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Current threats faced by Neotropical parrot populations
Abstract
Psittaciformes (parrots, cockatoos) are among the most endangered birds, with 31% of Neotropical species under
threat. The drivers of this situation appear to be manifold and mainly of anthropogenic origin. However, this
assessment is based on the last extensive consultation about the conservation situation of parrots carried out in
the 1990s. Given the rapid development of anthropogenic threats, updated data are needed to strategize conservation
actions. Using a population approach, we addressed this need through a wide-ranging consultation
involving biologists, wildlife managers, government agencies and non-governmental conservation organizations.
We gathered up-to-date information on threats affecting 192 populations of 96 Neotropical parrot species across
21 countries. Moreover, we investigated associations among current threats and population trends. Many populations
were affected by multiple threats. Agriculture, Capture for the Pet Trade, Logging, each of them affected>
55% of the populations, suggesting a higher degree of risk than previously thought. In contrast to
previous studies at the species level, our study showed that the threat most closely associated with decreasing
population trends is now Capture for the local Pet Trade. Other threats associated with decreasing populations
include Small-holder Farming, Rural Population Pressure, Nest Destruction by Poachers, Agro-industry Grazing,
Small-holder Grazing, and Capture for the international Pet Trade. Conservation actions have been implemented
on< 20% of populations. Our results highlight the importance of a population-level approach in revealing the
extent of threats to wild populations. It is critical to increase the scope of conservation actions to reduce the
capture of wild parrots for pets.
Supplementary resources (3)
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... More concerning than illegal international trade appears to be illegal domestic trade, especially in the Neotropics (Ortiz-von Halle, 2018). A recent assessment by parrot experts suggested that approximately 70% of the Neotropical parrot populations were threatened by illegal domestic trade (Berkunsky et al., 2017). The fact that tens of thousands of parrots are annually sold at illicit markets in countries such as Bolivia, Peru, or Brazil is of great concern (Gastañaga et al., 2011;Herrera & Hennessey, 2007;N obrega-Alves et al., 2013). ...
... Despite its conservation implications (Berkunsky et al., 2017), little is known about several key aspects of the illegal domestic trade of parrots (S anchez-Mercado et al., 2021). Pires (2015a) and Pires et al. (2016) found that most parrots available for sale in city markets of Bolivia and Peru were poached within a radius of approximately 250 km, suggesting that traded individuals can be moved over highly variable distances. ...
... Together with habitat loss, the illegal pet trade is considered one of the major threats for parrots and other birds in the Neotropics (Berkunsky et al., 2017;Dayer et al., 2020), and much of the information on species poached, their origin, and the actors involved in this activity has come from surveys of illicit city markets in Peru (Daut, Brightsmith, Mendoza, et al., 2015;Gastañaga et al., 2011;Leberatto, 2016;Pires, 2015aPires, , 2015b. Although extremely F I G U R E 5 (a) Locally poached parrots locally kept as pets showed a lower selectivity index (SI) than those moved from their native ranges. ...
Illegal wildlife trade remains highly active in the Neotropics, as indicated by the thousands of parrots annually sold in illicit city markets. However, little is known about where parrots are poached, whether certain parrot species are selected among those available in the wild, their trade routes, and potential conservation impacts. We conducted a large-scale survey in Peru and southern Ecuador to simultaneously estimate the relative abundance of parrots in the wild and as household pets in rural areas, determine their origin (locally poached or bought at city markets), and measured the shortest distances to their native ranges and markets through the existing grid of roads. Household-poached native parrots were found in 96% of the rural localities surveyed. Most pets were locally poached, with only 14% of them bought at markets. Parrot poaching was highly selective, with preferred species (mainly Amazon parrots and large macaws) being collected much more than expected given their abundances in the wild and attaining higher prices than the other species. Individuals that were moved away from their native ranges or bought at distant markets were of those species most preferred by people, and covered large distances (up to 1010 km), even crossing country boundaries. Our results differ from those previously obtained from city markets and seizures of illegally traded parrots in Peru, where preferred species were underrepresented. Local poaching and rural trade activities act at very large spatial scales and negatively affect the population trends of preferred parrot species. This unsustain-able scenario is a challenge to the application of effective conservation actions aimed at halting poaching and illegal trade. These actions should focus on very extensive and remote rural areas throughout the Neotropics rather than just on well-known markets located in large cities.
... Additionally, Psittaciformes are the most endangered large order of birds, with 28% of the species classified as threatened or endangered worldwide (Olah et al. 2016, BirdLife International 2019. Much of this is not only a result of their low fecundity rates, but also vulnerability to habitat loss and nest poaching; recent estimates indicate that 68% of Neotropical parrot populations are at risk of continued decline due to poaching (Berkunsky et al. 2017b). Despite these threats, little is known about the conservation status of many parrot populations (Berkunsky et al. 2017b), highlighting the critical need to understand factors affecting nest survival, and therefore, juvenile recruitment for these threatened birds. ...
... Much of this is not only a result of their low fecundity rates, but also vulnerability to habitat loss and nest poaching; recent estimates indicate that 68% of Neotropical parrot populations are at risk of continued decline due to poaching (Berkunsky et al. 2017b). Despite these threats, little is known about the conservation status of many parrot populations (Berkunsky et al. 2017b), highlighting the critical need to understand factors affecting nest survival, and therefore, juvenile recruitment for these threatened birds. Nest predation is among the most common causes of nest failure in avian species (Weatherhead and Blouin-Demers 2004, Stojanovic et al. 2014, Menezes and Marini 2017. ...
... Poaching is considered among the greatest threats to nest survival for parrots worldwide (Olah et al. 2016, Berkunsky et al. 2017b. Wright et al. (2001) estimated an average of 30% of nest failure across Neotropical parrot populations are attributed to poaching with estimates of 70-100% in extreme cases (Wright et al. 2001, Pain et al. 2006). ...
The endangered Yellow-headed Parrot (Amazona oratrix) has experienced a considerable reduction in abundance and distribution. Identifying natural and anthropogenic causes of nest failure is a critical step towards developing conservation actions that increase nest survival. In this study, we examined daily nest survival in relation to temporal, habitat, and anthropogenic factors, as well as nest site properties. We monitored nests (n = 124) across 6 study sites in Belize during 2017 and 2018 and independently modeled the effects of predation, abandonment and poaching on daily nest survival rates. Overall, the estimated cumulative nest survival probability was 0.18 (95% CI: 0.12–0.25). Predation was the main cause of nest failure, followed by abandonment, and poaching. Our results showed that nest predation and abandonment usually occurred early in the nesting cycle. Day within the nesting season negatively influenced daily survival for abandoned nests and had a quadratic effect on survival for poached nests. Poaching events occurred at a specific date range later in the season, with nests farther from the nearest human settlement having higher daily survival. Findings from this study highlight the additive mortality effect that nest poaching is having on Yellow-headed Parrot populations in Belize and show that managers can anticipate the timing and location of nests most vulnerable to poaching.
... As we enter the early stages of the 'Sixth Mass Extinction' (Ceballos et al., 2015), conservation agencies are struggling to face the challenges of a less certain future (Armsworth et al., 2015) as a consequence of habitat conversion and climate change (Urban, 2015). While the population-level responses of avian taxa to anthropogenic pressures are mixed (Radchuk et al., 2019), parrots (Psittaciformes) appear to be especially vulnerable, and are among the most threatened orders of birds (Butchart et al., 2004), with many species and populations subject to diverse and largely consistent threats across several continents (Martin et al., 2014;Berkunsky et al., 2017;Olah et al., 2018). Furthermore, 38 % of parrot populations in the Neotropics show declining trends in abundance (Berkunsky et al., 2017), while of 15 large parrot species researched in Africa and Madagascar, 12 (75 %) showed evidence of population declines in parts of their geographical range (Martin et al., 2014). ...
... While the population-level responses of avian taxa to anthropogenic pressures are mixed (Radchuk et al., 2019), parrots (Psittaciformes) appear to be especially vulnerable, and are among the most threatened orders of birds (Butchart et al., 2004), with many species and populations subject to diverse and largely consistent threats across several continents (Martin et al., 2014;Berkunsky et al., 2017;Olah et al., 2018). Furthermore, 38 % of parrot populations in the Neotropics show declining trends in abundance (Berkunsky et al., 2017), while of 15 large parrot species researched in Africa and Madagascar, 12 (75 %) showed evidence of population declines in parts of their geographical range (Martin et al., 2014). However, estimates of population density exist for only 25 % of parrot species, and those estimates suggest that parrot density is higher inside of protected areas than outside of them (Marsden et al., 2015), demonstrating the critical importance of conservation action. ...
... In general, parrots have long generation times, and low population densities, both life history traits that are associated with increased extinction risk (Bennett and Owens 1997;Cardillo et al., 2005). Parrots are also disproportionately targeted for hunting and trapping, with > 68 % of populations in the Neotropics and 11 of 15 (> 73 %) of assessed large parrots in Africa and Madagascar affected by capture for the pet trade, and millions of parrots being exported for trade in recent decades (Martin et al., 2014, Berkunsky et al., 2017Martin, 2018;Olah et al., 2018). With the exception of colony-nesting species (Wermundsen, 1998;Masello et al., 2006), parrot species that are larger-bodied and have longer generation times are generally found at relatively lower densities (Marsden et al., 2015) and are more likely than are smaller parrot species to be obligate tree-cavity nesters (Renton et al., 2015). ...
In addition to changes associated with climate and land use, parrots are threatened by hunting and capture for the pet trade, making them one of the most at risk orders of birds for which conservation action is especially important. Species richness is often used to identify high priority areas for conserving biodiversity. By definition, richness considers all species to be equally different from one another. However, ongoing research emphasizes the importance of incorporating ecological functions (functional diversity) or evolutionary relationships (phylogenetic diversity) to more fully understand patterns of biodiversity, because (1) areas of high species richness do not always represent areas of high functional or phylogenetic diversity, and (2) functional or phylogenetic diversity may better predict ecosystem function and evolutionary potential, which are essential for effective long–term conservation policy and management. We created a framework for identifying areas of high species richness, functional diversity, and phylogenetic diversity within the global distribution of parrots. We combined species richness, functional diversity, and phylogenetic diversity into an Integrated Biodiversity Index (IBI) to identify global biodiversity hotspots for parrots. We found important spatial mismatches between dimensions, demonstrating species richness is not always an effective proxy for other dimensions of parrot biodiversity. The IBI is an integrative and flexible index that can incorporate multiple dimensions of biodiversity, resulting in an intuitive and direct way of assessing comprehensive goals in conservation planning.
... Thus, around 23% of the species observed in urban centers in the Southern Cone are native species from other regions of South America, and/or come from other continents. This situation is mostly attributed to active transport in association with the wildlife trade, and subsequent escapes or voluntary releases [30,67]. In general, captured specimens are transported to large cities because of the greater demand and supply of birds. ...
... Regarding the use of urban environments by parrots, significant associations of species with parks and public walkways were detected across the size range of the urban centers studied, even considering that these are spaces that have a minority areal representation in the urban environment. Green spaces have been mentioned as key sites for this group of birds as they provide food resources throughout the year [30,38,44,86]. ...
