Attitude towards Women in Managerial Positions: A study among Undergraduate Students of the University of Ghana

Full text

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-2, Issue-5, Sep – Oct, 2017
https://dx.doi.org/10.24001/ijels.2.5.1 ISSN: 2456-7620
www.ijels.com Page | 1
Attitude towards Women in Managerial
Positions: A study among Undergraduate
Students of the University of Ghana
Prince Addai1*, Isaac Nti Ofori2, Rona Bioh3, John Avor4
1Department of Industrial Psychology, University of Fort Hare, P/B X1314, Alice, Republic of South Africa, 5700
2Department of Psychology, Zenith University College, Box TF 511, Trade Fair, Accra
3Counselling Department, Vine Christian School, Box KD 714, Kanda, Accra
4Teaching Staff, Vine Christian School, Box KD 714, Kanda, Accra
Abstract— Men cannot solely manage all the activities of
our institutions; women also play tremendous role in
management. However, some people have negative
attitude towards women in management positions. The
present study examined how gender differences influence
attitude towards women in managerial positions. The
study also examined whether attitude towards women in
managerial positions is determined by the perceived
integrity of the women. A total of two hundred (200)
undergraduate students of the University of Ghana were
selected using convenience sampling to complete the
Perception of Integrity Scale and Leadership Scale
Inventory. Data was analysed using the independent t-test
and the Pearson r. Results revealed that females had
significantly positive attitude towards women in
management than males. Christians had significantly
positive attitude towards women in management than
Muslims. There was a significantly positive relationship
between perception of integrity of women in management
and attitude towards women in management. The
implication of the study is that perceived attitude towards
women is influenced by the integrity of the women.
Keywords— attitude; integrity; management; women;
perception; gender; religion.
I. INTRODUCTION
Women are an inherent part of our society and cannot be
neglected. Ironically, society does not seem to appreciate
the relevance and the contributions a woman can make.
The society tries to restrict the capabilities of a woman
(Lunyolo, Ayodo, Tikoko & Simatwa, 2014). Women
continue to aspire to managerial positions in all spheres of
governance both in the public and private sectors but most
of them are not given the top positions they apply for (Ali,
Krantz Gul, Asad, Johansson & Mogren, 2011). In the
political realm, even though great strides have been made,
and women’s participation in both the freedom struggles
and democratic dispensations of many African countries
has been remarkable, once elections are conducted, and
positions are assigned, one realizes that women are
sidelined with mostly men appointed to manage national
affairs (Basu, Jayal, Nussbaum & Tambiah, 2003).
However, given the chance, a woman can be very
successful and influential in every walk of life they
venture into.Historically, management has carried the
notion of manliness and the belief that men make better
managers than women (Maseko, 2013). That belief is still
common in the present society. Although the number of
female manageresses has increased, they are often named
as an afterthought (Ali, Krantz Gul, Asad, Johansson &
Mogren, 2011). According to Hojgaard (2002),
traditionally, the societal conventions regarding gender
and management exclude women, and top management is
considered as a domain for men. In Ghana and Africa at
large, it is understood that men lead and women follow
(Grant, 2005). It is not rare in rural villages in Africa to
find the man literally walking ahead of the woman.
Different reasons may be proffered for this but eventually
it illustrates the deeply-held notion of
management/leadership as a masculine domain.
There was a time that it was believed that managers were
born with certain managerial traits. Roberts and Ullom
(1990) lists the traits commonly associated with good
management as: effective communication skills,
confidence, decision making, action taking, and
responsibility, problem solving skills, vision, self-
awareness, confidence, task completion, and power.
These traits are not only common for men but women as
well. Current thinking on management assumes that
management can be taught and learned (Sims, 2009). This
is the reason why Business Management is been taught at
the secondary and tertiary levels of education, hence the
many management-training programs (Sims, 2009).
Sufficient evidence seems to indicate that women manage
somewhat differently from men (Roth & Basow, 2004).
