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Successful schooling for pupils with intellectual disabilities: the demand for a new paradigm
European Journal of Special Needs Education
Abstract
A comprehensive review of educational interventions for pupils with intellectual disabilities showed that most studies report positive results for a variety of interventions. The aim of this article is to explore how these results can be understood. We draw on similar earlier findings concerning intervention effects in psychotherapy and social work, discussing the so-called Dodo bird conjecture, indicating that established methods for identification of evidence-based practices can provide false, positive results influenced by so-called common factors present in most interventions. In conclusion, we argue for a new paradigm of research on educational interventions for pupils with intellectual disabilities, replacing the present ambition to find evidence-based support for specific interventions in favour of a line of research exploring alternative explanations in terms of, for instance, common positive factors.
... Hoci je celkovo štúdií mentálneho postihnutia a súcitu málo, veľká väčšina z nich sa venovala vplyvu intervencie všímavosti na úroveň súcitu (Chapman et al., 2013). Z podrobného prehľadu intervencií pre žiakov s mentálnym postihnutím vyplynulo, že väčšina štúdií uvádzala pozitívne výsledky pre rôzne intervencie (Gustavsson, Kittelsaa, & Tøssebro, 2017). Podobne Currie et al. (2019) zistili, že mentálne postihnutie a ani nie úplné porozumenie intervencii a jej cieľom nie je na prekážku participantom s mentálnym postihnutím, aby mali z intervencie benefit a dokonca v dôsledku nej sa cítili viac súcitní k sebe i druhým a viac sebavedomí. ...
... Prípadne sa dá táto skutočnosť vysvetliť aj tzv. efektom vtáka Dodo (Gustavsson et al., 2017), podľa ktorého pozitívne výsledky môžu byť spôsobené všeobecnými faktormi, ktoré sú prítomné vo všetkých intervenciách, a ktoré boli teda prítomné, aj keď spoluautorka zadávala kontrolnej skupine dotazníky pred a po intervencii, ktorej sa nezúčastnili. Bola však s nimi v interakcii. ...
... Since 1881, two parallel systems in primary education have developed: those of special needs pedagogy and pedagogy. The system of special needs pedagogy has not worked well in terms of giving students the necessary skills and competence to be prepared for higher education (Gustavsson et al., 2017;Magnus & Tøssebro, 2014). Persons with intellectual disabilities, who have been part of special needs education, are therefore not on an equal footing with others when applying for higher education. ...
... Education and higher education are also contexts with specific barriers that are meant to exclude those who are not recognised as fit for education and those who do not pass their exams [11]. There is therefore limited interest in individual accommodation in higher education and students in primary and secondary education, if categorised as students with special needs, often do not receive individual accommodation as learners [12]. ...
This article discusses universal design as a concept and strategy in light of human diversity. Inspired by the German-American philosopher Hannah Arendt, plurality is understood as a condition of humanity. From this recognition of human diversity, the term 'universal' is analysed, focusing on the ambivalences inherent in the concept. I argue that universal design, as a human rights concept, must respond to human plurality and avoid the ableist risk of excluding persons and groups of people, when implementing universal design strategies. Interdisciplinary knowledge, education and skills are important for the practice of universal design. According to Article 4 of the Convention On The Rights Of Persons With Disabilities (CRPD), new research is needed to apply universal design strategies in different contexts. I then focus on disabling barriers in education and research. I conclude by arguing for developing a culture of access and embedding universal design strategies in disability research recognising the socio-cultural aspects and human plurality.
... Brahm Norwich et al. (2020) redovisar forskning kring möjligheterna till inkluderande undervisningspraktik med "lesson study" som professionsutveckling och lämplig metod. En kritisk diskussion av interventionsstudiers resultat inom utbildning för personer med intellektuell funktionsnedsättning visar Anders Gustavsson et al. (2017). Ytterligare en forskningsöversikt tar upp läroplansinnehåll och synliggör hur studier i fältet i övervägande och ökande grad handlar om kognitiva aspekter av utbildningen och inte om praktiska färdigheter och tillämpning (Moljord, 2018). ...
Assessment for all? A SMART research review of special needs education and assessment of knowledge.