Data on the interactions between the order Psittaciformes and the anthropogenic environment are still insufficient and have not been systematized, especially in the Neotropical region. As a consequence of this coexistence, the volume of accumulated knowledge is probably significantly greater than the formal scientific contributions on the subject. In this survey, information was compiled on the wild parrots inhabiting cities in the Southern Cone of South America, based on surveys with key informants. The results obtained highlighted the presence of a large number of parrot species that form part of the urban avifauna of the region, between 67% and 90% of the total number of species of the order cited for each territory evaluated. The greatest species richness and the number of breeding species were associated with the large cities located in middle and low latitudes. We confirmed breeding within the cities for more than 40% of the species mentioned. Seventy-five percent of the species reported are native to the study area, the rest originating from other regions of South America or other continents. A quarter of the reported species are considered threatened and almost 50% have declining populations. Urban parrots represent a challenge in the search for urban models compatible with biodiversity conservation, and in the designing of innovative conservation strategies that respond to the new challenges posed by a constantly growing human population.
... With their small size, islands often harbour small, vulnerable populations as is the case in parrots [45]. Indeed, many islands endemic species of parrots are considered threatened such as amazons in the Caribbean and lorikeets in Indonesia. ...
... The research here suggests that smaller foraging group sizes in insular parrots are probably linked to depauperate predator communities rather than the consequences of low research effort, benign climate or low population density thus supporting the key role that predators play in the evolution of group size in animals [53]. While smaller group sizes on islands are adapted to relaxed predation pressure, introduced predators may greatly benefit from species with small, vulnerable groups [54], adding to a growing list of concerns for the conservation of parrots [45]. ...
Species living on islands are predictably different from their mainland counterparts in morphology and behaviour, but the source of these differences is still debated. Islands, in particular, are characterized by depauperate predator communities. Relaxed predation pressure might explain why living in groups, a common anti-predator adaptation in animals, is considered less likely on islands. However, the empirical evidence for this effect is scant and alternative explanations have been overlooked. For instance, smaller groups might be more common because island species are less studied, because a more stable food supply associated with benign climate on islands favours territoriality, or because the population density is too low to allow the formation of larger groups. I examined the determinants of foraging group size in parrots, a large worldwide avian order with many island populations. Using a multivariable phylogenetic framework, I found that foraging group size was smaller on islands than on the continents controlling for ecological variables known to influence group size such as diet and body size. In addition, the island effect persisted after controlling for research effort, climate variables and population density, suggesting that impoverished predator communities are an important driver of group size on islands.
... Psittacine species in the Neotropics are usually threatened by habitat transformation and illegal trade [6,[11][12][13]. In a recent study, for A. finschi, a significant loss in its distribution of 37.6% was estimated with respect to the historical range of 332,597 km 2 , presenting a modest protected area equivalent to 6.6% of the current distribution [6]. ...
... Among the psittacines in Mexico, the Lilac-crowned Parrot is notable, as this species has recently been recognized as endangered based on a decreasing population trend and with the loss of its historical distribution range, particularly in Nayarit, Guerrero, and Oaxaca [5,6]. The threats to its populations are well known and have been reported previously [6,[11][12][13]. For the conservation of this species endemic to Mexico, data must be gathered from different sources. ...
The Lilac-crowned Amazon (Amazona finschi) is an endemic parrot from western Mexico with a historical distribution in the Pacific Slope from southern Sonora and southwestern Chihuahua to Oaxaca. However, a particularly worrying decline in the extension of its distribution range has been reported in the central and southern regions. Overall, the species is listed in CITES the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, and the official Mexican standard NOM-059 as endangered. In this study, we aimed to obtain molecular information to support the planning of conservation strategies for A. finschi. For this purpose, we analyzed the genetic diversity and genealogical relationships between two groups of individuals from northern (Sinaloa) and central (Michoacan) portions of the species’ range based on mitochondrial DNA markers. In general agreement with the endangered status of the species, we found low genetic diversity values. However, at the regional level, the northern group showed high genetic diversity and the central group showed a lack of genetic diversity. Furthermore, in agreement with the proposal that A. finschi is monotypic, genealogical relationships revealed a haplotype distributed in the center and the north, although haplotypes exclusive to the north were also found. We suggest a differentiated management of northern and central populations to preserve evolutionary potential.
... Parrot behavior has been widely studied in captivity (Wilkinson 2000;Wilson and Luescher 2006), which may be related to the attractiveness of parrots to people or to the ease of capturing them in the wild, among other factors. However, the opposite is true for behavioral studies of wild populations (Berkunsky et al. 2017). Human intrusions and disturbances, such as recreational activities, are affecting more than 100 parrot populations in the Neotropics, and monitoring these populations has become a high priority activity (Berkunsky et al. 2017). ...
... However, the opposite is true for behavioral studies of wild populations (Berkunsky et al. 2017). Human intrusions and disturbances, such as recreational activities, are affecting more than 100 parrot populations in the Neotropics, and monitoring these populations has become a high priority activity (Berkunsky et al. 2017). Understanding tolerance through the study of risk-taking behavior of species inhabiting areas where human activities overlap with those of wildlife can be helpful for delineating buffer zones to minimize potential human disturbance on wildlife (Rodgers and Smith 1997). ...
The increase in human population poses great challenges to birds inhabiting coastal areas, and studying their behavioral responses against these disturbances is an effective approach to understanding how tolerant species are. Our main goal was to describe the risk-taking behavior of breeding burrowing parrots (Cyanoliseus patagonus) against an approaching person. For this, we measured flight initiation distance (FID) and latency time of nesting burrowing parrots on a reproductive colony situated northwest of the San Matias Gulf, northern Argentine Patagonia. We also inquired how anthropic, environmental and ethological variables affected this behavior, and checked if the species´ reproductive success of the species varied against such disturbance. The mean FID estimated and the mean latency time were only affected by cloud coverage, and both increased with overcast conditions. burrowing parrots did not modify their FID throughout the breeding season, but returned to previous activities sooner as the breeding season progressed. The effect of our experimental disturbance did not affect the reproductive success of the species. Our results suggest that burrowing parrots show a tameness to the disturbance caused by a human approach, as reflected by their relatively short flight initiation distances, an effect also reported in other bird species inhabiting urban habitats.
... This scenario can adversely affect forest-dependent species such as many Psittaciformes (hereafter called parrots) and represents a significant threat to their survival and population persistence [3]. Globally, this avian group is highly at risk, with nearly a third (29%) of these species threatened with extinction [4], mainly as a result of anthropogenic activities [4,5]. ...
... This scenario can adversely affect forest-dependent species such as many Psittaciformes (hereafter called parrots) and represents a significant threat to their survival and population persistence [3]. Globally, this avian group is highly at risk, with nearly a third (29%) of these species threatened with extinction [4], mainly as a result of anthropogenic activities [4,5]. ...
We describe efforts to reintroduce the extinct-in-the-wild Spix’s Macaw (Cyanopsitta spixii) within its historical range in eastern Brazil. Twenty captive-reared Spix’s Macaws were released, along with 15 Blue-Winged Macaws (Primolius maracana), as heterospecific flocks in two events during the dry and rainy seasons of 2022. We monitored the release groups through daily observation and telemetry tracking from early June 2022 to early June 2023. We documented an overall first-year survival of 58.3% (CI: 37.8–78.7%), with 65% of Spix’s Macaws establishing a stable area of activity within 5 km of the release site, excluding any temporary long-distance forays. Eighty-five percent of released Spix’s Macaws exhibited flock cohesion, including interactions with and integration into wild Blue-Winged Macaw groups at the release site. Several released Spix’s Macaws formed pair-bonds with conspecifics and engaged in nest cavity exploration, breeding behavior, and territorial defense of nest sites, with three females also laying and incubating eggs. One nesting pair successfully hatched and reared chicks in an artificial nest cavity. These releases employed a novel reintroduction strategy using a surrogate species model, the sympatric Blue-Winged Macaw, to “mentor” and facilitate post-release adaptation by the target species and increase the total number of individuals in the release cohort. Lastly, participatory monitoring by local citizens is considered a way to engage and involve local communities in species and habitat conservation and potentially create new employment opportunities in the region.
... Parrots perform a variety of ecological functions, i.e., direct and indirect cascading effects on entire plant life cycles via seed predation, seed dispersal, pollination, protection or healing, and even waste food facilitation, and act as ecosystem engineers (Blanco et al. 2015(Blanco et al. , 2018Heinsohn et al. 2018). Furthermore, parrots are among the most endangered birds (Olah et al. 2016;Berkunsky et al. 2017;Vergara-Tabares et al. 2020), implying a potential loss of their ecological function at the ecosystem level (Valiente-Banuet et al. 2015), including within urbanized landscapes. Therefore, the focus on ecosystem functions performed by urban parrots, particularly their roles in biotic resistance, underpins strategies to conserve such birds. ...
... In an increasingly urbanized world (Chen et al. 2020) filled with alien plant species (Aronson et al. 2014(Aronson et al. , 2017 and associated negative impacts (Kumar Rai and Singh 2020; Kumar Rai 2021), the role of urban parrot species in potentially providing biotic resistance should not be ignored. Many parrot species have experienced a population decline (e.g., Berkunsky et al. 2017) and have been increasingly forced to live in anthropogenic environments, including urbanized areas (Davis et al. 2012;Melo 2013, 2018;Santos and Ragusa-Netto 2014;Silva 2018ab;Silva et al. 2015;. In fact, one species addressed in this study, i.e., A. xanthops (Fig. 2c), is near threatened (BirdLife International 2022) and inhabits anthropogenic areas (Silva and Melo 2013). ...
Alien plants grown in urban areas can spread through natural and anthropogenic ecosystems, adversely impacting native biota. Propagule pressure (i.e., seed, individual, and introduction number) increases the spreading probability, but native herbivorous predators can limit it via biotic resistance. Parrots are primary consumers, and although they interact antagonistically with alien plants, their role in biotic resistance seems overlooked. Here, we highlight the potential role of urban parrots in biotic resistance based on florivory activity in Gliricidia sepium (Fabaceae), an alien tree with invasive traits. We performed focal observations on four G. sepium trees planted in an urbanized area in Brazil to assess parrot florivory magnitude. As a complement, we performed road transects to record food plants and determine whether parrots prefer G. sepium over native plants, a significant fact from the perspective of biotic resistance. Parrots prey on 33% of G. sepium flower crops in 16 h, presumably resulting in seed loss for recruitment – florivory occurs before fruit and seed formation and may characterize a type of predispersal seed predation. Three parrot species preferred G. sepium flowers to some native food plant species. Our investigation suggests that parrots potentially provide biotic resistance in urbanized areas by exerting high predation pressure on the reproductive structures of alien plants. Maintaining native urban parrots can be a conservation tool to resist invasion by alien plant species. Parrot food plants, mainly native ones, should be urban greening options to enhance this ecological function.