For instance, a woman who portrays a more participatory

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-2, Issue-5, Sep – Oct, 2017
https://dx.doi.org/10.24001/ijels.2.5.1 ISSN: 2456-7620
www.ijels.com Page | 2
approach to leadership, is more democratic, allows for
power sharing, is more sensitive and permits others to
make contributions through delegation (Boatwright &
Egidio, 2003). Women have also been found to manage
conflict better than men because of their dominant trait of
having better listening skills and being more tolerant and
empathic (Boatwright & Egidio, 2003). While men and
women might have different managerial styles, it does not
suggest that one is dominant over the other (Daily &
Dalton, 2003). It has been observed that the differences
we see in managerial style are partly due to the way men
view management as leading, while women see
management as facilitating (Eagly & Karau, 2002).
One major problem facing Africans is the continued lack
of gender equality in management. In politics for
example, women represent only one in seven
parliamentarians worldwide, one in ten cabinet ministers,
and one in twenty Governments (Organisation for
Economic Co-operation and Development, OECD; 2015).
Currently, women participation in national-level
parliaments globally is less than 25%. Allied to this,
estimates based on the current pace of global change
indicate that women will achieve equivalence in
parliament a century from now (OECD; 2015). However,
upon all the education given on the need to get our
females in managerial positions, some people still share
negative views about women in managerial positions
(Daily & Dalton, 2003). Multiple factors have contributed
toward people’s attitude towards women in managerial
positions. The reality is that most Africans, specifically
Ghanaians do not see women as worthy and capable
managers (Basu, Jayal, Nussbaum & Tambiah, 2003).
One significant factor that influences people’s attitude
towards women in management is perceived integrity
among women manageresses (Bartky, 1990). Integrity is
defined as the adherence to a set of values that
incorporates honesty and freedom from deception (Cohen,
2011). Haslam and Ryan (2008) in a study outlined
integrity in terms of ethics and morality. Ethics refers to
our standard of right and wrong. That is what people say
they believe is right. On the other hand, morality is our
lived standard of right and wrong, that is what we actually
do. A candidate’s perceived competence is one of the
most important characteristics for deciding whether or not
to support him or her to occupy the managerial position
(Tiedens 2001).
Aside the perception of integrity, religious values and
teachings also influence attitude towards women in any
managerial role. In some religions, women have been
denied leadership roles, they are told to be submissive,
religious doctrines are used to control them both in
society and the family (Noll, 1998). For example, the
Sharia Law entrenched in the Islamic religion prohibits
women from being in leadership positions. Women are
not even allowed to lead men at the mosque during
worship (Grant, 2005). Because of these values and
norms, Muslims perceive women in management
negatively. Some Christian groups have also traditionally
given men the position of authority in marriage (Grant,
2005). This position places women in submissive roles,
and typically excludes women from church leadership,
especially from formal positions requiring any form of
ordination as in the Pentecost Church (Noll, 1998). This
also influences the attitude of people towards women in
management.
II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Attitude towards women in management can be explained
by the Sexual Objectification Theory (Fredrickson &
Roberts, 1997) which assumes that many women are
sexually objectified and treated as an object to be
treasured for its use by others. Sexual Objectification
arises when a woman’s body or parts of the body are
singled out and separated from her as a person and she is
viewed mainly as a physical object for males to achieve
their sexual desire (Bartky, 1990). The theory emphasizes
that the negative perception people have about women in
management is due to the fact that women are not seen as
leaders but as objects to help men to achieve their
objectives (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997).
Despite a steady increase in the number of women in
management, they are still estimated to fill less than 15%
of senior managerial positions in the world (United
Nations’ report, 2009). This statistics demonstrates that
many senior women manageresses work in job settings
which are numerically subjugated by men. Many authors
have raised the question as to why women are under-
represented as managers in general and as senior
managers in particular. Powell (2008) assessed the reason
why women are underrepresented in managerial positions
and found out that one of the reasons is because people
have negative attitude towards women in managerial
positions. The negative attitude people have for women in
managerial positions according to Powell (2008) is
because they underperform when elected as leaders in
male-dominated organizations.