The interest in this review lies in two research fields: Special Education and Classroom Assessment and explores if and how these fields interrelate. A review of classroom assessment with regards to special educational needs has not yet been published; the knowledge of the impact of assessment in education concerning students in special needs is thus scarce. Therefore, this study aims to contribute with knowledge about how assessment practices can be understood in relation to special educational needs. From a broad overview of present research within the two fields, 17 articles from 2010 to 2020 were selected and analyzed. The focus of these articles is on content that overlaps in both assessment of knowledge and special needs. Four dyadic themes were found showing practices of inclusive assessment in the research: equity & equivalence, inclusion & access, interaction & relation and self-regulation & identity. These themes are considered important strategies in inclusive assessment practices. Intersections between disability, language- and cultural background as well as class, make visible dimensions of marginalization and special needs on various levels of education. These aspects are informative to policy makers, education staff as well as academic researchers. In addition, they can be approached separately or as entangled areas of knowledge.
Key words: inclusive assessment, intersectionality, special needs, education, classroom, review.
... The content offered to this group in Norway and internationally (Ware, 2014) is underresearched, aligning with a global trend in educational policy discourse on learning in which content seems to disappear (Deng, 2018). Discussing schooling for pupils with ID, a new paradigm of intervention research is called for (Gustavsson et al., 2017), as are philosophical understandings connecting to the broader purposes of education (Gallagher, 2017, p. 488;Nilholm, 2017, p. 490). ...
While entitled to education, the curriculum for pupils with intellectual disabilities (ID) remains unresolved. In a time of curriculum renewal, this study inquires into Norwegian school policy in the period 2014-2018 to evaluate this learner group's course of study. Attentiveness to special education and curricular approach are discussed through content analysis of school policy documents. The findings show sparse special needs education guidelines and academic mainstreaming. Content related to developing pupils' communication, practical and social skills may be marginalised, risking depriving pupils with ID of skills for adaptive functioning and flourishing. Applying capability as an evaluative lens, this study makes a normative contribution to discuss what to aim for in a school for all and suggests directions for course changes.
... Socio-emotional competences are crucial in everyday life: they are associated with successful inclusion, participation in social contexts and quality of life (Jones and Frederickson 2010;Ochs et al. 2001). Given the heterogeneity of clinical and academic achievement profiles in children with ASD, in order to tailor support for socio-emotional competences there is a need to (a) understand the common factors responsible for positive outcomes in educational interventions (Gustavsson, Kittelsaa, and Tøssebro 2017) and (b) to identify relevant background factors likely to moderate outcomes (Nuske, Vivanti, and Dissanayake 2013). In this study, we examined the role of the key factors of age and IQ on emotion understanding skills, showing independent effects of both age and IQ on emotion understanding skills, with lower standard scores associated with both greater age and lower IQ. ...
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder characterised by impairments in social communication and social cognition. Difficulties in emotion understanding, from emotion recognition to emotion regulation are common features that can affect the inclusion process. One outstanding question is the extent to which age and IQ affect such impairments. The effect of IQ and age on emotion understanding was estimated in 55 children with ASD aged between 5 and 10 and with IQ ranging from 70 to 130. Emotion understanding and non-verbal cognitive ability were assessed, respectively, with the Test of Emotion Comprehension and the Leiter-R scale. The majority of participants scored significantly lower on the TEC compared to the normative sample. Performance compared against norms decreased with age and improved with increasing IQ; children with ‘borderline cognitive functioning’ performed significantly worse than children with ‘normative cognitive functioning’. Emotion understanding skills in children with ASD are affected by cognitive level and age. Implications for educational interventions are discussed.