... Habitat destruction and capture for the pet trade are considered the most important contributing factors to parrots' population declines worldwide, including in Africa (Olah et al. 2016). Populations of parrots are also threatened by infectious diseases, persecution and introduced species (Warburton and Perrin 2006;Grarock et al. 2013;Martin et al. 2014;Berkunsky et al. 2017;Fogell et al. 2018). Given the large number of threatened species, parrots have received insufficient research attention (Christie et al. 2021), and little is known about the status and basic biology of many wild populations. ...
... One of the group's aims is to facilitate regional reviews of conservation and research priorities. Since its formation, several reviews have been completed, including a review of the 'larger' parrots in Africa and Madagascar (Martin et al. 2014;Berkunsky et al. 2017). However, there has been no review of the continent's lovebirds (genus Agapornis) to provide a current and easily available synthesis of research and conservation. ...
Lovebirds (genus Agapornis of family Psittaculidae) are a group of small, colourful parrot species endemic to
sub-Saharan Africa and Madagascar, two-thirds of which are considered to have declining populations. Effective
conservation efforts are hampered by a lack of information, particularly for species occurring in regions that have
received little research attention. We combined expert knowledge with a review of the primary and grey literature
to identify key knowledge gaps and priority conservation actions for this group of birds. Published studies were
found to be largely concentrated on lovebird populations in southern Africa and, to a lesser extent in East Africa,
and therefore mostly concern members of the ‘white eye-ring’ clade. Some species, such as the Black-collared
Lovebird Agapornis swindernianus, remain very poorly studied, with a lack of even basic information such as
georeferenced occurrence records. Several lovebird species were historically taken from the wild in large numbers
for the international pet trade, leading to population declines. Although trade in wild lovebirds has been much
reduced compared with historical levels, considerable numbers are still captured for local and international trade
without any monitoring of the wild populations. Habitat change continues to drive declines in the population and
range of some species, particularly those considered habitat specialists, such as the Nyasa Lovebird A. lilianae
and the Black-cheeked Lovebird A. nigrigenis. However, changing habitat has also driven range expansions and,
in combination with trade, has created numerous novel contact zones between formerly allopatric species, such
as between Fischer’s Lovebird A. fischeri and Yellow-collared Lovebird A. personatus. Hybridisation has been
widely reported, particularly in East Africa, and studies on the implications of this for conservation, building on
recent advances in genetic tools, are urgently needed. We call for more targeted research on lovebirds to inform
assessments of their population trends, to understand the drivers of these trends, and to highlight opportunities to
leverage existing data and new research tools to advance knowledge to support conservation in this group of birds.
... Populations of parrots in the Neotropics face two principal threats: habitat loss because of anthropogenic land use and pressure from the international and domestic pet trade (Berkunsky et al. 2017, IUCN 2021. From 1990 to 1997, the whole of Latin America had an annual 0.33% mean net deforestation rate of humid forest (Lambin et al. 2003). ...
... Additionally, parrots are commonly reported in the international pet trade (legal and illegal): their incidence is 14 times more likely than if trade was random among all birds (Bush et al. 2014). A mix of domestic and international pet trade is common throughout the Neotropics (Beissinger 2001, Daut et al. 2015 and is considered a threat to 68% of populations (Berkunsky et al. 2017). ...
Monitoring parrot populations is of high importance because there is a general lack of quantified population trends for one of the most threatened avian orders. We surveyed parrots in Nicaragua in 1995, 1999, 2004, and 2013 at a minimum of 227 points within 56 sites stratified among the Pacific, Central Highlands, and Caribbean biogeographical regions to assess population trends. From point-count data we calculated encounter rate, flock rate, and flock size metrics and we used presence/absence data to generate species-specific occupancy estimates. Encounter rate, flock rate, and flock size data suggested family-level declines from 1995 to 2004 with some recovery between 2004 and 2013. Patterns of parrot occupancy varied among species with four decreasing, five increasing, and two with no detectable change. Six species of conservation concern are identified, including the Critically Endangered Great Green Macaw and Yellow-naped Parrot, additionally Olive-throated Parakeet, Scarlet Macaw, Brown-hooded Parrot, and White-crowned Parrot, only listed as Least Concern. All six are likely suffering from deforestation and potential unchecked trade activity in the Caribbean. Differing population trends of the regionally disjunct Yellow-naped Parrot subspecies suggest a link to variable deforestation and trade pressure experienced between the Pacific and Caribbean. Our results highlight the importance of actively monitoring changing parrot populations, even when considered Least Concern, so that directed conservation actions can be taken if needed.
... Submitted 5 May 2020 • First decision 5 June 2020 · Acceptance 27 July 2022 • Online publication 25 October 2022 Communicated by Katherine Renton © Neotropical Ornithological Society behavior of parrots in response to such erratic food offer should be carried out over areas composed by habitat mosaics as diverse as possible (Haugaasen & Peres 2007). In fact, important feeding areas and the resources exploited by parrots should be identified and assessed because such basic data are central to be employed as a tool for their long-term conservation (Renton 2001, Berkunsky et al. 2017, Rivera et al. 2019. Notwithstanding, the scarcity of basic knowledge for many species continues to be one of the major gaps in parrot ecology (Renton et al. 2015), which is a concern as they are among the most threatened group of birds (Olah et al. 2016). ...
... Six parrot species are common in the area, ranging from the small Eupsittula aurea to the large Ara ararauna, in addition to Alipiopsitta xanthops, Amazona aestiva, Diopsittaca nobilis, and Ortopsittaca manilata. Although none of them are critically endangered, all are vulnerable due to pet trade (Berkunsky et al. 2017) and the accelerated clearing of the cerrado, as approximately 50% of the original area is under agricultural use (Carvalho et al. 2009, Beuchle et al. 2015. ...
In this study, during two years, I documented the feeding habits of a parrot assemblage in response to food resources offer (abundance, nº of food species, and diversity), across a habitat mosaic in the Brazilian Cerrado. In addition, to each parrot species, I compared variations in those parameters across seasons, as well as in the feeding niche breadth. The feeding activity of every parrot species paralleled both food abundance and the number of food species available. In fact, despite fluctuations, food abundance, the number of food species, and diversity exhibited similar values through seasons, suggesting a trend for adequate food supply across the three major habitat types (palm swamp, gallery forest, and the dominant Cerrado vegetation). Excepting Orthopsittaca manilata (foraged only on Mauritia flexuosa fruit pulp), all other five species (Ara ararauna, Amazona aestiva, Alipiopsitta xanthops, Eupsittula aurea, and Diopsittaca nobilis) showed wide feeding niche breadth. Their broad diets resulted from the opportunist use of a rich collection of seasonal food species. Moreover, they presented diet association according to plant part eaten, in which parrot’s diet displayed a gradient that had an increasingly greater dominance of seeds (A. ararauna, A. aestiva, and A. aurea), to a diet composed mainly by fruit pulp and flowers (A. xanthops, and D. nobilis). The accelerated fragmentation process of the Brazilian Cerrado has been suppressing habitat types in which unpredictable and scattered food patches might be available to parrots. Thus, conservation plans should prioritize the inclusion of habitat mosaics, at least, in the form documented here. As a concern, in the smaller Cerrado remnants, food resources available may be scarce, mainly in terms of the variety and abundance year-round required by parrots.
... The pet trade is considered a serious threat to many Neotropical parrot species (Berkunsky et al., 2017) with the potential impacts of market trade and internal exports compounded by local poaching for self-supply or local scale rural sales (Romero-Vidal et al., 2023). An apparent decline in numbers of Illiger's saddle-back tamarin is also attributed in part to hunting for the pet trade, which is believed to have increased in the last decade (Heymann et al., 2020). ...
Introduction: Domestic wildlife markets have important nutritional, medicinal, cultural, and financial significance for local communities, but the scale and diversity of wildlife trade that passes through them is also associated with negative impacts on biodiversity, poor animal welfare, and potential human health risk. To design, and monitor the effectiveness of, interventions to ameliorate such impacts, an understanding of the species sold at the markets and their purpose is required, together with a robust (and potentially flexible) baseline. Here we focus on Belén (the largest open wildlife market in the Peruvian Amazon) and Modelo market, in Iquitos, Peru. Methods: We surveyed wildlife products for sale at both markets approximately weekly over a year, using two different survey methods (open and discreet). To provide a baseline to support future conservation monitoring, we estimated a number of different market metrics (including indices of product availability, volume (observed per survey), and price), for the most frequently observed species 'groups', and compared indices of trade volume with daily river water levels. To provide a complete understanding of the range of species involved, we also described all threatened species recorded at the markets, the products sold, and their uses, including those that were only observed occasionally. Results: Both markets sold predominantly wild meat, and some pets; at Belé n Market >30% observations were of decorative, spiritual, or medicinal products. At least 71 unique species (including mammals, reptiles, birds, and invertebrates) were observed in total. The most frequently observed species 'groups' were: lowland paca, peccaries, caiman, river turtles, boas, yellow footed tortoise, parrots, and brocket deer. 27.7% of species were threatened or Near Threatened globally or nationally but there was no evidence that discreet surveys increased their detection. Daily river water levels were positively correlated with indices of trade volume for lowland paca, caiman, and yellow-footed tortoise, and negatively correlated with indices of trade volume for parrots and river turtle eggs.
... The practice of keeping parrots goes back centuries (Boehrer, 2010) and is popular in many cultures due to the birds' colorful plumage, intelligence, mimicry capabilities, and rarity (Jain et al., 2022;Tella & Hiraldo, 2014). This trade has placed enormous pressure on wild populations of parrots (Berkunsky et al., 2017;Nandika et al., 2021), destinations (e.g., Hart et al., 2013), as many parrots have high caretaking demands that are challenging to meet (Bradshaw & Engebretson, 2013). ...
The volume and scale of commercial captive breeding of parrots have grown dramatically in recent decades. Although it has been proposed, and is often assumed, that captive breeding can reduce pressure on wild populations, there has been little scrutiny of the scale, viability, or impacts of captive breeding to prevent overexploitation among parrots, compared with similar approaches in other threatened taxa, such as pangolins or tigers. We reviewed the primary and gray literature to quantitatively and qualitatively evaluate evidence concerning 5 criteria, established a priori, for commercial captive breeding of parrots as an effective supply‐side intervention. We focused on a sample of 16 threatened parrot species that are heavily traded or for which unsustainable trade has been a factor in the decline of wild populations, representing a range of taxonomic groups, life histories, and native regions. We identified multiple major gaps in knowledge of the extent to which these criteria are met, including a lack of quantitative data on breeding productivity under current commercial breeding practices, the scale and scope of commercial breeding practices in growing parrot markets, particularly in the Middle East and Asia, and the lack of financial viability of captive breeding under effective regulation to prevent laundering or use of wild‐sourced specimens as breeding stock. The capacity for captive breeding to displace demand for wild‐sourced parrots varied between species, and complex interactions between trade in different species and contexts sometimes made consequences of commercial production difficult to predict. Decision makers and regulatory authorities should approach commercial captive breeding of parrots with caution and take into account knowledge gaps and cross‐linkages between trade in different species to avoid unanticipated consequences from stimulating and facilitating unsustainable trade in wild‐sourced parrots.