Askar and Ahmad (2003) conducted a study to assess the
determinants of attitudes toward women in management
at various organizations in Kuwait among 278
participants. Findings from the study indicated a
significant positive attitude towards women
manageresses. Sex of the participants was found to
significantly influence attitude towards women in
management with females being more supportive to
women in managerial roles compared to males. However,

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-2, Issue-5, Sep – Oct, 2017
https://dx.doi.org/10.24001/ijels.2.5.1 ISSN: 2456-7620
www.ijels.com Page | 3
Deal and Stevenson (1998) found no sex difference in
attitude towards women in managerial positions.
Contrary findings have been reported on the impact of
religion on attitude towards women in management. For
example, Al-Mahrouqi (2010) found a significantly
positive attitude towards women in management among
Christians compared to Muslims. Similarly, Boland
(2013) revealed that the attitude towards women in
managerial positions was significantly positive compared
to that of Muslims. However, a study by Sanbonmatsu
(2002) indicated no significant difference in the attitude
among Christians and Muslims towards women in
politics. Likewise, Bashevkin (2009) reported no
significant difference between Muslims and Christians in
attitude towards women in politics.
As a means of promoting more females into the
managerial arena, Inglehart and Norris (2009) conducted
a study with the purpose of finding out how the general
populace perceived female integrity and its relationship
with their attitude towards women in managerial
positions. The results showed that a significant number of
males perceived women in management to have poor
integrity compared to the females. This reflected in more
males having negative attitude towards women in
management compared to females. A positive relationship
was found between perception of integrity and positive
attitude towards women in management.
Assessing the pertinent literature, the influence of religion
has mixed implications on the development of attitude
towards women in management, and the attitude towards
women in managerial positions among males and females
have been inconsistent across cultures (Arkorful, Doe &
Agyemang, 2014). Studies on leadership integrity and
attitude towards women in management have also been
carried out mostly by past researchers in the Western
countries. Due to lack of studies addressing the issue of
attitude towards women in management and women
integrity in Ghana, it is questionable whether western
findings can be applied in non-western contexts, like
Ghana. For instance, people in the western countries have
an individualistic relationship toward each other whereas
people in African countries in general are collective in
nature. Therefore, more studies are needed to erase the
doubt on the applicability of western studies in the
Ghanaian context with regard to attitude formation.
It is based on this that the study was carried out to
investigate attitudinal differences of people toward
women in managerial positions and to also assess whether
attitude towards women is influenced by perception of
integrity among female manageresses. The study also
assessed how personal characteristics such as religion and
gender influence attitude towards women in management.
Consequently, the researchers predicted that the attitude
of females towards women in management will be
significantly positive compared to the attitude of males
towards women in management. Also, a significantly
positive relationship between perception of integrity
among females in management and attitude towards
women in management was also predicted. Finally, the
researchers also predicted that Christians will have
significantly positive attitude towards women in
management than Muslims.
III. METHODOLOGY
3.1 Population
The study employed undergraduate students of the
University of Ghana, Legon as the population. The
University of Ghana is the oldest and largest of the seven
public Universities in Ghana. The population of
undergraduate has a wide range of individuals from
different socio-economic backgrounds and religious
beliefs. The different socio-economic background and
religious beliefs of the individuals within the population
expose them to develop different attitudes and also have
different views on social issues such as the
underrepresentation of women in management. Also, the
population is convenient and readily available to the
researchers. The higher educational background of the
population also helped to assess if education has the
propensity to shape people’s mindset on social issues.
3.2 Participants
The convenience sampling technique was used to select a
total of two hundred (200) students from the population to
serve as the sample for the study. The convenience
sampling technique was used because only participants
who were readily available and willing to participate in
the study were selected. The two hundred (200)
respondents consisted of one hundred and twenty (120)
males and eighty (80) females between the ages of 18 and
36 years, with a mean age of 21.05. The respondents were
selected from the four levels of undergraduate studies
namely: Level 100 (n=32), level 200 (n=54), level 300
(n=46) and level 400 (n=68). Out of the total participants,
one hundred and fifty-two (152) were Christians whilst
forty- eight (48) were Muslims. (See Table 1 for
description of the demographic characteristics).

