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Using and Developing Language and Cognitive Assessments with Deaf Signers
Abstract
This chapter highlights that researchers interested in assessments need separate, specifically designed tests of language and cognition for deaf sign language users rather than relying on tests designed for users of spoken languages. Tests that are developed specifically for deaf signers and that produce deaf norms are an invaluable tool in both sign language research and clinical practice. When deaf signers are given spoken language-based tests designed to be suitable for hearing populations, there is a potential for linguistic and cultural biases to occur, which can lead to an unreliable assessment. The chapter reviews the language and cognitive assessments that have been developed for deaf children and adults to date, demonstrating examples of good practice. It presents a range of important points to consider when conducting assessments with deaf signers. The chapter concludes with considerations for developing future assessments.
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Despite the current need for reliable and valid test instruments to monitor the sign language acquisition of Deaf children in different countries, very few tests offering strong evidence for their psychometric properties are commercially available. A German Sign Language (DGS) test that focuses on linguistic structures acquired in preschool- and school-aged children (4–8 years old) is urgently needed. The present study uses as a template a test which has sound psychometric properties and has been standardized on another sign language as a starting point for tests of sign languages that are less documented, such as DGS. This book makes a novel contribution to the field by examining linguistic, cultural, methodological, and theoretical issues in the process of the adaptation from the source language test to the target language test, and by providing a model for future test adaptations. It also includes concrete steps for the test development and adaptation process. Adaptation and Evaluation of a German Sign Language Test addresses students and researchers alike who are involved in sign language test development and adaptation. It also provides a comprehensive summary in German.
A new test of verbal learning and memory, the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test, was developed. The test consists of three trials of free-recall of a 12-item, semantically categorized list, followed by yes/no recognition. Six parallel forms yielded equivalent results in normals. The performance of patients with Alzheimer's disease and chronic amnesia is described. The test is likely to be useful in patients too impaired for more comprehensive memory assessments and where repeated testing is necessary.
The Hopkins Verbal Learning Test (HVLT) is a brief verbal learning and memory test with six alternate forms. The HVLT is ideal in situations calling for repeated neuropsychological examinations, but it lacks a delayed recall trial which is essential for the assessment of abnormal forgetting. We present a revised version of the HVLT which includes a delayed recall trial, and therefore delays the yes/no recognition trial. The equivalence of test forms was examined in two separate studies using between-groups and within-subjects research designs. In both studies, the six forms of the revised HVLT (HVLT-R) were found to be equivalent with respect to the recall trials, but there were some modest differences in recognition. Recommendations for the use of the HVLT-R in serial neuropsychological examinations are provided, as well as normative data tables from a sample of 541 subjects, spanning ages 17 to 88 years.
This article investigates the basis for the frequently reported statement that ten percent of deaf persons are born to families with one or more deaf parents. The prevalence of deaf children born to deaf parents (deaf-of-deaf) is important because it is often cited when describing linguistic and educational advantages, along with social and cultural differences, associated with deaf children born to deaf parents compared to deaf children of hearing parents. This analysis provides a current estimate for the distribution of parental hearing status among deaf and hard of hearing students in United States using data from the Annual Survey of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children and Youth (19992000). This is the first national estimate that fully utilizes the distinction between children having deaf parents and hard of hearing parents, as well as hearing parents. The authors propose that the key demographic to report, other than that the overwhelming majority of deaf and hard of hearing students have hearing parents, is whether the child has one or two deaf parents. The annual survey findings indicate that less than five percent of deaf and hard of hearing students receiving special education are known to have at least one deaf parent, which is less than half of the presumed ten percent. Reasons for the difference between the present and previous estimates are suggested.
This study examined the performance of preschool children from culturally and linguistically diverse backgrounds, both typically developing and with low language ability, on a word-learning task. A pretest-teach-posttest method was used to compare a mediation group to a no-mediation group. Children in the mediation group were taught naming strategies using mediated learning experience (MLE). Results indicated that typically developing and low language ability children were differentiated on the basis of pretest-posttest change and that dynamic measures (e.g., posttest scores of single-word labeling and modifiability ratings from the mediation sessions) predicted the ability groups better than static measures (e.g., pretest scores of single-word labeling, description, and academic concepts). These results suggest that dynamic assessment approaches may effectively differentiate language difference from language disorder.