... Trade in wild Neotropical birds has included many species of cavity-nesting parrots (Alves et al. 2013, Tella and Hiraldo 2014, Berkunsky et al. 2017). It has occurred since pre-colonial times, when parrots were transported through extensive Indigenous trade routes. ...
About 35% of tree-cavity-nesting bird species inhabit the Neotropics, a region crucial to understanding their breeding ecology, conservation, and roles in social-ecological systems. Sixteen years ago, Cornelius et al. (2008) reviewed published knowledge and identified research priorities for Neotropical cavity-nesting birds. Advances since 2008 have not been synthesized and many remain excluded from dominant ornithology because of barriers that disproportionately affect people and ideas from the Global South. Here, we review recent advances in knowledge about Neotropical cavity-nesting birds, introduce the Special Feature series "Ecology and conservation of cavity nesters in the Neotropics", and outline possible directions for future research. Research in the Neotropics has advanced knowledge of breeding biology, demonstrated that nest sites are limited and birds compete for cavities (mainly in humid forests), identified non-excavated cavities (formed by wood decay) as the main source of cavities and demonstrated the importance of understanding Indigenous and local community relationships to birds. With field studies across the Neotropics, the Special Feature series shows how environment, people's common imaginaries, vegetation management, and behavior of avian excavators can interact to influence cavity availability, with ecological consequences for many cavity-using organisms. In the future, researchers should center ethno-knowledge and natural history to create an accurate list of cavity-nesting birds in the Neotropics, and integrate this knowledge into studies of population and community ecology. It is also important to study factors that influence cavity dynamics, especially using a social-ecological systems framework and especially in arid and semi-arid regions. We recommend expanding the concept of nest webs (ecological networks of cavity nesters) to incorporate additional cavity substrates (e.g., termitaria, cliffs), cavity alternatives (e.g., bulky enclosed stick nests of many Furnariidae), and cavity-using taxa beyond birds and mammals (e.g., social insects, snakes), which abound in the Neotropics but were not contemplated in the original nest web formulation. Translated versions of this article are available in Supplementary Material 1 (Spanish) and Supplementary Material 2 (Portuguese).
... Many forests in the southern cone of South America have received attention from forest researchers, making more information about the cavity-nester community available. The research has highlighted certain management practices that could potentially be beneficial and favor functionality and persistence for these populations (e.g.: Cornelius, 2008;Cornelius et al., 2008;Politi et al., 2009Politi et al., , 2010Cockle et al., 2011;Berkunsky et al., 2017;Ojeda et al., 2021). With this in mind, some Neotropical regions still need to be evaluated to see if similar trends are present, in order to determine the best management practices going forward. ...
Animal populations that require tree cavities can be either limited or structured depending on the quality and availability of tree cavities in their ecosystems. Over the last century, the Cald´en forest of Argentina has experienced severe habitat degradation due to anthropogenic activities. Here, we report the density and characteristics of cavities and their vertebrate users in areas of the Cald´en forest with two different types of management: a protected area and an area with cattle ranching. The average density of cavities was 16.1 cavities/ha. However, the reserve’s cavity density was four times higher than the ranch’s (19.5 vs. 5.8 cavities/ha). The characteristics of the cavities and their support trees showed significant variations, but they were generally similar between sites. Forty-four vertebrate species use or may use tree cavities. The proportion of recorded species using cavities in the reserve was higher (30/41 vs. 6/32; p < 0.01). While most cavity users in the semi-arid forest are not threatened, this ecosystem has been dramatically fragmented, with only 11% of its original area remaining. If anthropogenic activities continue to alter this fragile ecosystem, it is possible that in the future, many species, including tree cavity nesters, will suffer a decline in their populations.
... El Loro Hablador es considerado uno de los psitácidos más intensamente comercializados por la Argentina como mascota (Pires 2012, Ibañez y Grisolia 2019) por su capacidad de imitar la voz humana (Berkunsky 2010). Esta especie se vio perjudicada tanto por el comercio legal e ilegal de ejemplares, así como la degradación de su hábitat debido a la gana-dería, agricultura e industria forestal (Clarke y de By 2013, Berkunsky et al. 2017a. La captura histórica de ejemplares (tanto adultos como pichones) para su comercialización llevó a la especie a ser categorizada como "casi amenazada" a nivel mundial (BirdLife International 2023). ...
Los psitácidos son a menudo capturados ilegalmente y vendidos como mascotas. La captura his-tórica de ejemplares y la deforestación del bosque nativo han tenido consecuencias negativas sobre los psitá-cidos a nivel global. A nivel local, individuos retenidos como mascotas y posteriormente liberados han podido establecerse fuera de su rango nativo, pudiendo incluso volverse invasoras. El Loro Hablador (Amazona aestiva) es una de las especies buscadas como mascota por su capacidad de imitar sonidos. Individuos liberados en las décadas de 1980 y 1990 en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires establecieron una población a 750 km de su rango de dis-tribución natural. En 2015 y 2018 detectamos dormideros en el barrio de Saavedra y Parque Chas-Agronomía respectivamente. En este trabajo buscamos generar nuevos conocimientos sobre esta población, sus sitios de alimentación, dormideros y comportamiento. Los dos dormideros estudiados los encontramos en especies del arbolado urbano (principalmente Platanus acerifolia) y son los únicos registrados hasta el momento en Buenos Aires. Documentamos un promedio de 243 individuos en 2021 y 180 en 2022. Registramos 12 sitios en un radio de 20 km de distancia al dormidero donde los loros habladores pasan el día. Los loros salen del dormidero al amanecer y regresan al atardecer. Consumen frutos de Platanus acerifolia, Melia azedarach, Eriobotrya japonica,Styphnolobium japonicum, entre otros. Estos dormideros pueden constituir un recurso novedoso para el ecotu-rismo urbano, poniendo en valor a esta especie que persiste fuera de su rango de distribución natural en la cual se encuentra amenazada.
... Anthropogenic noise is considered one of the most invasive and least controlled types of pollution, and probably, the effect of noise will be significantly higher in protected or little-disturbed environments than in transformed ones (Barber et al. 2011;Merchan et al. 2014;de Framond and Brumm 2022). Noise poses a threat to different groups of animals such as fish, amphibians, mammals and birds, as it alters physiological processes and impacts their behavior (Zollinger et al. 2011;Shannon et al. 2016;Berkunsky et al. 2017). Given the growth of urbanization and human activity in natural environments, understanding the potential impacts of noise is essential for the conservation of bird populations and ecosystem functioning. ...
Some urbanization impacts on biodiversity are often underestimated such as noise pollution generated by anthropogenic activities. Birds inhabiting urban and peri-urban areas suffer anthropogenic noise that impact their communication, affecting fitness components as reproduction, distribution, density and diversity patterns. We evaluate how anthropogenic sounds (automobiles, airplanes, and helicopters) affect vocalizations of four functionally important bird species of the Andean-Patagonian Forest: The Thorn-tailed Rayadito (Aphrastura spinicauda, arthropod predator), the White-crested Elaenia (Elaenia albiceps, seed disperser), the Green-backed Firecrown (Sephanoides sephaniodes, pollinator) and the Austral Parakeet (Enicognathus ferrugineus, large seed disperser). During the spring–summer of 2021 and 2022 we placed audio recorders (AudioMoth v 1.2.0) in wooded areas of a city surrounded by a National Park, in Argentine Patagonia. We selected recordings where an individual was vocalizing before, during, and after an anthropogenic noise. From each recording, we analyzed frequency (minimum, maximum and dominant frequency) and temporal bioacoustic parameters (duration of vocalization and pause length between syllables). We found that anthropogenic noise affected all bird species, but responses varied between species. During anthropogenic noise, frequency bioacoustic parameters changed in two studied species, whereas all species modified at least one temporal bioacoustic parameter. Some impacts continued even after the noise ceased. Our results show noise produced by human activities affected bird communication potentially threatening birds’ fitness and ecosystem functioning. Given the increase in urbanization over recent decades, and its associated anthropogenic noise increase, understanding the potential impacts of noise is essential for the conservation of bird populations and maintaining ecosystem functioning.
... Psittaciformes, with 163 species, ranks second among all bird orders in the number of vulnerable or threatened bird species [1]. Illicit wild bird traffic to supply wild pet markets is the major threat to the conservation of these species [3]. The confinement of a wild bird can lead to its inability to perform species-characteristic behaviors and may result in abnormal behaviors and compromised immunity [4][5][6]. ...
The first reports of viruses in psittacine birds date back to the early 1970s. Here, we elucidate the differences among these previous studies and the advances achieved. The objective of this study was to carry out a comprehensive review using both scientometric and systematic methods to analyze the evolution of published studies on viruses in psittacine birds up to 2022. The search descriptors “virus”, “diagnosis”, and “Psittaciformes” were used to find the articles of interest for this study. A total of 118 articles were manually selected, and the scientometric data were organized using the software VOSviewer® version 1.6.18. The present review revealed that: (i) on average, 2.5 articles/year on the diagnosis of viral infection in psittacine birds were published since 1975; (ii) the most productive research groups are concentrated in three countries: Australia, the United States, and Germany; (iii) the most important virus in psittacine birds is the Circovirus, which causes psittacine beak and feather disease; (iv) the diagnostic method of choice is polymerase chain reaction (PCR); and (v) the most studied psittacine birds were those in the Psittacidae family that were kept in captivity.
... As wildlife-focused social media platforms continue gaining traction (Liberatore et al., 2018), citizen science has become an increasingly potent tool for studying Psitacidae. Such beautiful and threatened bird family (Berkunsky et al., 2017), commonly recognized as parrots or psittacines, fulfil numerous ecological roles, including pollination, florivory, seed predation, and seed dispersal, potentially regulating native and alien plants (Bahia et al., 2022;Blanco et al., 2018;Carrete et al., 2022;Renton biomas Cerrado e Amazônia. A predominância de frutos maduros de M. flexuosa na dieta é confirmada, representando 45,2% das 414 fotografias analisadas. ...
Social media platforms focused on wildlife photography have become valuable ecological data sources through citizen science. In this study, we utilized photos shared by citizens on iNaturalist and WikiAves to analyse the interactions of the Red‐bellied Macaw ( Orthopsittaca manilatus Boddaert, 1783) with its food plants. Despite being recognized as specialists in Mauritia flexuosa L.f. palm fruits, our findings suggest some flexibility in the foraging behaviour of the macaws. The photos indicate that palm fruits are an essential food source (20 taxa; highlight the native species M. flexuosa , Euterpe spp., Elaeis oleifera , and Syagrus spp.) in the Cerrado and Amazon biomes. It also confirms the predominance of M. flexuosa ripe pulp fruits in their diet, encompassing 45.2% of the 414 analysed photographs. The results highlight the potential role of the Red‐bellied Macaw in seed dispersal (stomatochory) for various palm species and reveal the consumption of new food sources such as flowers (present in 8% of photos) and alien plants, including the fruits of cultivated Livistona chinensis (Jacq.) R. Br. Ex Mart. palm (10.9%). Our photo analysis provided a comprehensive overview of Red‐bellied Macaws feeding in diverse localities (141 municipalities in 15 Brazilian states) and at different times. As a result, there is a consistent seasonal variation in foraging in the strongly seasonal Cerrado biome, for example, feeding on alien‐cultivated palm fruits in urban areas during the driest period, particularly L. chinensis . Through this photographic approach, we expanded knowledge of the macaw's food plants by 85.7%, now encompassing 26 species compared to the initial 14 documented species. This study underscores the relevance of citizen science in obtaining novel dietary data and deepening our understanding of ecological patterns in specialized species, emphasizing the significance of considerate plant‐bird relationships to support conservation efforts.