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-2, Issue-5, Sep – Oct, 2017
https://dx.doi.org/10.24001/ijels.2.5.1 ISSN: 2456-7620
www.ijels.com Page | 4
Table.1: Demographic Distribution of Respondents
Demographic
Variables
Male
(n = 120)
Female
(n = 80)
Total
(n = 200)
Age
Mean (SD)
22.01 (2.94)
Mean (SD)
20.10 (2.57)
Mean (SD)
21.05 (2.76)
Academic Levels
Level 100
14
18
32
Level 200
29
25
54
Level 300
35
11
46
Level 400
42
26
68
3.3 Design
The study employed a cross-sectional survey in gathering
data for describing respondents’ attitude towards women
in management. The cross-sectional survey was used to
seek respondents’ views using structured questionnaires.
The time dimension of the study was cross-sectional as
large amount of data on respondents’ attitude towards
women in management were collected from among many
respondents within a relatively short time.
3.4 Measures
Data on perceived integrity and attitude towards women
in management were collected using the Perceived Leader
Integrity Scale (PLIS; Craig & Gustafson, 1998) and the
Attitude towards Women in Management Scale (AWMS;
Rudman & Kilianski, 2000) respectively.
The PLIS assessed perception of integrity of women in
management. The PLIS is a unidimensional factor
structure reflecting perceivers' overall impression of a
leader's ethical integrity. The PLIS contains thirty (30)
items measured on a four-point likert scale ranging: 0
(Not at all), 1 (Barely), 2 (Somewhat) and 3 (Well).
Respondents were requested to select only one of the four
alternatives. The PLIS has been found valid and reliable,
with Cronbach's alpha internal consistency estimates
greater than .84 (Craig & Gustafson, 1998). Total scores
ranged from 0 to 90 with higher scores indicating higher
level of perceived integrity of women in management. A
sample of the items on the PLIS is “Women would
deliberately exaggerate people’s mistakes to make them
look bad to others”.
The Attitude towards Women in Management Scale
(AWMS) measures attitude people have towards women
in managerial positions. The scale consists of fifteen (15)
items measured on a five-point Likert scale ranging: 4
(Strongly Agree), 3 (Agree), 2 (No Idea), 1 (Disagree)
and 0 (Strongly Disagree). Reliability coefficient of .75
was reported by Rudman and Kilianski (2000). Scores
ranging from 0 to 60 were awarded with 0 – 30 depicting
negative attitude and 31 to 60 depicting positive attitude
towards women in managerial positions. Some items on
the scale include: “Women should be allowed to be
leaders if they have the qualities,” “When a man is there a
woman should not be in management” “Even though
women can be in management, they cannot perform
effectively as men.”
3.5 Procedure for Data Collection
Every undergraduate student at the main campus of the
University of Ghana was legible to take part in the study.
The researchers approached the respondents in their
lecture halls and also in their halls of residence.
Respondents were told the purpose was to study factors
influencing women in management. After consenting,
respondents were interviewed to know their level in the
university before taking part in the study. This was to
ensure that all the participants were undergraduate
students of the University of Ghana. Approximately 25
minutes was used by each respondent to complete the
questionnaire. It took the researchers two weeks in
collecting the data.
IV. DATA ANALYSIS
The data was collated and analyzed using the version 20
of the Statistical Package for Social Science. Descriptive
and inferential statistics were used for the analysis. The
inferential statistics (Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient and Independent t-test) were used for
analyzing the three predictions. The difference in attitude
towards women in management between males and
females was analyzed using the independent t-test (see
Table 2). The Pearson Product Moment Correlation
Coefficient was used to compute the relationship between
perceived women integrity and attitude towards women in
management (see Table 3). The independent t-test was
again used to compute the significant differences in scores
on attitude towards women in management among
Christians and Muslims (see Table 4).
V. RESULTS
The study was interested in testing three main hypotheses.
These hypotheses were:
1. The attitude of females towards women in
management will be significantly positive

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-2, Issue-5, Sep – Oct, 2017
https://dx.doi.org/10.24001/ijels.2.5.1 ISSN: 2456-7620
www.ijels.com Page | 5
compared to the attitude of males towards women
in management.