I denna scoping review analyseras resultaten av forskningen om obligatorisk grundskoleutbildning för elever med intellektuell funktionsnedsättning (IF) i Sverige, Norge, Danmark och Finland, under perioden 2011–2023. De vetenskapsteoretiska perspektiv och metoder som använts, samt de forskningsfrågor och resultat som har ansetts viktiga inom forskningsområdet presenteras. Därvid diskuteras också hur inkluderingsbegreppet använts i forskningen samt vilka forskningsluckor som finns inom forskningsområdet. Inom forskningsområdet är tolkande och kritiska vetenskapsteoretiska perspektiv vanligast och mest använda metoder är enkäter/test och dokument/litteratur/textanalys. De forskningsfrågor som har ställts inom forskningsområdet är varierande, men vanligast är frågor inriktade på det professionella innehållet i utbildningen av elever med IF. Professionella i skolan är överens om att inkludering är ett eftersträvansvärt ideal, som dock inte alltid är uppnåeligt eftersom skolor har svårt att tillgodose elevgruppens behov. Vidare uttrycker professionella en variation av definitioner (dock är placeringsdefinition vanligast), när de definierar begreppet inkludering. Resultatet är väntat, då det inom forskningsområdet saknas konsensus kring hur inkluderingsbegreppet ska definieras. Vidare är det sällsynt med forskning utifrån ett elevperspektiv. Ett resultat av forskningen är att elever med IF är mer negativa till sin lärmiljö (i kontexten inkludering) än andra elevgrupper. Elever med IF deltar också i mindre utsträckning i sociala aktiviteter under skoltiden, vilket indikerar att det fattas gemenskaper i skolan som välkomnar alla elever. Det saknas dock en stabil vetenskaplig grund för säkert kunna säga hur elever med IF upplever inkluderande ansatser i skolan. Inom forskningsområdet behövs studier med elevperspektiv. Det saknas också forskning om interaktion mellan elever, mellan elever och lärare; om kommunikationsförmåga i ett elevnära perspektiv; om samverkan mellan olika professioner, samt om lärares erfarenhet av undervisning med olika läroplaner i samma klassrum. Det finns behov av forskning som mer entydigt definierar vad inkludering innebär samt hur inkludering praktiskt bör utformas i den obligatoriska grundskoleutbildningen för elever med IF.
Resumo: Na deficiência intelectual os déficits no processamento cognitivo impõem limitações na funcionalidade desses indivíduos, impactando severamente os aspectos sociais, comportamentais e educacionais. A inclusão escolar cria a oportunidade de inserir as crianças com deficiências no ensino regular, mas as práticas pedagógicas utilizadas não tem permitido o desenvolvimento da alfabetização e de habilidades matemáticas, proporcionando apenas um ambiente adequado para socialização e recreação. De modo geral a formação dos professores possui lacunas que estão relacionadas a pouco ou nenhum conhecimento das contribuições, ferramentas e estratégias das neurociências para adaptação curricular. O presente estudo tem como objetivo descrever brevemente o perfil funcional da deficiência intelectual, demonstrando técnicas que favorecem a adaptação curricular para essas crianças ao estabelecer a relação entre educação e neuroplasticidade. As intervenções psicoeducacionais precisam de um planejamento do currículo de forma individualizada, direcionando as atividades para as necessidades de cada aluno. A aplicação de técnicas comportamentais tem sido bastante eficiente no processo de aquisição de habilidades funcionais e escolares, disponibilizando uma série de ferramentas que favoreçam o desenvolvimento de atividades de vida diária e emergência de habilidades escolares como leitura, escrita e aritmética.
This meta-analysis tested the Dodo bird conjecture, which states that when psychotherapies intended to be therapeutic are compared, the true differences among all such treatments are 0. Based on comparisons between treatments culled from 6 journals, it was found that the effect sizes were homogeneously distributed about 0, as was expected under the Dodo bird conjecture, and that under the most liberal assumptions, the upper bound of the true effect was about .20. Moreover, the effect sizes (a) were not related positively to publication date, indicating that improving research methods were not detecting effects, and (b) were not related to the similarity of the treatments, indicating that more dissimilar treatments did not produce larger effects, as would be expected if the Dodo bird conjecture was false. The evidence from these analyses supports the conjecture that the efficacy of bona fide treatments are roughly equivalent.
Results of 375 controlled evaluations of psychotherapy and counseling were coded and integrated statistically. The findings provide convincing evidence of the efficacy of psychotherapy. On the average, the typical therapy client is better off than 75% of untreated individuals. Few important differences in effectiveness could be established among many quite different types of psychotherapy. More generally, virtually no difference in effectiveness was observed between the class of all behavioral therapies (e.g., systematic desensitization and behavior modification) and the nonbehavioral therapies (e.g., Rogerian, psychodynamic, rational-emotive, and transactional analysis).
Literacy is a national educational priority. During the last decade, unprecedented funds have been committed to ensuring that school children, particularly those at risk for literacy-learning difficulties, have access to research-based instruction that is most likely to support their development as readers and writers. Yet, for the thousands of students across the country with significant intellectual disabilities, literacy instruction is a distant goal, and information regarding research-based instruction is extremely limited. Adding to the challenge is the absence of information regarding the use of assistive technology to support access to the curriculum and learning for students with significant intellectual disabilities. In this article, we review the research and apply understandings and strategies used in literacy instruction for students without disabilities to students with significant intellectual disabilities.