... Habitat loss, degradation and fragmentation, and wildlife trade are considered the main anthropogenic threats to this group of birds [3]. Despite this situation, there is still a lack of information on the population size and productivity for most parrot species [4,5], as well as on the non-breeding fraction of their populations [6][7][8], which are key to understanding the relationship between the reproductive ecology of a species and its ability to persist in the long term, and to identify and manage the forces that compromise its persistence. ...
Psittaciformes are one of the bird orders with the highest number of threatened species and the most marked declining population trends. At present, the lack of information on the population size, reproductive fraction, and productivity of most parrot populations makes it difficult to design effective conservation actions. In this study, we monitored a population of Burrowing Parrots (Cyanoliseus patagonus) breeding in urbanized habitats in the southwest of Buenos Aires province, Argentina. Every December and February from 2018 to 2023, we counted the individuals arriving at a single communal roost, located in the main park of Bahía Blanca city, which gathers all the parrots breeding in 18–22 colonies within a radius of 20 km. Censuses were conducted before (December) and immediately after the incorporation of juveniles into the flocks (February). Breeding pairs were also counted annually in the colonies, and the average annual productivity and the proportion of juveniles were estimated from surveys in pre-roosting and feeding areas in February. The non-breeding fraction approached half of the population with no statistically significant differences among years (range: 37–53%), and the breeding population showed little annual variation, with a minimum of 1363 and a maximum of 1612 breeding pairs. The proportion of juveniles in the flocks and the estimated productivity showed larger variations among breeding seasons. Our results add insight to the scarce information available on the breeding-to-non-breeding-population ratios in parrots, and birds in general, and show key breeding parameters for a species that is thriving well in urban habitats.
... Many of these species face risks, and 161 are considered threatened according to BirdLife International (2022). Loss of habitat and poaching have led to declines in many species, including those considered threatened (Berkunsky et al. 2017;de Carvalho et al. 2017). Since extinct species cannot be recovered, conservation efforts are urgently needed to save species at risk of extinction (Develey 2021). ...
... Many forests in the southern cone of South America have received attention from forest researchers, making more information about the cavity-nester community available. The research has highlighted certain management practices that could potentially be beneficial and favor functionality and persistence for these populations (e.g.: Cornelius, 2008;Cornelius et al., 2008;Politi et al., 2009Politi et al., , 2010Cockle et al., 2011;Berkunsky et al., 2017;Ojeda et al., 2021). With this in mind, some Neotropical regions still need to be evaluated to see if similar trends are present, in order to determine the best management practices going forward. ...
... 2 Unfortunately, the challenges that threaten the persistence of wild parrots have only mounted in both intensity and scope since this estimate was made, and the list of species in need of ex situ conservation management to prevent extirpation continues to grow. [1][2][3] Indeed, a growing number of species conservation plans have made investments in such efforts; however, a number of parrot species fail to thrive in captivity and are difficult to breed as a result. 1,4,5 Psittaculture is also affected by the same general issues. ...
Inappropriate diets cause many of the health problems commonly reported in parrots by psittaculturists and veterinarians. The dietary management of captive parrots would benefit from information derived from studies of dietary habits of wild parrots; however, it is unclear how complete this body of knowledge is at this time. Documentation of parrots’ dietary habits appears to have grown dramatically over the past century. Reports of parrots consuming a number of foodstuffs beyond the reproductive parts of plants (alternate foodstuffs) have increased. The extent of alternate foodstuffs in parrot diets is currently unknown. We used Google search engines (ie, Scholar, Videos, Images) to determine how well psittaciform dietary habits have been studied to date and to quantify reports of alternate foodstuffs consumption among genera of Psittaciformes. We found that the dietary habits of over 43% of parrot species are poorly resolved. The dietary habits of 71.5% of parrot species classified by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as at risk of extinction (ie, near-threatened, vulnerable, endangered, critically endangered, extinct in the wild) are not well resolved. Parrots’ consumption of alternate foodstuffs occurred at the following rates: 91.2% foliage, 76.9% terrestrial invertebrates and fine earthen materials, 74.7% wood, 44% pure minerals, 34.1% vertebrates (9.9% dung), 29.7% sap, 19.8% roots, 17.6% charcoal, 18.7% epiphytes, 16.5% coarse earthen materials, 8.8% algae, and 6.6% aquatic invertebrates. Of these reports, 79.1% involved observations of wild parrots. Many parrot species may be more omnivorous than previously realized. Alternate foodstuffs are generally absent from current veterinary-based dietary recommendations for captive parrots. Future studies are needed to determine whether providing alternate foodstuffs to captive parrots can be used as a means to improve their diets and thus their health, welfare, and reproductive success.
... Parrots are one of the most endangered bird families, with 28% of species threatened with extinction globally (IUCN 2020), and most are secondary cavity nesters (Forshaw 2010, Parr & Juniper 2010. They are found throughout the tropics and subtropics (Forshaw 2010, Parr & Juniper 2010, where their major threats are poaching and habitat loss (Wright et al. 2001, Stojanovic et al. 2016, Berkunsky et al. 2017, Vergara-Tabares et al. 2020. For many parrot species, predation accounts for a significant proportion of nest failure (Renton & Salinas-Melgoza 2004, Pizo et al. 2008, Berkunsky et al. 2016, so we expect productivity to be correlated with physical nest-site characteristics that mitigate predation risk (Cockle et al. 2015). ...
Nest site selection is the principal way secondary cavity‐nesting species mitigate the negative effects of factors such as predation, parasitism and exposure on reproductive success. Large‐bodied secondary cavity‐nesting birds rely on large cavities in mature trees that are often absent or reduced in anthropogenically disturbed forests. Thus, the availability of high‐quality nest sites may be limited for these species, potentially reducing reproductive success. The aim of this study was to investigate nest‐site selection and the effect of nest‐site features on reproductive success in the critically endangered Great Green Macaw Ara ambiguus in northern Costa Rica. We show that Great Green Macaws select nest sites according to the characteristics of the cavity and the tree in which they are located. Moreover, reproductive success is a function of certain cavity features. However, availability of high‐quality cavities, those with features associated with higher reproductive success, is potentially limited. By studying nest‐site selection and productivity together, we have identified that availability of high‐quality cavities could potentially limit the future recovery of the critically endangered Great Green Macaw.
... Therefore, generating information on the availability and use of food resources in modified landscape is essential to identify foraging areas and the most important plant species in the diet of parrots populations (De la Parra-Martínez et al., 2019;Rivera et al., 2020). Thus, these data can be used as a conservation tool for this critically endangered group of birds (Berkunsky et al., 2017;Olah et al., 2016). ...
Introduction: Seasonal phenological variations in tropical forests cause changes in food resource availability. Animals use foraging strategies to follow the food supply in these settings. The Orange-fronted Parakeet (Eupsittula canicularis) mainly inhabits the tropical dry forest of the Mexican Pacific to Northwest Costa Rica, although little is known about its diet and foraging strategies. Objective: To assess spatial variability in food resource abundance, diet, and foraging behavior of the Orange-fronted Parakeet in a modified landscape in Oaxaca Coast, Mexico. Methods: 30 phenology transects (200 × 6 m) were established during the dry season (February-June 2019) to measure food resource availability in primary deciduous, semi-deciduous, and secondary forests. The Orange-fronted Parakeets diet was determined by focal foraging observations, and dietary niche breadth and resource selection were considered to determine feeding strategies. Results: Orange-fronted Parakeets fed on fruits (42.3 %), seeds (29.3 %), and flowers (28.4 %) of 13 plant species and presented a broad dietary niche breadth with a higher frequency of foraging in primary forest. The Orange-fronted Parakeets select resources and adapt their foraging strategies based on food resource availability in each habitat. Conclusions: The study findings highlights the need to maintain the complete forest structure in a modified landscape to ensure food resources availability for Orange-fronted Parakeets during the breeding season.
... All previously listed criminal activities can be a precursor to the trade or possession of protected or prohibited species (Phelps et al., 2016). As examples, the illegal wildlife trade (IWT) includes a broad range of animals and reasons for the trade in wildlife, wildlife products, plants, and plant products (Berkunsky et al., 2017;Bush et al., 2014;Lavorgna et al., 2020). This activity may begin with the taking of plant or wildlife from the wild, after which the plant, wildlife, or plant or wildlife product is then transported to a market or middleman (Phelps et al., 2016). ...
Environmental crime is an urgent international issue and proliferates worldwide. Environmental crime includes acts against the environment and consists of the following: the illegal gathering of wild fauna and flora, illegal hunting, illegal fishing, illegal logging, trade, or possession of protected and prohibited species of fauna and flora, illegal mining, illegal movement, or dumping of waste activity, and air, water, and soil pollution and degradation. Corruption includes bribery, embezzlement, money laundering, and other financial crimes. Corruption can facilitate environmental crime. Environmental crime and corruption converge in four stages along the commission of environmental crime: (1) acquiring access, (2) extraction, (3) transport, and (4) consumption and disposal. These four stages are viewed through the lens of the Type, Activity, Sector, and Place (TASP) framework to create an operational typology. This typology can be used to address the convergence of environmental crime and corruption to prevent such criminal activity. This paper concludes with identifying gaps and challenges to this research as well as recommendations for future research.
... Parrots are among the richest avian orders (c. 400 extant species) and, although several species have decreasing populations in their native ranges (e.g., Olah et al., 2016;Berkunsky et al., 2017), they are still rather abundant compared with other taxa (Callaghan et al., 2021; but see Robinson et al., 2022 for caution on population estimates). This, in addition to their generalist diets and plastic feeding behaviors (Renton et al., 2015;Toft and Wright, 2015), may explain the pervasiveness of parrotplant interactions, involving not only native but also exotic parrot and plant species. ...
With more than 2,600 species and 181 genera, palms (Arecaceae) are one of the
most diverse and widely distributed plant families in tropical environments (Baker and Dransfield, 2016). Although they make up a modest portion of the above-ground biomass in most neotropical forests (DeWalt and Chave, 2004), their contribution increases in places where palms are dominant (Muscarella et al., 2020). In the Amazon forests, palms are hyperdominant elements(ter Steege et al., 2013). Their sheer abundance secures them a key role in forest function and forest structure (Boukili and Chazdon, 2017). Palms provide food for a wide variety of animal species (Onstein et al., 2017), including key resources for frugivores, which in turn disperse canopy trees that store most of the carbon in mature forests (Bello et al., 2015). Many human groups value palms and use them as raw material for building, food, drink, clothing, fuel, and medicine (Sylvester et al., 2012).