2. There will be a significantly positive relationship
between perception of integrity among females in
management and attitude towards women in
management.
3. Christians will have significantly positive attitude
towards women in management than Muslims.
The first and third hypotheses were analyzed using the
independent t-test. This is because the differences in
attitude towards women in management between two
groups were compared. The dependent variable (attitude
towards women in management) was also measured on an
interval scale. The second hypothesis was analysed using
the Pearson Product Moment Correlation Coefficient
because the relationship between two variables (perceived
women integrity and attitude towards women in
management) was established with each of the variable
measured on an interval scale.
Table.2: Gender Differences in Attitude towards Women in Management
Gender
N
Mean
SD
df
t
P
Males
120
43.35
7.67
198
-1.077
.283
Females
80
44.53
7.44
The results of the study shown in Table 2 revealed no significant gender difference in attitude towards women in
management (t(198) = -1.077, p = .283). This stands to reason means that, attitude towards women in management among
males (M=43.35, SD=7.67) was not significantly different from that of females (M=44.53, SD=7.44). (See Table 2).
Table.3: Relationship between Perceived Integrity and Attitude towards Women in Politics
Variable
r-value
p
1
Perceived Women Integrity
.464
.000
2
Attitude
The findings of the study indicate that a significant positive relationship exists between perception of integrity and attitude
towards women in management (r=.464,p<.05). This means that the higher the perception of integrity among women in
management, the more positive the attitude towards women in management. (See Table 3).
Table.4: Influence of Religion on Attitude towards Women in Management
Religion
N
Mean
SD
Df
t
P
Christianity
152
47.03
5.03
198
16.183
.000
Islamic
48
33.66
4.84
The results shown in Table 4 indicate that there is a significant impact of religion on attitude towards women in management
(t(198) = 16.183, p < .05). This means that Christians have a significant positive attitude (M=47.03, SD=5.03) towards women
in management than Muslims (M=33.66, SD=4.84). (See Table 4).
VI. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The results of the study indicated no sex difference in
attitude towards women in management. In other words,
the prediction that the attitude of females towards women
in management will be significantly positive compared to
the attitude of males towards women in management was
not supported. This finding suggests that among the
undergraduate university students, males do not differ
significantly from females in terms of their attitude
towards women in management. This finding is congruent
with previous findings that found no significant difference
between males and females in terms of attitudes toward
women in management (Deal & Stevenson, 1998; Stoker,
Velde & Lammers, 2012).
A possible explanation one can offer with respect to the
lack of a significant difference between males and females
on scores of attitude towards women in management is
because of the higher educational attainment of the
participants. Education helps enlighten people’s views and
make them develop objective attitudes about issues.

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-2, Issue-5, Sep – Oct, 2017
https://dx.doi.org/10.24001/ijels.2.5.1 ISSN: 2456-7620
www.ijels.com Page | 6
Personal biases diminish to some extent when people
acquire higher education. Because of the higher
educational attainment among males, their personal biases
have diminished to an extent that they view females as
good manageresses just as females perceive themselves.
Moreover, universities tend to engage diverse students of
both sexes who engage in regular intellectual discussions.
This has a greater propensity of shaping the attitude of
both males and females on social issues such as attitude
towards women in management.
The study also found that perceived integrity among
women in management was positively associated with
positive attitude towards women in management. This
supports the prediction that a significantly positive
relationship between perception of integrity among
females in management and attitude towards women in
management. This finding indicates that when people
perceive women as having higher integrity (higher ethics
and morality), they develop positive attitudes and agree to
women taking part in managerial roles.
The significant positive relationship between perceived
integrity among females in management and attitude
towards women in management corroborates earlier
studies that indicated that the higher the perception of
integrity of women in management, the more positive the
attitude towards women in management (Haslam & Ryan,
2008; Inglehart & Norris, 2009). A similar view was held
by Duggar (2010) who stipulated that integrity is a means
of perceiving someone as competent. When an individual
adheres to a set of values that incorporates honesty and
freedom from deception, they are seen as such and their
capability of pursuing a specific task is seen positively.