Objective: To develop and validate a verbal (sign-based) test of learning and memory for individuals who are deaf. Method: Completed test development, determined performance norms, investigated correlation with IQ, and evaluated discriminant validity in healthy versus clinical participant samples. Participants: Thirty-eight deaf adults screened as free from brain impairment and 35 deaf adults referred for cognitive testing. Outcome measure: Signed Paired Associates Test (SPAT). Results: Healthy participant norms were similar to pilot study norms. SPAT performance was correlated with IQ. The healthy sample scored significantly better than the clinical sample on all 13 SPAT performance elements analyzed. Performance patterns paralleled those commonly found with other tests of verbal learning and memory. Conclusions: SPAT shows utility as a test of verbal learning and memory for sign language users and evidence of validity in detecting verbal cognitive impairment in that population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Following the development and standardization of the British Sign Language (BSL) Receptive Skills Test (Herman et al., 1999), the test was made widely available to professionals working with deaf children. Test users were asked to return completed score-sheets on individual children they had tested in order to compare a selection of children from the wider population of deaf children with those from the sample upon whom the test was standardized. The analysis of almost 200 score sheets is presented. Overall, children from the wider population achieved lower standard scores than those from the standardization sample, with the exception of native signers, whose scores were equivalent to the native signers' scores in the original sample. The findings raise important questions about the adequacy of BSL provision for deaf children in hearing families. Data on tester ratings and children's reading scores provide an opportunity for a preliminary investigation of the psychometric properties of the test. Finally, tester feedback on the test itself, the training offered and the overall contribution of the test to assessing deaf children's BSL development are reviewed. Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
This paper highlights the appeal of dynamic assessment (DA) for speech and language therapists (SLTs), and describes the usefulness of various DA models and methods. It describes the background to DA, and the uses to which DA has been put, by educational psychologists in the UK, and by SLTs in the USA. The research and development of methods of DA are described, and the case for developing DA methods for use in a) research and predictive applications, and b) clinical applications to inform interventions by SLTs and in collaborative practice, is made. Implications for future research are presented.
Research into the effect of phonetic complexity on phonological acquisition has a long history in spoken languages. This paper considers the effect of phonetics on phonological development in a signed language. We report on an experiment in which nonword-repetition methodology was adapted so as to examine in a systematic way how phonetic complexity in two phonological parameters of signed languages - handshape and movement - affects the perception and articulation of signs. Ninety-one Deaf children aged 3-11 acquiring British Sign Language (BSL) and 46 hearing nonsigners aged 6-11 repeated a set of 40 nonsense signs. For Deaf children, repetition accuracy improved with age, correlated with wider BSL abilities, and was lowest for signs that were phonetically complex. Repetition accuracy was correlated with fine motor skills for the youngest children. Despite their lower repetition accuracy, the hearing group were similarly affected by phonetic complexity, suggesting that common visual and motoric factors are at play when processing linguistic information in the visuo-gestural modality.
We adapted the semantic fluency task into British Sign Language (BSL). In Study 1, we present data from twenty-two deaf signers aged four to fifteen. We show that the same 'cognitive signatures' that characterize this task in spoken languages are also present in deaf children, for example, the semantic clustering of responses. In Study 2, we present data from thirteen deaf children with Specific Language Impairment (SLI) in BSL, in comparison to a subset of children from Study 1 matched for age and BSL exposure. The two groups' results were comparable in most respects. However, the group with SLI made occasional word-finding errors and gave fewer responses in the first 15 seconds. We conclude that deaf children with SLI do not differ from their controls in terms of the semantic organization of the BSL lexicon, but that they access signs less efficiently.
Age of acquisition (AoA) effects have been used to support the notion of a critical period for first language acquisition. In this study, we examine AoA effects in deaf British Sign Language (BSL) users via a grammaticality judgment task. When English reading performance and nonverbal IQ are factored out, results show that accuracy of grammaticality judgement decreases as AoA increases, until around age 8, thus showing the unique effect of AoA on grammatical judgement in early learners. No such effects were found in those who acquired BSL after age 8. These late learners appear to have first language proficiency in English instead, which may have been used to scaffold learning of BSL as a second language later in life.