Palms tissues stretch the limits of plant cells to reach tree-like heights while
preserving mechanical stability and long-term function using only apical meristems
(Tomlinson, 2006). Little is known about the functional mechanisms governing
palms’ adaptation to environmental gradients, despite their ecological significance
and distinctive morphological and physiological structure. Here, we summarize the
functional role of palms from a variety of perspectives, which concentrate on the
analysis of functional traits and their influence on adaptation to environmental gradients. Contributions are grouped into the analysis of functional traits and conservation issues.
... The genus Amazona, just like other neotropical parrots, is under threat due to the culture of keeping them as pets and increasing deforestation [28]. Parrots are frequently found in rehabilitation centers, zoos, breeding centers, and ex situ conservation programs where individuals may be released into the wild. ...
Simple Summary
Temperament tests, manual restraint, and behavioral training were applied to investigate the relationship between temperament and response to manual restraint and evaluate whether parrots exhibited higher responsiveness to physical restraint after training to increase flight capacity and human aversion. This study discusses the relationship between the temperament trait of fear and parrots’ responses to manual restraint test and explores factors which may have influenced these responses. It is suggested that physical restraint during routine procedures in captivity, such as blood collection, can be an option to assess individual behavioral differences related to fear and individual responses to stressful stimuli in parrots. However, it is not possible yet to dismiss temperament evaluations through behavioral tests, to ensure a broader analysis of temperament.
Abstract
Individual responses to physical restraint and temperament have been assessed in birds of several species; however, there is a paucity of research which investigates both aspects, especially in captive parrots. This lack of studies raises doubts about which temperament traits, if any, are evidenced during handling and if the intensity of responses to restraint is affected by behavioral training programs, a common practice used in ex situ conservation programs. To understand more about the subject, this study aimed to identify the main temperament dimensions of parrots and investigate their relationship with response to physical restraint for blood collection. A secondary aim was to evaluate whether parrots exhibited higher responsiveness to physical restraint after training to improve flight capacity and increase aversion to humans. The main dimensions identified were activity, neophilia, vigilance, and fearfulness. The more fearful parrots in temperament evaluations were more responsive to physical restraint, showing more vocalizations and struggle attempts than the less fearful ones. After training, the parrots showed higher responsiveness to physical restraint. We suggest that physical restraint for routine handling, such as blood collection, could be a feasible option for centers of rehabilitation to use to obtain data on individual behavioral differences in fear responses.
... The International Union for Conservation of Nature places genetic diversity as one of the three global priorities for conservation (IUCN 1980). The order Psittaciformes has the highest number of endangered species among groups of birds, with 111 (28%) of the 360 species listed as in danger of extinction and shrinking population sizes in 56% of its species (Berkunsky et al. 2017). Given the current extinction processes, the genetic studies needed to support conservation programs are of utmost importance (Avise 2002, Frankham et al. 2002, Olah et al. 2022). ...
The white-crowned parrot Pionus senilis (von Spix, 1824) is distributed throughout Middle America, inhabiting the Gulf of Mexico coastal area from Tamaulipas (Mexico) to northern Panama. We used mitochondrial data (COI, ND2 and ND4) from 55 specimens to infer phylogenetic relationships, and analyzed the phylogeographic structure, genetic diversity, divergence periods, and historical demography to explore phylogeographic patterns. We found three divergent lineages: two geographically separated by the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and the third, in Costa Rica by the Nicaragua Depression. The analysis of molecular variance and statistical analyses were consistent with genetically distinct populations. The Central American lineage diverged 1.33 million years ago, whereas the other two lines branched off 1.19 million years ago. This phylogenetic pattern has been reported in other species of Middle American birds.
... The Amazona genus is included in the Psittaciformes order, the bird group with the largest number of endangered species worldwide, with approximately a third of its described species currently at risk of extinction (Nandika et al., 2021;Olah et al., 2016) and around 58% of all populations with a declining tendency (IUCN, 2022). The main threats are related to anthropic action, which consists of habitat degradation and intense wild animals traffic, culminating in the illegal capture and illegal ownership of specimens (Berkunsky et al., 2017;Nandika et al., 2021;Olah et al., 2016;Tella and Hiraldo, 2014;Wright et al., 2001). In Brazil, individuals from the Amazona genus apprehended from illegal traffic are taken to governmental institutions such as Wild Animal Triage Centers (CETAS -Portuguese acronym) (Kuhnen et al., 2012;Kuhnen and Kanaan, 2014;Seixas and Mourão, 2000), from which the animals have a chance of being reintroduced into nature as long as they present appropriate physical, sanitary, and behavioral conditions (IBAMA, 2014;RENCTAS, 2016). ...
The maintenance of parrots in captivity, caused by the illegal traffic and illegal ownership of these animals, makes them lose essential abilities for free-living survival, such as flight capacity and human avoidance, which hinders the success of reintroduction programs. Here, we assessed the influence of physical features (body weight, wing load, and plumage condition), endoparasites, and a training protocol on flight capacity and aversion to humans in captive parrots which were candidates for reintroduction. In addition, we assessed the relations of flight capacity and aversion to humans with the parrots’ temperament. Therefore, 38 parrots were submitted to a flight training and human aversion training protocol for 10 weeks. The following variables were registered over time for each animal: human aversion score, flight score, flight time (in s), and latency to flight (in s). A GLMM was adjusted to analyze the flight performance of the parrots over time, as well as the effects of body weight, wing load, occurrence of intestinal parasites, and plumage condition. Pearson correlation coefficients were applied to evaluate the association of parrots’ temperament with flight capacity and responsiveness to humans. We have observed a significant increase in the flight time (P = 0.0016) and flight score (P < 0.0001), as well as in the human aversion score (P < 0.0001). Factors that influenced flight capacity were body weight, wing load, and plumage condition. The temperament dimension neophilia was negatively correlated to the human aversion scores, with neophiliac parrots showing less aversion. The risk-taking dimension was negatively correlated to flight capacity, i.e. risk-averse parrots had better flight capacity. Using the training procedures described in this study, it was possible to improve flight capacity and increase aversion to humans, these abilities are essential for the animals’ survivorship in wild. Furthermore, we identified factors (body weight, wing load, plumage condition, and the temperament dimensions neophilia and risk-taking) that must be treated cautiously and that aid in the selection of individuals which are suitable for reintroduction, an important process for the conservation of endangered species.
... Galmes et al. (2017) reported at least two species of parrots in Argentina as victims of electrocution, suggesting that this is indeed an important mortality factor for this group, at least in certain regions. In general, parrots are long-lived birds, and many species have naturally restricted ranges and are threatened with extinction (Berkunsky et al., 2017). We strongly recommend that particular attention be paid to these threatened macaws and parrots, for example by carefully considering the pole design to be used, ideally tailored for both raptors and for this group, since measures to mitigate the electrocution of raptors may not be sufficient or suitable for parrots. ...
Power lines are infrastructures continuously expanding worldwide to supply the human population’s demands for electricity. Poorly planned power line networks may represent a risk for biodiversity by crossing sensitive areas, resulting in different impacts such as habitat loss and degradation, and by promoting wildlife fatalities. Considering that part of the impacts persists throughout the operation phase, it is also necessary to pay attention to the installed energy grid, promoting efficient impact mitigation measures. This doctoral thesis was elaborated to improve the knowledge and the research on how power lines impact the environment in which they are installed, contributing to a better integration of environmental aspects in its planning and aiming at the mitigation of different impacts. In Chapter 1 I present a systematic approach to compare alternative routes of power lines and indicate the route with the lowest environmental impact, focusing on the avoidance of forest loss. Additionally, I identify route segments where a consensus between engineering and environmental considerations exists. This procedure identifies geographic-divergent segments, enabling the early identification of areas with potential conflicts where impact minimization needs to be negotiated. In Chapter 2 I develop a framework to model the risk of bird electrocution in Brazil as an interaction between the species-specific exposure to power lines (pole density within a species distribution range) and susceptibility (morphological and behavioral traits associated with electrocution hazards). This study identifies spatial patterns of bird electrocution, highlighting priority areas of electrocution susceptibility, electrocution risk, and the more vulnerable species to this impact. In Chapter 3 I report electrocution deaths of the endangered Lear’s Macaw, a species indicated as priority in relation to the risk of electrocution in the previous chapter. I describe possible causes and patterns of fatality records, highlight the importance of considering electrocution risks as an overlooked threat, and I suggest some effective and efficient mitigation measures aimed at reducing the impact of power lines along the species distribution area. In Chapter 4 I briefly remark the main structural aspects of roads and power lines considering their attributes, global extension, effect zone, and I shortly review the similarities and differences in the top-five impact categories common to both. In addition, I identify some knowledge gaps that should be further explored in power line and road research agenda. This thesis explores approaches that can be adapted and used in a decision-making context, regarding planning and network expansion and environmental licensing of individual projects. This thesis also has important contributions from the Mitigation Hierarchy perspective, with some of its different steps covered in the chapters presented here.
... Parrots (family Psittacidae) are one of the most threatened bird families (Marsden andRoyle 2015, Olah et al. 2016). Of the world's 380 extant species, 28% are classified as 'Threatened' and 15% as 'Near Threatened' (BirdLife International 2021a), primarily as a result of habitat loss and degradation along with excessive capture for the pet trade (Olah et al. 2016, Berkunsky et al. 2017, BirdLife International 2021a. The Neotropical region's macaws (genera Ara, Anodorhynchus, Cyanopsitta, Diopsittaca, Orthopsittaca and Primolius) are perhaps the most seriously affected group within the family: of the 18 extant species, 50% are classified as 'Threatened' (BirdLife International 2021a). ...
The ‘Critically Endangered’ Red-fronted Macaw is endemic to seasonally dry, rain-shadowed valleys in the south-central Andes of Bolivia. The remoteness and inaccessibility of most of this region have hampered the rigorous collection of reliable range-wide data on the species’ global, local and breeding population sizes. Such data are imperative, however, for effective conservation and management. Estimated to number up to 5,000 birds in the early 1980s, the most recent and thorough survey to date reported a total of only 807 macaws and a breeding population fraction of about 20% in 2011, disjunctly distributed across eight breeding and six foraging areas and divided into four genetic clusters. Ten years later, we reassessed the species’ population sizes and breeding distribution with increased survey effort and geographic coverage. Six teams simultaneously surveyed different sections of the species’ entire known breeding range in four watersheds focusing on nesting sites. We estimated a global population size of 1,160 macaws, a breeding population fraction of 23.8–27.4% (138–159 nesting pairs) and discovered four new breeding areas. Watersheds and breeding areas differed widely in nesting pair and total macaw numbers. The Mizque watershed held 53% of the species’ breeding and 41.5% of its global population and had the highest breeding population fraction of 30.7–34.9%; the Pilcomayo watershed obtained the lowest values (6%, 8.5% and 14.1–18.2%, respectively). Two of the four documented genetic clusters (subpopulations) each held well over 50 breeding individuals. Two of the eight breeding areas documented in 2011 were found unoccupied in 2021. Numbers of nesting pairs per breeding area in 2011 were poorly correlated with those in 2021, and timing of breeding activities also differed between years. Our new data indicate that the Red-fronted Macaw no longer meets IUCN Red List criteria for ‘Critically Endangered’ species and that it should be downlisted to ‘Endangered.’
