiousness and coping strategies on the relationship between abusive supervision and employees' job performance. Across 2 studies conducted in India, we found evidence that the relationship between abusive supervision and job performance was weaker when employees were high in conscientiousness. In addition, we found that the use of an avoidance coping strategy facilitated a negative relationship between abusive supervision and performance. Finally, we found that the moderating effects of conscientiousness were mediated by the use of avoidance coping strategies. Our findings contribute to theories of abusive supervision, personality, coping strategies, and job performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved).
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This book is a beginning, a first step, in taking leader development in organizations beyond conventional wisdom toward a scientifically sound research-based set of principles and practices. The authors looked beyond their own academic disciplines to bring to bear accumulated wisdom from researchers who have developed well-established and accepted theoretical perspectives on adult development processes in general, then wove in the ideas that have emerged in more targeted research on adult education, development of cognitive skills, identity development, self-regulation, moral and ethical development, and related topics. The authors present an integrative theory that provides a coherent framework for describing an understanding how leader development takes place.
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Despite a long period of neglect, research on emotion in organizational behavior has developed into a major field over the past 15 years, and is now seen to be part of an affective revolution in the organization sciences. In this article, we review current research on emotion in the organizational behavior field based on five levels of analysis: within person, between persons, dyadic interactions, leadership and teams, and organization-wide. Specific topics we cover include affective events theory, state and trait affect and mood, emotional intelligence, emotional labor, emotional contagion, emotions and leadership, and building a healthy emotional climate. We conclude with suggestions for future research.
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A motivational model of social support was developed, based on a general stress model termed Conservation of Resources Theory (COR). COR suggests that individuals have, as a primary goal to preserve and protect those resources that they value. This resource conservation is made possible, in turn, by possessing a strong resource pool such that resource strength preserves further resource development and resource security. Resources, in other words, are both valued directly and valued indirectly as they serve to protect other resources. Social support provides a major reservoir for resources outside those endowed to the self (e.g. high self-esteem, sense of mastery). Examining our model and those proposed recently by others, we suggest that social support may be a central building block of health and well-being because together with personal resources t is related to overall sense of identity. Corollaries of this theory were also developed and supporting research was presented. Implications of our social support resource theory for social support intervention were considered.
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Recognizing that powerholders operate in dynamic relational and interdependent work contexts, we posit that the effects of psychological power on powerholders are more complex than currently depicted in the literature. Although psychological power prompts behaviors and perceptions that harm the powerless, these reactions are not consequence-free for the actor. We integrate the social distance theory of power with consent-based theories of power to posit that although psychological power elicits negative behaviors and perceptions, these same reactions hurt leaders' subsequent well-being. To explore this possibility, we conducted an experimental experience sampling study with a sample of managerial employees whom we surveyed for 10 consecutive workdays. We find that leaders enact more abusive behavior and perceive more incivility from others on days when they are exposed to psychological power compared to days when they are not. Leaders higher in agreeableness are less affected by psychological power. In turn, abusive behavior and perceived incivility harm leaders' subsequent well-being as indicated by their reduced need fulfillment and ability to relax at home. We discuss theoretical implications for research on psychological power, abusive leadership, perceived incivility, and leader well-being, as well as practical implications for employees and their organizations.
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The effects of status in the organizational setting deserve more attention against the background of the knowledge economy. It is necessary to understand status relations at both the intra- and interteam levels and, more importantly, how status effects occur at the individual, team, and interteam levels. The first section of the chapter gives a detailed definition of status and differentiates it from social power. The second section summarizes status effects at the individual, team, and interteam levels. It focuses on the two most common dependent variables examined in status research, as they may be relatively more important to the context of work teams. In analyzing status effects at the team level, the chapter discusses the relationship between status hierarchy and team processes and outcomes. The final section of the chapter provides some valuable directions for exploring status effects in the future.
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The article focuses on the development of a theory. A discussion is presented about steps involved in developing a theory, such as seeing which factors logically should be considered as part of the explanation of the social or individual phenomena of interest. The authors assert that authors developing theories are considering these factors, they should err in favor of including too many factors, recognizing that over time their ideas will be refined. The article presents information about the importance of sensitivity to the competing virtues of parsimony and comprehensiveness.
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To facilitate a multidimensional approach to empathy the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI) includes 4 subscales: Perspective-Taking (PT) Fantasy (FS) Empathic Concern (EC) and Personal Distress (PD). The aim of the present study was to establish the convergent and discriminant validity of these 4 subscales. Hypothesized relationships among the IRI subscales between the subscales and measures of other psychological constructs (social functioning self-esteem emotionality and sensitivity to others) and between the subscales and extant empathy measures were examined. Study subjects included 677 male and 667 female students enrolled in undergraduate psychology classes at the University of Texas. The IRI scales not only exhibited the predicted relationships among themselves but also were related in the expected manner to other measures. Higher PT scores were consistently associated with better social functioning and higher self-esteem; in contrast Fantasy scores were unrelated to these 2 characteristics. High EC scores were positively associated with shyness and anxiety but negatively linked to egotism