Federal laws mandate that students with cognitive disabilities receive instruction in academic skills and also support the importance of teaching self-determination. The purpose of this literature review was to synthesize intervention research examining effects of self-determination interventions on academic skills for students with cognitive disabilities. Findings indicated that the majority of self-determination interventions affected skills that directly support academic performance (e.g., organization of academic assignments); however, traditional academic skills such as math productivity and spelling accuracy were also positively affected. The review included analysis of the strength of results, research design quality, and discussion of implications for researchers and practitioners.
Single-subject research plays an important role in the development of evidence-based practice in special education. The defining features of single-subject research are presented, the contributions of single-subject research for special education are reviewed, and a specific proposal is offered for using single-subject research to document evidence-based practice. This article allows readers to determine if a specific study is a credible example of single-subject research and if a specific practice or procedure has been validated as "evidence-based" via single-subject research.
Recently, we (Laska, Gurman, & Wampold, 2014, pp. 467-481) discussed the implications of taking a common factor approach for practice and policy. In this response to the commentary on our article, we reiterate 10 things that need to be remembered about common factor theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
This article reports findings from a literature review on literacy instruction for adolescents with significant cognitive disabilities. Nineteen empirical studies published between 1975 and 2011 were included in the review and analyzed based on characteristics of interventions. The results were examined to determine whether the state of research in this area indicates a comprehensive approach to literacy for adolescents with significant cognitive disabilities. Results indicate that vocabulary instruction through sight word acquisition is still prevalent, instruction is not comprehensive, and instruction does not address recommendations from the field for adolescent literacy. However, innovative approaches to literacy instruction for this population are beginning to be explored. The current state of research on reading practices for adolescents with significant cognitive disabilities, implications for practice, and suggestions for new directions in research are discussed.
A review of the literature on academic learning in general education settings for students with moderate and severe intellectual disability was conducted. A total of 17 experimental studies was identified and evaluated using quality indicators for single-case design research. Studies that met or met with reservation the criteria established for quality research were used to determine the evidence base of the instructional strategies described in the literature. The review found embedded instruction trials using constant time delay to be an evidence-based practice for teaching academic content to students with moderate and severe intellectual disability in general education. In addition, strategies that were not yet evidence-based but showed promise in the literature for teaching academic content to students with moderate and severe intellectual disability in general education were described. Last, implications for practice and directions for future research were discussed.
r: This article sets the context for the developrhent of research quality indicators and guidelines for evidence of effective practices provided by different methodologies. The current con- ceptualization of scientific research in education and the complexity of conducting research in spe- cial education settings underlie the development of quality indicators. Programs of research in special education may be viewed as occurring in stages: moving fiom initial descriptive research, to experimental causal research, to finally research that examines the processes that might affect wide- scale adoption and use of a practice. At each stage, different research questions are relevant, and different research methodologies to address the research questions are needed.
Reviews the literature which examined the effects of exposing organisms to aversive events which they cannot control. Motivational, cognitive, and emotional effects of uncontrollability are examined. It is hypothesized that when events are uncontrollable the organism learns that its behavior and outcomes are independent, and this learning produces the motivational, cognitive, and emotional effects of uncontrollability. Research which supports this learned helplessness hypothesis is described along with alternative hypotheses which have been offered as explanations of the learned helplessness effect. The application of this hypothesis to rats and man is examined. (114 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research indicates that peer interaction can have a substantial impact on the lives of adolescents with disabilities. However, social interaction among adolescents with intellectual disabilities and their general education peers typically occurs infrequently in secondary schools. This paper provides a critical analysis of twenty-six empirical interventions aimed at promoting social interaction among adolescents with intellectual disabilities and their general education peers in middle and high school settings. Findings are analyzed with regard to intervention components; student characteristics; interaction settings; measures of interaction; observation procedures; experimental designs; intervention components; and measures of generalization, social validity, and treatment integrity. Based upon findings from this literature, we present recommendations to guide future research and the development of effective social interaction interventions for adolescents with intellectual disabilities in middle and high schools.