Obituario. Nota sobre la vida y obra de la bióloga y ornitóloga uruguayo-venezolana, Virginia Sanz D’Angelo (1964-2024).
Las guacamayas, loras, cotorras y pericos se encuentran entre las principales especies en ser decomisadas por las autoridades ambientales en Colombia. Estas especies son llevadas a centros de recepción de fauna silvestre para su evaluación y posible rehabilitación y liberación. Sin embargo, muchos de estos individuos no sobreviven en los centros de rehabilitación o no logran volver a su medio natural debido a la complejidad que representa la rehabilitación de algunas de estas especies. Con el fin de entender las dinámicas relacionadas con el comercio ilícito de psitácidos y realizar un acercamiento de los elementos que afectan la supervivencia de estas especies, realizamos un estudio general sobre psitácidos en cautiverio a través de la revisión de registros de ingresos y liberaciones de 15 entidades ambientales del país, entre los años 2005 y 2014. Cuantificamos las diferencias de ingresos entre especies y regiones, mortalidad, patrones de extracción y comercialización, y distribución geográfica de las liberaciones. Obtuvimos datos sobre el ingreso de 8.877 individuos, principalmente de las especies Brotogeris jugularis, Amazona ochrocephala, Amazona amazonica, Eupsittula pertinax, Pionus menstruus, Ara ararauna y Forpus conspicillatus. Encontramos que el número de individuos y el número de especies que ingresaron a los centros de recepción varió entre meses y años, donde los mayores ingresos se registraron en 2010-2011 y entre los meses de marzo y junio. Encontramos que la mortalidad fue de un 35,5% y estuvo asociada con el centro donde se encontraba el ejemplar y su tiempo de permanencia en él, y observamos la mayor cantidad de muertes en los primeros tres meses de ingreso al centro. Los resultados del análisis espacial mostraron que las mayores extracciones se realizaron en departamentos de la región Caribe (e.g., Córdoba y Bolívar), y los mayores ingresos en centros de recepción de fauna en Antioquia, Caldas y Cundinamarca. Por otra parte, encontramos que las liberaciones de individuos de diferentes especies se realizaron fuera de su ámbito histórico de distribución. Este estudio muestra que los psitácidos presentan serias amenazas no sólo a lo largo del proceso de tráfico, sino también en el proceso de adaptación y rehabilitación en los centros de recepción y manejo de fauna silvestre en Colombia. Por lo tanto, se requiere de más investigación en las diferentes etapas del tráfico y del establecimiento de protocolos en metodologías de manejo para la minimización de la mortalidad y de los riesgos en las liberaciones. Es vital que las corporaciones ambientales y entidades de la fuerza pública tengan un control más estricto el cual minimice el tráfico de fauna silvestre. Los centros de recepción presentan grandes densidades poblacionales, que sumado al estado en que llegan los individuos y a la dificultad en la realización de una rehabilitación y liberación adecuada, conllevan al fracaso de los esfuerzos de conservación y a la mejora en la calidad de vida de los individuos.
The fall armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E.Smith) in combination with climate change impacts poses a significant threat to agricultural productivity, ecoregion habitat, and biodiversity in the Neotropical Realm. This study presents an assessment of the fall armyworm distribution in the Neotropics under the influence of climate change. To conduct this analysis our methodology used 19 bioclimatic variables, altitude, and land cover to evaluate the habitat suitability of fall armyworm across the Neotropics. By comparing four future climate scenarios against the current baseline scenario, we determined the potential changes in Gain, Unsuitability, Stability, and Loss of habitat for fall armyworm within the eight Neotropic ecoregions. The results have implications for both agricultural food security and biodiversity as the fall armyworm will continue to be a pest within the Neotropical Realm. Our findings emphasize the ongoing habitat suitability that is expected to persist and potentially expand in some Neotropic areas under the climate change scenarios. Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies can be used to mitigate agricultural losses and combat food insecurity arising from this crop pest. FAW is an indiscriminate defoliator and its control will help reduce biodiversity loss from synergistic impacts of climate change altered habitats and pest insect defoliation.
The thick-billed parrot (Rhynchopsitta pachyrhyncha) inhabits highland pine forests in the Sierra Madre Occidental ranges of northwestern Mexico. Their populations have declined significantly to < 2000 individuals due to habitat loss, illegal hunting and increasing predation. Despite their ecological and cultural importance and increasingly endangered status, the species is data deficient. Our study aimed to inform and enhance conservation management strategies for thick-billed parrots with information on their spatial ecology, habitat use, migratory behaviors and social associations. We deployed biotelemetry devices to conduct the first tracking study of wild thick-billed parrots. Our study revealed that thick-billed parrots are seasonal migrators, departing their breeding habitats around October and returning from southern habitats around April. Our research also identified previously unknown overwintering sites and migratory stopover locations , as well as a new nesting site. The parrots exhibited high spatial variability in range shifting behavior, but all tracked parrots exhibited range shifts during migration, with durations of 3-181 days and distances of 173-765 km. They traveled in close social groups and migratory routes primarily followed high-elevation forests along the Sierra Madre Occidental ranges. Home range analysis indicated smaller breeding site ranges and larger overwintering ranges, possibly reflecting nesting constraints and winter food resource dispersion. Parrot spatial associations favored high-elevation forest landscapes with tall and wide-trunked trees, underscoring the importance of preserving old-growth forests for nesting and foraging. Less than 20% of parrot habitats have formal regulatory protections. Conservation management efforts must focus on increasing protections for nesting areas, overwintering habitats, and key migratory stopover sites. As climate change exacerbates regional threats, integrated management plans involving local stakeholders and communities are essential for the parrots' long-term survival and the preservation of their old-growth forest habitats.
Parrots are among the most diverse and widely distributed groups of birds and one of the most threatened bird orders mainly due to habitat loss and illegal poaching. Most parrots are obligate cavity nesters, so the logging of mature trees and the transformation of natural cliffs represent important threats to their conservation. Here, we report novel observations of Neotropical parrots nesting in previously unrecorded substrates. We show the first documented case of the cliff-nesting burrowing parrots trying to breed at ground level in an abandoned burrowing owl cavity. Additionally, we provide the first documented observations of this species attempting to nest in building cavities in three urbanized areas of Argentina. Moreover, we report data from four countries of 148 pairs of eight species typically breeding in tree cavity using palm tree bracts as nest sites. Behavioral plasticity in nest sites may allow parrots to maximize their nesting success by exploiting alternative breeding substrates. Moreover, these novelties could contribute to cope with habitat loss and further transformation. However, further research is needed to assess the consequences of these nesting innovations in terms of individual fitness and population dynamics as well as potential factors promoting their appearance. K E Y W O R D S breeding behavior, cavity nesters, nesting-site availability, parrots, nesting-site plasticity
Analyzing genetic variability and kinship relations is essential to guide conservation management plans for threatened species. The Red-browed Amazon (Amazona rhodocorytha) is one of the four Amazona parrots that are endemic to remnants of the Atlantic Forest, classified as Vulnerable (IUCN) owing to habitat loss and fragmentation and trapping for the illegal pet trade. At the end of 2021, 19 Red-browed Amazons were rescued from illegal trade in the Espírito Santo state, Brazil, including 14 nestlings reportedly captured in the Sooretama Biological Reserve, which provided the first opportunity to address the genetic parameters of a wild population of this threatened parrot. We used Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) data to assess the genetic diversity and kinship relations between the rescued birds. We observed high heterozygosity levels and low inbreeding coefficients. Principal Component Analysis revealed the presence of at least two distinct genetic groups, suggesting past isolation followed by secondary contact. Our results suggest that the population from Sooretama is an important genetic and demographic repository of the Red-browed Amazon, and the presence of individuals from the two genetic lineages in the same area reduces concerns about potential inbreeding depression in rehabilitation and reintroduction plans and also inspires further investigations on historical and contemporary population structuring.
In the midst of the sixth mass extinction, limited resources are forcing conservationists to prioritize which species and places will receive conservation action. Evolutionary distinctiveness measures the isolation of a species on its phylogenetic tree. Combining a species’ evolutionary distinctiveness with its globally endangered status creates an EDGE score. We use EDGE scores to prioritize the places and species that should be managed to conserve bird evolutionary history. We analyzed all birds in all countries and important bird areas. We examined parrots, raptors, and seabirds in depth because these groups are especially threatened and relatively speciose. The three focal groups had greater median threatened evolutionary history than other taxa, making them important for conserving bird evolutionary history. Australia, Brazil, Indonesia, Madagascar, New Zealand, and the Philippines were especially critical countries for bird conservation because they had the most threatened evolutionary history for endemic birds and are important for parrots, raptors, and seabirds. Increased enforcement of international agreements for the conservation of parrots, raptors, and seabirds is needed because these agreements protect hundreds of millions of years of threatened bird evolutionary history. Decisive action is required to conserve the evolutionary history of birds into the Anthropocene.
Natural history collections contain specimens that provide important insights into studies of ecology and evolution. With the advancement of high-throughput sequencing, historical DNA (hDNA) from museum specimens has become a valuable source of genomic data to study the evolutionary history of organisms. Low-coverage whole genome sequencing (WGS) has been increasingly applied to museum specimens for analyzing organelle genomes, but is still uncommon for genotyping the nuclear DNA fraction. In this study, we applied low-coverage WGS to phylogenomic analyses of parrots in the genus Agapornis by including both modern samples and historical specimens of ∼100-year-old. Agapornis are small-sized African and Malagasy parrots with diverse characters. Earlier phylogenetic studies failed to resolve the positions of some key lineages, prohibiting a robust interpretation of the biogeography and evolution of these African parrots. Here, we demonstrated the use of low-coverage WGS for generating both mitochondrial and nuclear genomic data, and evaluated data quality differences between modern and historical samples. Our resolved Agapornis phylogeny indicates the ancestor of Agapornis likely colonized Madagascar from Australasia by trans-oceanic dispersal events before dispersing to the African continent. Genome-wide SNPs also allowed us to identify the parental origins of hybrid Agapornis individuals. This study demonstrates the potential of applying low-coverage WGS to phylogenomics and population genomics analyses and illustrates how including historical museum specimens can address outstanding questions regarding the evolutionary history of contemporary lineages.