According to Cohen (2011), a major factor that determines
positive attitude towards leaders is their sense of honesty
and freedom from deception which is a major component
of integrity. Haslam and Ryan (2008) found out that when
women are perceived as having higher levels of integrity,
attitude towards them become more positive and people
tend to appreciate their capabilities.
Also, Quigley (2007) found that participants who
perceived higher integrity among women in leadership
tend to have positive attitude towards women in leadership
compared to those who perceived lower integrity among
women in leadership. Quigley (2007) explained that
leaders are evaluated based on their personal morality and
probity. When a leader is perceived as having higher
morality and probity, people perceive them as capable and
develop positive attitude towards them. This explains why
a significantly positive attitude was found between
perception of integrity and attitude towards women in
management.
Finally, the study found that Christians have significantly
positive attitude towards women in management than
Muslims. This means that Christians have favourable
attitude and agree to women taking part in management
compared to males. This supported the researchers’
prediction that Christians will have a significantly more
positive attitude towards women in management than
Muslims.
The significant positive attitude of Christians towards
women in management compared to Muslims is in
agreement with previous studies (e.g., Al-Mahrouqi, 2010;
Boland, 2013) which found Christians to have positive
attitude towards women manageress and allow women to
occupy managerial positions compared to Muslims. Noll
(1998) have offered support to this finding by explaining
that unlike Christians, Muslims treat women as more
inferior to men. Women have been denied leadership roles,
they are told to be submissive, and religious doctrines are
used to control them by the Muslims unlike the Christians.
Muslims sharia Law rooted in the Islamic religion
prohibits women from even being religious leaders.
Because of the values and norms of the Islamic religion, its
members that have internalized the values of the religion
develop negative attitude towards women in all managerial
roles.
This study had some limitations that must be taken into
account when interpreting its findings. First of all, research
on attitudes involves several methodological difficulties
that may possibly lead to biases (Etzersdorfer & Sonneck,
1998). Certainly, in a study on topic such as attitude
towards women, it is hard to avoid biases from women
respondents who are the subjects of discussion in this
study. Secondly, the study relied only on self-report data
which is subjective in nature (Schwarz, 1999). The use of
self-report measure may be also faulty because participants
might have different experiences with privacy issues that
could influence their attitude which are not reported with
the self-report measure. Moreover, selection of participants
was based on convenient sampling which makes it
doubtful in generalizing the findings to the larger
population.
Aside the flaws, the study had some implications worthy
of speaking to. The findings of the study imply that males
hold similar attitude towards women in management as
females and so males no longer ridicule women as good
leaders as perceived in the olden days. However, religious
values determine significantly the attitude of the public
towards issues such as women in management. The
findings also provide additional evidence that attitude
towards women in management is determined more by
cognitive factors such as perception of integrity of the
women in management position. Therefore, when people
see women as capable, they will also support them in their
managerial roles.

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-2, Issue-5, Sep – Oct, 2017
https://dx.doi.org/10.24001/ijels.2.5.1 ISSN: 2456-7620
www.ijels.com Page | 7
Based on the significant influence of religion on attitude
toward women in management, the researchers
recommend the need to target religion as a means of
changing social issues such as attitude towards women in
management. This will be a reliable way of achieving
desired attitudes. Again, women are encouraged to
demonstrate a sense of integrity for people to support them
in their managerial roles. The general public is also
advised to give an objective judgement about women
before developing an undesirable attitude towards them.
Finally, future research should continue to explore the
factors that influence attitude formation as a means of
shaping the attitude of the general public on social issues.
The following recommendations may also be offered for
further studies: Firstly, there is the need for future
researchers to delve deeper into the underlying factors that
contribute to the developing of attitude towards women in
management. This can be made better by the use of
qualitative study. Secondly, there is also the need to
employ participants with diverse levels of educational
backgrounds that will allow a researcher to clearly identify
whether educational background influences the
development of attitude towards women in management.