Noncontingent reinforcement (NCR) is a function-based treatment for problem behavior that has produced robust effects across a variety of response topographies and reinforcement functions among individuals with developmental disabilities. Several narrative reviews have adequately described this literature. The purpose of the present article was to quantitatively analyze and classify the empirical support for NCR using the criteria developed by The Task Force on the Promotion and Dissemination of Psychological Procedures [Task Force Promoting Dissemination of Psychological Procedures. (1995). Training in and dissemination of empirically-validated psychological treatments: Report and recommendations. Clinical Psychology, 48, 3–23]. Of the 59 studies identified for analysis, 24 met the criteria to be included in treatment classification. Fixed-time reinforcer delivery (plus extinction and schedule thinning) was classified as well established, while fixed-time reinforcer delivery (plus extinction) and variable-time reinforcer delivery (plus extinction) were deemed probably efficacious.
Legislation mandates that all children, including children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) be taught to read in ways that are consistent with reading research, and target the five components of evidence-based reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, reading fluency, vocabulary and comprehension strategies. The purpose of this review is to synthesize the literature on reading instruction for children with ASD that encompasses one or more of the five components of reading. The review yielded 11 studies with 61 participants ages 4 to 17. Results indicate that children with ASD can benefit from reading instruction consistent with reading research. Research in this area is still preliminary, and more research is needed to guide practice. Possible directions for future research are provided.
Research on individual differences demonstrates that children's perceived control exerts a strong effect on their academic achievement and that, in turn, children's actual school performance influences their sense of control. At the same time, developmental research shows systematic age-graded changes in the processes that children use to regulate and interpret control experiences. Drawing on both these perspectives, the current study examines (1) age differences in the operation of beliefs-performance cycles and (2) the effects of these cycles on the development of children's perceived control and classroom engagement from the third to the seventh grade. Longitudinal data on about 1,600 children were collected six times (every fall and spring) over 3 consecutive school years, including children's reports of their perceived control and individual interactions with teachers; teachers' reports of each student's engagement in class; and, for a subset of students, grades and achievement tests. Analyses of individual differences and individual growth curves (estimated using hierarchical linear modeling procedures) were consistent, not only with a cyclic model of context, self, action, and outcomes, but also with predictors of individual development over 5 years from grade 3 to grade 7. Children who experienced teachers as warm and contingent were more likely to develop optimal profiles of control; these beliefs supported more active engagement in the classroom, resulting in better academic performance; success in turn predicted the maintenance of optimistic beliefs about the effectiveness of effort. In contrast, children who experienced teachers as unsupportive were more likely to develop beliefs that emphasized external causes; these profiles of control predicted escalating classroom disaffection and lower scholastic achievement; in turn, these poor performances led children to increasingly doubt their own capacities and to believe even more strongly in the power of luck and unknown causes. Systematic age differences in analyses suggested that the aspects of control around which these cycles are organized change with development. The beliefs that regulated engagement shifted from effort to ability and from beliefs about the causes of school performance (strategy beliefs) to beliefs about the self's capacities. The feedback loop from individual performance to subsequent perceived control also became more pronounced and more focused on ability. These relatively linear developmental changes may have contributed to an abrupt decline in children's classroom engagement as they negotiated the transition to middle school and experienced losses in teacher support. Implications are discussed for future study of individual differences and development, especially the role of changing school contexts, mechanisms of influence, and developmentally appropriate interventions to optimize children's perceived control and engagement.
Purpose
This article presents the results of a meta-analysis to determine the effect of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) on the speech production of individuals with developmental disabilities.
Method
A comprehensive search of the literature published between 1975 and 2003, which included data on speech production before, during, and after AAC intervention, was conducted using a combination of electronic and hand searches.
Results
The review identified 23 studies, involving 67 individuals. Seventeen of these studies did not establish experimental control, thereby limiting the certainty of evidence about speech outcomes. The remaining 6 studies, involving 27 cases, had sufficient methodological rigor for the “best evidence analysis” (cf. R. E. Slavin, 1986). Most of the participants (aged 2–60 years) had mental retardation or autism; the AAC interventions involved instruction in manual signs or nonelectronic aided systems. None of the 27 cases demonstrated decreases in speech production as a result of AAC intervention, 11% showed no change, and the majority (89%) demonstrated gains in speech. For the most part, the gains observed were modest, but these data may underestimate the effect of AAC intervention on speech production because there were ceiling effects.