The primary objective of this study was to investigate empirically whether using an interpreter to conduct neuropsychological testing of monolingual Spanish speakers affects test scores. Participants included 40 neurologically normal Spanish speakers with limited English proficiency, aged 18-65 years (M = 39.7, SD = 13.9), who completed the Vocabulary, Similarities, Block Design, and Matrix Reasoning subtests of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-III in two counterbalanced conditions: with and without an interpreter. Results indicated that interpreter use significantly increased scores on Vocabulary and Similarities. However, scores on Block Design and Matrix Reasoning did not differ depending on whether or not an interpreter was used. In addition the findings suggested a trend toward higher variability in scores when an interpreter was used to administer Vocabulary and Similarities; this trend did not show up for Block Design or Matrix Reasoning. Together the results indicate that interpreter use may significantly affect scores for some tests commonly used in neuropsychological practice, with this influence being greater for verbally mediated tests. Additional research is needed to identify the types of tests that may be most affected as well as the factors that contribute to the effects. In the meantime neuropsychologists are encouraged to avoid interpreter use whenever practically possible, particularly for tests with high demands on interpreter abilities and skills, with tests that have not been appropriately adapted and translated into the patient's target language, and with interpreters who are not trained professionals.
The Mini-Mental State Exam (MMSE) is commonly used to screen cognitive function in a clinical setting. The measure has been
published in over 50 languages; however, the validity and reliability of the MMSE has yet to be assessed with the culturally
Deaf elderly population. Participants consisted of 117 Deaf senior citizens, aged 55–89 (M = 69.44, SD = 8.55). Demographic information, including state of residence, age, and history of depression, head injury, and dementia
diagnoses, were collected. A standard form of the MMSE was used with modification of test administration and stimuli including
translation of English test items into a sign-based form and alteration of two items in order to make them culturally and
linguistically appropriate. Significant correlations were observed between overall test score and education level (r = .23, p = .01) as well as test score and age (r = −.33, p < .001). Patterns of responses were analyzed and revealed several items that were problematic and yielded a fewer correct
responses. These results indicate that clinicians need to be aware of cultural and linguistic factors associated with the
deaf population that may impact test performance and clinical interpretation of test results. On the basis of these data,
there is an increased risk of false positives obtained when using this measure. Further research is needed to validate the
use of this measure with the culturally Deaf population.
Research on signed languages offers the opportunity to address many important questions about language that it may not be possible to address via studies of spoken languages alone. Many such studies, however, are inherently limited, because there exist hardly any norms for lexical variables that have appeared to play important roles in spoken language processing. Here, we present a set of norms for age of acquisition, familiarity, and iconicity for 300 British Sign Language (BSL) signs, as rated by deaf signers, in the hope that they may prove useful to other researchers studying BSL and other signed languages. These norms may be downloaded from www.psychonomic.org/archive.
We compared normally hearing individuals and congenitally deaf individuals as they monitored moving stimuli either in the periphery or in the center of the visual field. When participants monitored the peripheral visual field, greater recruitment (as measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging) of the motion-selective area MT/MST was observed in deaf than in hearing individuals, whereas the two groups were comparable when attending to the central visual field. This finding indicates an enhancement of visual attention to peripheral visual space in deaf individuals. Structural equation modeling was used to further characterize the nature of this plastic change in the deaf. The effective connectivity between MT/MST and the posterior parietal cortex was stronger in deaf than in hearing individuals during peripheral but not central attention. Thus, enhanced peripheral attention to moving stimuli in the deaf may be mediated by alterations of the connectivity between MT/MST and the parietal cortex, one of the primary centers for spatial representation and attention.
Two experiments examined reliability and classification accuracy of a narration-based dynamic assessment task.
The first experiment evaluated whether parallel results were obtained from stories created in response to 2 different wordless picture books. If so, the tasks and measures would be appropriate for assessing pretest and posttest change within a dynamic assessment format. The second experiment evaluated the extent to which children with language impairments performed differently than typically developing controls on dynamic assessment of narrative language.
In the first experiment, 58 1st- and 2nd-grade children told 2 stories about wordless picture books. Stories were rated on macrostructural and microstructural aspects of language form and content, and the ratings were subjected to reliability analyses. In the second experiment, 71 children participated in dynamic assessment. There were 3 phases: a pretest phase, in which children created a story that corresponded to 1 of the wordless picture books from Experiment 1; a teaching phase, in which children attended 2 short mediation sessions that focused on storytelling ability; and a posttest phase, in which children created a story that corresponded to a second wordless picture book from Experiment 1. Analyses compared the pretest and posttest stories that were told by 2 groups of children who received mediated learning (typical and language impaired groups) and a no-treatment control group of typically developing children from Experiment 1.