This could be achieved by the inclusion of students from
junior high school, senior high school and tertiary
institutions in a single study. Lastly, future researchers can
also make comparisons between respondents with no
formal education and those with formal education to
provide a clear view on the influence of education on
attitude towards social issues.
VII. CONCLUSION
The findings of this study have established that males and
females do not differ in their attitude towards women in
managerial positions. There was a significantly positive
relationship between perception of integrity among
females in management and attitude towards women in
management. Christians were found to have significantly
positive attitude towards women in management than
Muslims. There was also no sex difference in attitude
towards women in management. The findings imply that
the sorts of attitude we develop towards women in
management is determined more by our educational
attainment and the perceived integrity of the woman in
management. The lack of gender differences in attitude
towards women in management suggests that males and
females might be influenced by the changing trend of
events in our society and the diligence by which women
are now going through their managerial roles. Again,
interacting with both sexes with different capacities in the
university might help in shaping the extent to which both
males and females develop different attitudes towards each
other.
REFERENCES
[1] Ali, T. S., Krantz G., Gul, R., Asad, N., Johansson, E.
& Mogren, I. (2011). Gender roles and their influence
on life prospects for women in urban Karachi,
Pakistan: a qualitative study. Glob Health Action,
4(10): 3402 – 3413
[2] AL-Mahrouqi, A. (2010). Attitudes towards and
Perceptions of Women Managers and Their
Communication Competencies in the Sultanate of
Oman. Unpublished Master’s Thesis submitted to the
University of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand.
Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10289/4991
[3] Arkorful, H. K., Doe, F. & Agyemang, C. B. (2014).
Attitude of Private and Public Sector Employees
towards Female Managers in Ghana. International
Journal of Human, 12: 124 - 128
[4] Askar, H. & Ahmad, M. (2003). Campus
involvement in leadership among African American
students. College Student Affairs Journal, 21(2): 53-
67.
[5] Bartky, S. L. (1990). Femininity and Domination:
Studies in the Phenomenology of Oppression.
Psychology Press, 8: 141 - 149
[6] Bashevkin, S. (2009). Women, Power, Politics: The
Hidden Story of Canadas Unfinished Democracy.
Don Mills: Oxford University Press.
[7] Basu, A., Jayal, N. G., Nussbaum, M. & Tambiah, Y.
(2003). Essays on Gender and Governance. India:
Human Development Resource Center, United
Nations Development Programme.
[8] Boatwright, K. J., & Egidio, R. K. (2003).
Psychological predictors of college women’s
leadership aspirations. Journal of College Student
Development, 44(5), 653-669.
[9] Boland, C. (2013). Islamic feminism: Fighting
discrimination, inspired by faith. Retrieved from
http://www.yourmiddleeast.com/columns/article/isla
micfeminism-fighting-discrimination-inspired-by-
faith 11257
[10] Cohen, W. A. (2011). Heroic Leadership: Leading
with Integrity and Honor. Jossey-Bass
[11] Craig, S. B. & Gustafson, S. B. (1998). Perceived
Leader Integrity Scale: An Instrument for Assessing
Employee Perceptions of Leader Integrity.
Leadership Quarterly, 9(2): 143–144.
[12] Daily, C. M., & Dalton, D. R. (2003). Women in the
Boardroom: A Business Imperative. Journal of
Business Strategy, 24 (5): 8 - 9.
[13] Deal, J. J. & Stevenson, M. A. (1998). Perceptions of
Female and Male Managers in the 1990s. Sex
Roles, 38: 287 – 300.

International Journal of English Literature and Social Sciences (IJELS) Vol-2, Issue-5, Sep – Oct, 2017
https://dx.doi.org/10.24001/ijels.2.5.1 ISSN: 2456-7620
www.ijels.com Page | 8
[14] Eagly, A. H. & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role Congruity
Theory of Prejudice Toward Female Leaders.
Psychological Review, 109(3): 573 – 598.
[15] Etzersdorfer E, Sonneck G (1998) Preventing suicide
by influencing mass-media reporting. The Viennese
experience 1980–1996. Arch Suicide Res, 4: 67–74.