Conclusions
Future research is needed to better delineate the relationship between AAC intervention and speech production across a wider range of participants and AAC interventions.
Mathematics education-like all education-faced changes in recent years including increasing expectations, and these expectations have impacted all students, including students with mild intellectual disability. To explore the impact of the changes on mathematics education on students with mild intellectual disability, the authors reviewed the literature from 1999-2010 on academic mathematics interventions for students with mild intellectual disability. Of the seven articles found, the majority focused on interventions designed to improve knowledge of mathematical facts and computational procedures. One study included an intervention involving metacognition and diagramming of mathematical relationships to help students solve word problems. Results suggest a dissonance between the mathematics focus of mathematics professional organizations and federal and state policies regarding higher order mathematics and perhaps current practice for students with mild intellectual disability, as reflected in the research literature.
We reviewed twelve studies that used the constant time delay (CTD) procedure to teach chained tasks to individuals with developmental disabilities from years 1996-2006. Variables analyzed include types of tasks that have been taught with the procedure, how effective CTD has been in teaching participants, and whether researchers have investigated maintenance, generalization, and social validity variables. Results across studies indicate that CTD is an effective strategy for teaching chained tasks to individuals with developmental disabilities including food preparation, purchasing skills, and leisure skills. Furthermore, the generalization data indicated that skills learned through CTD procedure generalized across settings, materials, and persons. Implications for practitioners and future researchers are discussed.
This article reports on a comprehensive literature review and meta-analysis of 68 experiments on teaching mathematics to individuals with significant cognitive disabilities. Most of the studies in the review addressed numbers and computation or measurement. Within the computation studies identified, most focused on counting, calculation, or number matching. For the measurement studies, nearly all focused on money skills. Of the 54 single subject design studies, 19 were classified as having all quality indicators for research design (13 representing the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Measurement standard and 6 representing the Numbers and Operations standard). These studies offer strong evidence for using systematic instruction to teach mathematics skills and for using in vivo settings.
We reviewed 18 video prompting studies that were conducted with persons with developmental disabilities. Results across the studies indicate that video prompting is a viable method for improving various domestic, vocational, and independent living skills. In addition, video prompting strategies facilitated maintenance and generalization of learned skills. Also, in several studies when teaching various skills, video promptings strategies were more effective than static pictures or video models alone. We discuss the results and make suggestions for future researchers and practitioners.
The common factors have a long history in the field of psychotherapy theory, research and practice. To understand the evidence supporting them as important therapeutic elements, the contextual model of psychotherapy is outlined. Then the evidence, primarily from meta-analyses, is presented for particular common factors, including alliance, empathy, expectations, cultural adaptation, and therapist differences. Then the evidence for four factors related to specificity, including treatment differences, specific ingredients, adherence, and competence, is presented. The evidence supports the conclusion that the common factors are important for producing the benefits of psychotherapy.
Use of portable electronic devices by persons with moderate intellectual disabilities and autism spectrum disorders is gaining increased research attention. The purpose of this review was to synthesize twenty-first century literature (2000-2010) focusing on these technologies. Twenty-one studies were identified which evaluated use of: (a) media players with audio playback; (b) cellular/smartphones; (c) handheld computers and handheld video players across various skills and settings to assist persons with disabilities. Guidelines and recommendations for instruction and future research are provided.
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This paper summarizes the results of a review of the empirical literature (1990-2005) focusing on use of assistive technology as a self-management tool for persons with intellectual disabilities. Forty investigations were identified which provided information on assistive technology to assist persons with disabilities to initiate and complete daily tasks. Four areas of research were defined and analyzed through the identified studies: (a) pictorial prompts; (b) tactile prompts; (c) auditory prompts; and (d) computer-aided systems. Research supports assistive technology as an effective tool for providing antecedent prompts that can be self-operated by persons with intellectual disabilities. Implications of the research and suggestions for future research are discussed.
Tallies were made of outcomes of all reasonably controlled comparisons of psychotherapies with each other and with other treatments. For comparisons of psychotherapy with each other, most studies found insignificant differences in proportions of patients who improved (though most patients benefited). This "tie score effect" did not apply to psychotherapies vs psychopharmacotherapies compared singly—psychopharmacotherapies did better. Combined treatments often did better than single treatments. Among the comparisons, only two specially beneficial matches between type of patient and type of treatment were found.