The results of the first experiment indicated that the narrative measures applied to stories about 2 different wordless picture books had good internal consistency. In Experiment 2, typically developing children who received mediated learning demonstrated a greater amount of pretest to posttest change than children in the language impaired and control groups. Classification analysis indicated better specificity and sensitivity values for measures of response to intervention (modifiability) and posttest storytelling than for measures of pretest storytelling. Observation of modifiability was the single best indicator of language impairment. Posttest measures and modifiability together yielded no misclassifications.
The first experiment supported the use of 2 wordless picture books as stimulus materials for collecting narratives before and after mediation within a dynamic assessment paradigm. The second experiment supported the use of dynamic assessment for accurately identifying language impairments in school-age children.
There is a clear need for brief, but sensitive and specific, cognitive screening instruments as evidenced by the popularity of the Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination (ACE).
We aimed to validate an improved revision (the ACE-R) which incorporates five sub-domain scores (orientation/attention, memory, verbal fluency, language and visuo-spatial).
Standard tests for evaluating dementia screening tests were applied. A total of 241 subjects participated in this study (Alzheimer's disease=67, frontotemporal dementia=55, dementia of Lewy Bodies=20; mild cognitive impairment-MCI=36; controls=63).
Reliability of the ACE-R was very good (alpha coefficient=0.8). Correlation with the Clinical Dementia Scale was significant (r=-0.321, p<0.001). Two cut-offs were defined (88: sensitivity=0.94, specificity=0.89; 82: sensitivity=0.84, specificity=1.0). Likelihood ratios of dementia were generated for scores between 88 and 82: at a cut-off of 82 the likelihood of dementia is 100:1. A comparison of individual age and education matched groups of MCI, AD and controls placed the MCI group performance between controls and AD and revealed MCI patients to be impaired in areas other than memory (attention/orientation, verbal fluency and language).
The ACE-R accomplishes standards of a valid dementia screening test, sensitive to early cognitive dysfunction.
This paper provides an overview of deaf or hard-of-hearing development, with particular relevance to emerging cognitive skills. A contextual approach is adopted, emphasising linguistic, cultural and ‘nonverbal’ factors. Some generic assessment considerations are provided for the optimal, evidence-based assessment of deaf or hard-of-hearing children. Thereafter, a number of potentially useful psychometric tools are described. The limitation of adopting a purely standardised approach to assessment with this population is discussed. Finally, a coherent model of assessment pertinent to this population is depicted, that is, a ‘situated cognition’ model emphasising fluidity and the importance of the wider context when evaluating performances with this group of children, but suitably adapted to take account of within-child factors.
We used fluency tasks to investigate lexical organisation in Deaf adults who use British sign language (BSL). The number of responses produced to semantic categories did not differ from reports in spoken languages. However, there was considerable variability in the number of responses across phonological categories, and some signers had difficulty retrieving items. Responses were richly clustered according to semantic and/or phonological properties. With respect to phonology, there was significantly more clustering around the parameters "handshape" and "location" compared to "movement". We conclude that the BSL lexicon is organised in similar ways to the lexicons of spoken languages, but that lexical retrieval is characterised by strong links between semantics and phonology; movement is less readily retrieved than handshape and location; and phonological fluency is difficult for signers because they have little metaphonological awareness in BSL and because signs do not display the onset salience that characterises spoken words.
This study explores different aspects of the mapping between phonological form and
meaning of signs in British Sign Language (BSL) by means of four tasks to measure
meaning recognition, form recognition, form recall, and meaning recall. The aim was
to investigate whether there is a hierarchy of difficulty for these tasks and, therefore,
whether BSL vocabulary acquisition proceeds incrementally, as is the case for spoken
languages. Twenty-four deaf participants (aged 5–15 years), all of whom were BSL
users, performed with greatest accuracy on meaning recognition and least accurately on
meaning recall. The results indicate that signers’ knowledge of mapping between form
and meaning in BSL signs is not an all-or-nothing phenomenon but depends on what
the learner is required to do with that knowledge, as is the case for spoken languages.