[16] Fredrickson, B. L. & Roberts, T. (1997).
Objectification Theory. Toward Understanding
Women's Lived Experiences and Mental Health
Risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2): 173 –
206.
[17] Grant, H. (2005). Women role as leaders. The
Journal of Psychology, 95(2), 199 - 204.
[18] Haslam, S. A., & Ryan, M. K. (2008). The road to the
glass cliff: Differences in the perceived suitability of
men and women for leadership positions in
succeeding and failing organizations. The Leadership
Quarterly, 19: 530 – 546.
[19] Helfat, C. E., Harris, D. & Wolfson P. J. (2006).
Women and Men in the Top Executive Ranks of U.S.
Corporations. Academy of Management Perspectives,
20 (4): 42-64.
[20] Hojgaard, L. (2002). Tracing Differentiation in
Leadership: An Analysis of Differences in Gender
Composition in Top Management in Business,
Politics and the Civil Service. Gender, Work and
Organization 9 (1): 35-48.
[21] Inglehart, R. & Norris (2009). Muslim Integration
into Western Cultures: Between Origins and
Destinations. HKS Faculty Research Working Paper
Series, RWP09-007.
[22] Lunyolo, G. H., Ayodo, T. O. M., Tikoko, B. &
Simatwa, E. M. W. (2014). Socio-cultural Factors
that Hinder Women’s Access to Management
Positions in Government Grant Aided Secondary
Schools in Uganda: The Case of Eastern Region.
Educational Research, 5(7): 241 - 250,
[23] Maseko, T. I. (2013). A Comparative Study of
Challenges Faced By Women in Leadership: A Case
of Foskor and The Department Of Labour In
Mhlathuze Municipality. A Dissertation submitted in
accordance with the requirement for the degree of
Masters in Commerce in the Faculty of Commerce,
Administration and Law at University of Zululand.
[24] Noll, M. (1998). The Bible and Slavery. In Religion
and the American Civil War, ed. Randall M. Miller,
43-73. New York and Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
[25] Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD; 2015). Women in politics in
Government at a Glance. OECD Publishing, Paris.
[26] Powell, J. (2008). How college affects students: A
third decade of research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-
Bass Publishers.
[27] Quigley, J. H. (2007). Trust – An Essential Asset:
Creating Individual and Corporate Value. The
Raytheon Lectureship in Business Ethics. Waltham:
Bentley College.
[28] Roberts, D. & Ullom, C. (1990). Student leadership
program model. College Park, MD: National
Clearinghouse for Leadership programs. Journal of
Managerial Psychology, 12(2): 285 – 420
[29] Roth, A. &Basow, S. A. (2004) Femininity, Sports,
and Feminism. Developing a Theory of Physical
Liberation. Journal of Sport and Social Issues,
28(3); 245 – 265.
[30] Rudman, L.A. & Kilianski, S.E. (2000). Implicit and
explicit attitudes toward female authority. Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26: 1315-1328.
[31] Sanbonmatsu, K. (2002). Gender stereotypes and
vote choice. American Journal of Political Science,
46: 20–34.
[32] Schwarz, N. (1999). Self-reports: How the questions
shape the answers. American Psychologist, 54, 93-
105.
[33] Sims JM. (2009). Styles and qualities of effective
leaders. Dimens Crit Care Nursing, 28(6): 272 - 276.
[34] Stoker, J. I. Velde, M. V. & Lammers, J (2012).
Factors Relating to Managerial Stereotypes: The Role
of Gender of the Employee and the Manager and
Management Gender Ratio. Journal of Business
Psychology, 27(1): 31 – 42.
[35] Tiedens, L. Z. (2001). Anger and Advancement
Versus Sadness and Subjugation: The Effect of
Negative Emotion Expressions on Social Status
Conferral. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 80(1), 86 – 94.
[36] United Nations Report (2009). The Status of Women
in the United Nations Systems and in the Secretariat.
www.un.org/womenwatch/osagi/pdf/factsheet-UN-
system-vs-UN-secretariat-dec-2010-data.pdf
(accessed 2 October 2012).