Our explanations for the usual tie score effect emphasize the common components among psychotherapies, especially the helping relationship with a therapist. However, we believe the research does not justify the conclusion that we should randomly assign patients to treatments—research results are usually based on amount of improvement; "amount" may not disclose differences in quality of improvement from each treatment.
A comprehensive review of research was conducted on teaching science to students with significant cognitive disabilities. Guidelines from the National Science Education Standards were used to identify categories of studies based on the strands of science. A total of 11 studies were identified from the 20 years of literature searched. In general, work in the area of science is sparse for students with significant cognitive disabilities. Eight of the 11 studies fell in Content Standard F: Science in Personal and Social Perspectives. Single subject experimental designs were the methodology used in all of the studies and outcomes suggest that this population benefits from instruction in highly specific skills with modeling and errorless learning strategies like time delay. The interventions found in the 11 studies that linked to science incorporated systematic response prompting methods similar to those found in evidence-based reading and math research for students with significant cognitive disabilities. Additional research is needed to identify methods to teach science to this population that includes both broader content and additional skills that link to state standards.
Social interactions with peers are an important aspect of childhood development that is closely linked to emotional well-being and success in school. We conducted a comprehensive review of recent intervention studies evaluating strategies to improve the peer interaction outcomes of students with intellectual disabilities and/or autism. The purpose of this review was to characterize the current knowledge base, to analyze key dimensions of recent studies, and to identify important areas for future research and synthesis. The 85 reviewed studies addressed 20 educational practices, which we categorized as (a) student-focused, (b) peer-focused, and/or (c) support-focused. Although the overall quality of these studies was high, considerable variation exists in the degree to which specific practices have been adequately evaluated with students across disability categories and grade levels. Additional research is needed to strengthen the depth of evidence for these practices across school levels, school settings, and disability categories.
Although positive peer relationships can facilitate the academic learning, skill development, and emotional wellbeing of students with complex communication challenges, few peer interactions are likely to take place in school settings apart from intentional intervention and support efforts. We conducted a systematic review to identify and examine intervention approaches aimed at improving peer interaction outcomes for school-aged children with complex communication challenges who regularly used or might benefit from augmentative and alternative communication (AAC). We categorized 31 studies based on their primary focus and the manner in which AAC was incorporated into the intervention package. Although the configurations of these intervention packages varied, most were found to be effective at increasing measures of peer interaction. We also identified several methodological features of this literature that would benefit from additional attention (e.g., participant descriptions, treatment fidelity, social validity). We offer recommendations to practitioners and researchers for impacting this dimension of students' lives.
Research strongly supports including students with extensive support needs in general education settings and providing them access to the general curriculum. Yet, there is limited research indicating how to provide them authentic access to this curriculum. This article explores several instructional approaches to provide access including (a) use of existing general education practices with students with extensive support needs (e.g., inquiry learning), (b) use of evidence-based practices associated with special education settings (e.g., embedded instruction), and (c) use of a response to intervention framework to improve instruction within the general curriculum.
Decisions regarding augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) for individuals with developmental disabilities (e.g. what AAC to use and how to teach a person to use a specific AAC modality) should involve consideration of different intervention component options. In an effort to elucidate such decisions and options, this review synthesized 14 studies, published between 2004 and 2012, comparing different AAC intervention components including different symbol sets, instructional strategies, or speech output within aided AAC systems, and different verbal operants within unaided AAC. Evidence supported the following: (a) different instructional strategies such as building motivation, using errorless learning, or adding video models to picture exchange interventions may improve the acquisition or rate of acquisition of picture exchange mands, (b) limited data supports training mimetic (imitated) or mand signs over tacts and (c) differences in symbol sets and speech output levels appeared to have little effect on AAC-based mand acquisition, but listener-based differences should be considered. These findings have implications for future research and clinical practice.
A comprehensive review was conducted of intervention studies designed to teach component skills of self-determination to individuals with severe disabilities. Twenty-one articles were analyzed regarding content and methodology. Results (a) support previous research on the efficacy of teaching choice making; (b) increase awareness of teaching self-management, problem solving, goal setting, decision making, and self-advocacy; (c) indicate the need for increased methodological rigor in future research; and (d) expand the research body traditionally associated with self-determination interventions for this population.