In this study we present new data on deaf children's receptive and expressive vocabulary knowledge in British Sign Language (BSL) from a sample consisting of children with deaf parents, children with hearing parents, and children with additional needs. Their performance on three BSL vocabulary tasks was compared with (previously reported findings from) a sample of deaf fluent signers. We use these data to assess the effects of some key demographic/ child variables on deaf signing children's vocabulary and discuss findings in the relation to the meaning of 'normative' data and samples for this heterogeneous population. Findings show no effect of the presence of additional disabilities on participants' scores for any of the three tasks. As expected, chronological age is the most significant factor in performance on all vocabulary tasks while the number of deaf relatives only becomes statistically significant for the form recall task. This study contributes to the field of sign language assessment by seeking to identify key variables in heterogeneity and how these variables affect signed vocabulary acquisition with the long-term objective of informing intervention.
Current guidelines indicate that therapeutic interactions must be in the client's primary language. This article addresses the ethical dilemmas faced by monolingual clinicians and researchers who must assess the foreign language competence of an interpreter. Guidelines are proposed for assessing language competence of staff in clinical and research settings.
Las directrices actuales indican que la interacción terapéutica debe tomar lugar en el primer idioma del cliente. Este artículo trata los dilemas éticos que confrontan los clínicos e investigadores monolingües que tienen que asesorar la competencia linguística de un intérprete. Se proponen directrices para el asesoramiento linguístico de personal en escenarios clínicos y de investigación.
The main aim of this report, commissioned by the Department of Education and Employment, was to undertake a literature review of recent key research findings on the educational achievements of deaf learners, to establish the state of current knowledge on this topic and to identify gaps. Over 300 reports are identified, concerning both academic and non-academic educational outcomes. There is discussion on several ‘key factors’ as potential predictors of educational achievement. Consideration is also given to a number of ‘research issues’, including the confusion in use of terminology, and issues concerning test administration. The review confirms that despite a significant amount of research there has been no major study in the UK since that of Conrad (1979). There is no substantive evidence to demonstrate any overall improvement in the education of deaf pupils since Conrad's study. A number of recommendations for future research result from the discussions. © Crown copyright 1999. Reproduced with the permission of Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Published by Whurr Publishers Ltd.
Deafness is a heterogeneous condition with far-reaching effects on social, emotional, and cognitive development. Onset before language has been established happens in about seven per 10,000 people. Increased rates of mental health problems are reported in deaf people. Many regard themselves as members of a cultural minority who use sign language. In this Review, we describe discrepancies between a high burden of common mental health disorders and barriers to health care. About a quarter of deaf individuals have additional disabilities and a high probability of complex mental health needs. Research into factors affecting mental health of deaf children shows that early access to effective communication with family members and peers is desirable. Improved access to health and mental health care can be achieved by provision of specialist services with professionals trained to directly communicate with deaf people and with sign-language interpreters.
There is a dearth of assessments of sign language development in young deaf children. This study gathered age-related scores from a sample of deaf native signing children using an adapted version of the MacArthur-Bates CDI (Fenson et al., 1994).
Parental reports on children's receptive and expressive signing were collected longitudinally on 29 deaf native British Sign Language (BSL) users, aged 8-36 months, yielding 146 datasets.
A smooth upward growth curve was obtained for early vocabulary development and percentile scores were derived. In the main, receptive scores were in advance of expressive scores. No gender bias was observed. Correlational analysis identified factors associated with vocabulary development, including parental education and mothers' training in BSL. Individual children's profiles showed a range of development and some evidence of a growth spurt. Clinical and research issues relating to the measure are discussed.
The study has developed a valid, reliable measure of vocabulary development in BSL. Further research is needed to investigate the relationship between vocabulary acquisition in native and non-native signers.
Recent changes to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, or DSM (4th ed., American Psychiatric Association, 1994), show recognition that cultural factors are relevant to assessment; thus, including specific information relevant to Deaf culture should help DSM users understand their deaf clients. For the present article, literature was surveyed on the psychological needs of the Deaf, and specifically how the Deaf views those needs. The review focused on four articles (Carver, 1995, 1997; Chapman, 1994; Dolnick, 1993). These articles suggest consensus on the thesis that the Deaf, as a minority culture, should provide information on Deaf culture to members of the helping professions. In addition to enhancing care providers' understanding, this would help society do a better job of including the Deaf in planning relevant to their needs. In particular, culturally deaf people should urge inclusion of relevant information about the Deaf in the next DSM revision.