The first half of this book criticizes the motivational assumptions of classical economics, emphasizes the parallel disregard in practical life of social skills as compared with technical skills, and points up the disastrous social consequences of these errors. The second half reviews several studies by the Department of Industrial Research (Harvard Graduate School of Business Administration) and shows what light they throw on how these errors may be corrected. An appendix lists and describes briefly all the major studies conducted by the Department of Industrial Research (1926-1945) and includes a bibliography of publications by its members. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A review of the literature was conducted for articles published between 1975 and 2007 on the application of time delay as an instructional procedure to teach word and picture recognition to students with severe developmental disabilities in an effort to evaluate time delay as an evidence-based practice. A total of 30 experiments were analyzed using quality indicators for single-subject design research. In general, we found that time delay was an evidence-based practice for teaching picture and sight word recognition supported by standards for evidence-based practice proposed by Horner et al. (2005). We discuss lessons learned in summarizing a body of literature to define an evidence-based practice and suggestions for better defining the practice.
This article is a republication of a classic paper in which Rosenzweig introduced the concept of common factors in psychotherapy. This seminal idea-which refers to the finding that all forms of psychotherapy seem to share, to some degree, a small number of effective change ingredients-remains highly influential in psychotherapy integration today. Rosenzweig reviewed the data presented by then current forms of psychotherapy and argued that the theories that describe the change principles in each psychotherapy are inadequate to capture those deeper common factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Education is currently in an evidence-based era, demanding as well as assuming all educational practices are evidencebased. In the case of afunctional curriculum for secondary students with mild intellectual disabilities, despite existing professional wisdom, the state of empirical evidence is unclear. This study represents a systematic review of the literature regarding the evidence-base of afunctional curriculum to educate secondary students with mild intellectual disabilities. Seven research-based articles were found in the literature exploring use of a functional curriculum for this population of students, suggesting a lack of research on functional curriculum for secondary students with mild intellectual disabilities in recent years, especially when considering posischool outcomes and adult experiences. The authors concluded a functional curriculum for secondary students with mild intellectual disabilities is not an evidence-based practice at the current time.
Phonological awareness (PA) is the ability to hear and manipulate the smallest units of sound in our language. It is key to learning to read for typically developing children. Some have suggested that this is not true for children with Down syndrome (DS). The purpose of this review was to provide a better understanding of the role PA plays for children with DS as they learn to read and to provide guidance on whether phonics-based reading instruction is likely to benefit these students. Results from a review of 20 studies indicate that children with DS rely on PA skills in learning to read and suggest that phonics-based reading instruction may be beneficial for at least some of these children.
To develop a model of change during and following professional treatment for drinking problems, grounded in clients' accounts.
Subsets of consecutively selected clients of the UK Alcohol Treatment Trial (UKATT), followed-up at 3 months (n = 211) and 12 months (n = 198) after randomization. Location Five statutory and non-statutory alcohol problems treatment agencies in three areas of England and Wales. Data Open-ended interviews conducted according to a brief interview guide, leading to 400-800-word post-interview reports used for analysis (tape-recordings used for auditing purposes).
Reports analysed by a team according to grounded theory principles, involving an iterative process with successive refinement of interviewing and analysis with each successive batch of data.
A model of change from the clients' perspective was developed. Treatment was seen by clients as facilitating various changes in ways of thinking and/or increased support of various kinds from family and friends, along with new ways of acting in relation to drinking or more generally. For many those changes had led to an appreciation of the benefits accruing to them. Treatment was seen as part of a broader treatment system which included pretreatment assessment, forms of help additional to the trial treatment, plus an element of self-directed change during and following treatment. Taken with awareness of worsening alcohol-related harms, triggering events and external influence to seek treatment (the catalyst system), to which clients continued to refer following treatment, the change process is depicted as a complex, ongoing set of systems in which a trial treatment is embedded.
Models of change should be broadened so that treatment is seen as a complex system of parts, facilitating a nexus of cognitive, social and behavioural changes, embedded within a broader system of events and processes catalysing change. Such a model helps explain the relative absence of between-treatments outcome differences in UKATT and in the alcohol problems treatment and more general psychotherapy research literatures.
Rigour and Relevance: The Role of Practice-based Evidence in Psychological Therapies
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