Short-term memory (STM), or the ability to hold information in mind for a few seconds, is thought to be limited in its capacity to about 7 +/- 2 items. Notably, the average STM capacity when using American Sign Language (ASL) rather than English is only 5 +/- 1 items. Here we show that, contrary to previous interpretations, this difference cannot be attributed to phonological factors, item duration or reduced memory abilities in deaf people. We also show that, despite this difference in STM span, hearing speakers and deaf ASL users have comparable working memory resources during language use, indicating similar abilities to maintain and manipulate linguistic information. The shorter STM span in ASL users therefore confirms the view that the spoken span of 7 +/- 2 is an exception, probably owing to the reliance of speakers on auditory-based rather than visually based representations in linguistic STM, and calls for adjustments in the norms used with deaf individuals.
To This is a 1 test per thousand learn more about normal language development in deaf children, we have developed the MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory for American Sign Language (ASL-CDI), a parent report that measures early sign production. The ASL-CDI is an inventory of sign glosses organized into semantic categories targeted to assess sign language skills in children ages 8 to 36 months. The ASL-CDI uses a recognition format in which parents check off signs that their child produces. The form has demonstrated excellent reliability and validity. To date, normative data have been collected from 69 deaf children with deaf parents who are learning sign language as a first language. We discuss the development of the ASl-CDI and preliminary cross-sectional and longitudinal findings from this early data collection with particular focus on parallels with spoken language acquisition. We also discuss the acquisition of first signs, negation, wh-questions, and fingerspelling with developmental patterns provided based on age, as well as vocabulary size.
Deaf children who are native users of American Sign Language (ASL) and hearing children who are native English speakers performed three working memory tasks. Results indicate that language modality shapes the architecture of working memory. Digit span with forward and backward report, performed by each group in their native language, suggests that the language rehearsal mechanisms for spoken language and for sign language differ in their processing constraints. Unlike hearing children, deaf children who are native signers of ASL were as good at backward recall of digits as at forward recall, suggesting that serial order information for ASL is stored in a form that does not have a preferred directionality. Data from a group of deaf children who were not native signers of ASL rule out explanations in terms of a floor effect or a nonlinguistic visual strategy. Further, deaf children who were native signers outperformed hearing children on a nonlinguistic spatial memory task, suggesting that language expertise in a particular modality exerts an influence on nonlinguistic working memory within that modality. Thus, language modality has consequences for the structure of working memory, both within and outside the linguistic domain.
This article is concerned with ethical aspects of the relations between language minorities using signed languages (called the Deaf-World) and the larger societies that engulf them. The article aims to show that such minorities have the properties of ethnic groups, and that an unsuitable construction of the Deaf-World as a disability group has led to programs of the majority that discourage Deaf children from acquiring the language and culture of the Deaf-World and that aim to reduce the number of Deaf births-programs that are unethical from an ethnic group perspective. Four reasons not to construe the Deaf-World as a disability group are advanced: Deaf people themselves do not believe they have a disability; the disability construction brings with it needless medical and surgical risks for the Deaf child; it also endangers the future of the Deaf-World; finally, the disability construction brings bad solutions to real problems because it is predicated on a misunderstanding.
With much earlier identification of hearing loss come expectations that increasing numbers of deaf children will develop literacy abilities comparable to their hearing age peers. To date, despite claims in the literature for parallel development between hearing and deaf learners with respect to early literacy learning, it remains the case that many deaf children do not go on to develop age-appropriate reading and writing abilities. Using written language examples from both deaf and hearing children and drawing on the developmental models of E. Ferreiro (1990) and D. Olson (1994), the discussion focuses on the ways in which deaf children draw apart from hearing children in the third stage of early literacy development, in the critical move from emergent to conventional literacy. Reasons for, and the significance of, this deviation are explored, with an eye to proposing implications for pedagogy and research, as we reconsider what really matters in the early literacy development of deaf children.
A new test of verbal learning and memory in British Sign Language. Manuscript submitted for publication
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The British Sign Language Cognitive Screening test
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Children's test of non-word repetition
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