The arrival of psittacines in North America is well known but undefined. It is widely accepted that these birds originated in South America, and it has been suggested that different factors have promoted the biodiversity of birds in Mexico. However, in general, for North American psittacines, there are no proposed divergence times, and the possible influence of different geological events on these processes is unknown. In this study, phylogenetic relationships, divergence times and the ancestral areas of the genera Aratinga , Eupsittula and Psittacara and related genera were estimated to propose hypotheses of origin, diversification, and dispersal of groups under a Bayesian inference framework based on mitochondrial molecular markers. We found that of the seven monophyletic clades within the Arini tribe, four coincided with the genera Psittacara , Eupsittula , Rhynchopsitta , and Pyrrhura , and three clades were integrated by different genera. The genera Aratinga and Eupsittula originated during the Miocene, and the genus Psittacara originated at the Miocene-Pliocene boundary. Aratinga is the oldest, followed by Eupsittula and the youngest is Psittacara. Biogeographic reconstruction suggests that the most likely origin of these genera is the Amazonian or Chaco regions. The diversification of these groups is related to geoclimatic events associated with the uplift of the central and northern portions of the Andes and the closure of the Isthmus of Panama. We propose dispersion routes from south to north in the Neotropics and the use of the Greater and Lesser Antilles as a northward path.
The arrival of psittacines in North America is well known but undefined. It is widely accepted that the origin of these birds occurred in South America, and it has been suggested that different factors have promoted the biodiversity of birds in Mexico. However, in general, for North American psittacines there are no proposed divergence times and the possible influence of different geological events on these processes is unknown. In this study, phylogenetic relationships, divergence times and the ancestral areas of the genera Aratinga , Eupsittula and Psittacara and related genera were estimated to propose hypotheses of origin, diversification, and dispersal of groups under a Bayesian inference framework, based on mitochondrial molecular markers. We found that of the seven monophyletic clades within the Arini tribe, four coincided with the genera Psittacara , Eupsittula , Rhynchopsitta , and Pyrrhura , and three clades were integrated by different genera. The genera Aratinga and Eupsittula originated during the Miocene, and the genus Psittacara originated at the Miocene-Pliocene boundary. Aratinga is the oldest, followed by Eupsittula and the youngest is Psittacara. Biogeographic reconstruction suggests that the most likely origin of these genera is the Amazonian or Chaco regions. The diversification of these groups is related to geo-climatic events associated with the uplift of the central and northern portions of the Andes and the closure of the Isthmus of Panama. We propose dispersion routes from south to north in the Neotropics and the use of the Greater and Lesser Antilles as a northward path.
Nest site selection is the principal way secondary cavity-nesting species mitigate the negative effects of factors such as predation, parasitism and exposure on productivity. High-quality cavities could then be expected to be selected in response to the primary threat to nest success. Understanding how demographic rates are affected by anthropogenic changes to ecosystems is vital if effective conservation management strategies are to be developed and implemented. Large-bodied secondary cavity-nesting birds rely on large cavities in mature trees that are often absent or reduced in anthropogenically disturbed forests. Thus, the availability of high-quality nest sites may be limited for these species, potentially reducing productivity. The aim of this study was to investigate nest-site selection and the effect of nest-site features on productivity in the critically endangered great green macaw (Ara ambiguus) in northern Costa Rica. We show that great green macaws select nest sites according to the characteristics of the cavity and of the tree in which they are located. Moreover, productivity was a function of certain cavity features. We conclude that great green macaws are not reliant on primary forest for nest sites and typically choose cavities in remnant, isolated trees in pasture or young secondary forests.
La mayoría de los estudios ecológicos en psitácidos se han enfocado en especies que presentan una amplia distribución, pero se tiene poca información sobre la historia natural y los requerimientos ecológicos de especies pequeñas como las del género Brotogeris. La especie Brotogeris jugularis (Aves: Psittacidae) se enfrenta a amenazas de origen antropogénico directas como la caza ilegal para comercio o tenencia como mascota e indirectas como la pérdida y fragmentación de sus hábitats. Se evaluó el uso de hábitat y la dieta de Brotogeris jugularis en un paisaje rural del piedemonte llanero, Colombia. Se hicieron 35 transectos, distribuidos en cinco coberturas: bosque ripario, pastizal arbolado, tejido urbano, vegetación secundaria y mosaico de cultivos. Se registraron 114 individuos en cuatro de cinco coberturas; 15 en la época de sequía y 99 en la de lluvias. El bosque ripario mostró 55 individuos, seguido del tejido urbano con 41, mosaico de cultivos con 15 y el pastizal arbolado con 3 individuos. El uso y preferencia de hábitat diferencial en las unidades de muestreo fue congruente con los valores de abundancia por cada cobertura y se puede atribuir a la disponibilidad de recursos alimenticios. La dieta de la especie mostró preliminarmente, el uso de selectivo de variedades de frutales (e. g., Mangifera indica). Se muestra un avance en el conocimiento autoecológico de Brotogeris jugularis, que da cuenta de su condición generalista en la elección de los hábitats, mediada por una selección oportunista por aquellas coberturas que presentan mayor disponibilidad de recursos alimenticios, sean naturales o antropogénicas.
Studies on the breeding of vulnerable and endangered bird species are hindered by low numbers of individuals, inaccessible location of nests, unfavourable environmental conditions, and complex behavioural patterns. In addition, intraspecific variation may emerge only following long-term, systematic observations of little-known patterns and processes. Here, data collected over 30 years were used to determine growth model of hyacinth macaw ( Anodorhynchus hyacinthinus ) chicks in the Pantanal biome of Brazil. During this period, the speed of growth and body mass of chicks varied widely. Four growth models were tested: logistic, Gompertz, Richards, and cubic polynomial. They were fitted using three biometric measurements: body mass, total length, and tail length. The best-fitting growth curves were identified using Akaike’s information criterion. The best models were the cubic polynomial for body mass, Richards for total length, and Gompertz for tail length. We confirmed the occurrence of dwarf individuals, whose body mass, total length, and tail length were 20%, 22%, and 70% smaller, respectively, than in the overall population. The dwarfs remain small in size after having fledged and are easily identified as adults. We discuss the importance of long-term studies to identify windows of opportunity for further research that will help in the conservation of endangered macaw species.
Conflicts between wildlife and agriculture have increased as cultivation has expanded into
previously unexploited areas. As frequent consumers of such crops, parrots (Psittaciformes) are
often persecuted, despite the lack of measured economic impacts they may cause. This
situation has compromised attempts to manage potential damage and endangered parrot
populations. Here, we evaluate and measure actual crop damage and characterize the foraging
areas used by the burrowing parrot (Cyanoliseus patagonus) in northeastern Patagonia,
Argentina. We found that damage to field crops was economically insignificant, affecting
0.1D1%�0.4% of the sunflower harvest, with no damage detected in other more important crops
in the region. The parrots mainly consumed grain left or spilled after harvesting, and
unharvested grain from cultivated pastures and road margins. This grain represents a loss
attributable to harvest machines, being independent from the presence of parrots. Given the
negligible damage measured here, we conclude that there is no need for management of
parrots as crop pests in northeastern Patagonia. Our study provides further support to the view
that parrot damage has been often exaggerated and overstated.
Aves; burrowing parrot; crop damage; Cyanoliseus patagonus; field crop; Patagonia; stratified sampling; spilled grain; sunflower; unharvested grain
Parrots (Psittaciformes) are among the most threatened bird orders with 28 % (111 of 398) of extant species classified as threatened under IUCN criteria. We confirmed that parrots have a lower Red List Index (higher aggregate extinction risk) than other comparable bird groups, and modeled the factors associated with extinction risk. Our analyses included intrinsic biological, life history and ecological attributes, external anthropogenic threats, and socio-economic variables associated with the countries where the parrot species occur, while we controlled for phylogenetic dependence among species. We found that the likelihood of parrot species being classified as threatened was less for species with larger historical distribution size, but was greater for species with high forest dependency, large body size, long generation time, and greater proportion of the human population living in urban areas in the countries encompassing the parrots’ home ranges. The severity of extinction risk (from vulnerable to critically endangered) was positively related to the per capita gross domestic product (GDP) of the countries of occurrence, endemism to a single country, and lower for species used as pets. A disproportionate number of 16 extinct parrot species were endemic to islands and single countries, and were large bodied, habitat specialists. Agriculture, hunting, trapping, and logging are the most frequent threats to parrots worldwide, with variation in importance among regions. We use multiple methods to rank countries with disproportionately high numbers of threatened parrot species. Our results promote understanding of global and regional factors associated with endangerment in this highly threatened taxonomic group, and will enhance the prioritization of conservation actions.
The heavily traded Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus is believed to have undergone rapid population decline, yet there are almost no quantitative data on abundance changes over time from anywhere within its huge range. We reviewed the species' historical abundance across Ghana, undertook targeted searches during 3- to 5-day visits to 42 100-km(2) cells across the country's forest zone, repeated counts at 22 parrot roosts first performed two decades ago and gauged around 900 people's perceptions of the decline and its causes. In over 150days of fieldwork, just 32 groups (maximum group size=12) were recorded in 10 cells. Encounter rates averaged 0.15 individuals per hour of targeted search, around 15 times lower than those recorded in the early 1990s. No active roosts were found, and only 18 individuals were recorded in three roost areas that each harboured 700-1200 birds two decades ago. Interviewees stressed the importance of very tall trees of commercially important species such as Terminalia superba and Ceiba pentandra for nesting and roosting, and believed that the felling of large trees on farmland (42% of responses) and trapping for trade (37%) were the two main causes of decline. Ghana has lost 90-99% of its Grey Parrots since 1992, a time when the population had presumably already been seriously reduced by two decades of extremely heavy trade. There is no evidence that, away from one or two localities, declines are less severe anywhere else within the West African range of P.erithacus, or across the entire range of the recently split Timneh Parrot Psittacus timneh.
The Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) is a widely distributed parrot that has suffered reduced abundance and increased isolation in Mesoamerican populations. Understanding environmental and temporal factors that influence nest survival may assist efforts to increase annual recruitment for this species, improving population viability. We examined nest survival of Scarlet Macaws in the Maya Biosphere Reserve of Guatemala and Chiquibul Forest of Belize in 2010. Our results suggest that connecting tree canopies have the greatest negative influence on daily nest survival, reducing the probability of a nest surviving the entire nesting period from 0.89 to 0.42. This is likely due to facilitating nest access to predators. Nine of 20 nests in Belize, but no nests in Guatemala, were poached. The majority of poached nests were located in close proximity to a reservoir, which may facilitate access to nests. Based on previous estimates of nest survival required for this population to remain stable, our 2010 data suggest that the population in Guatemala could be growing, but that poaching has reduced nest survival below the threshold for population stability in Belize. Reducing habitat loss in Guatemala and nest poaching in Belize would most benefit this historically connected population.
O Brasil abriga mais de 1.800 espécies de aves e, destas, 160 são consideradas ameaçadas de extinção. Da família Psittacidae são 16 espécies ameaçadas e quase a metade pertence ao bioma Mata Atlântica, o que demonstra a grande fragilidade e grau de modificação que esse bioma sofreu ao longo do tempo. Os psitacídeos são muito visados pelo tráfico de animais silvestres para abastecer o mercado de animais de estimação, por essa razão sofrem com a degradação dos seus ambientes naturais. Cabe ao Instituto Chico Mendes de Conservação da Biodiversidade a proposição de estratégia de conservação para minimizar os impactos negativos a que se sujeitam as espécies da fauna ameaçada de extinção. Para isto, nos termos da Portaria Conjunta MMA-ICMBio nº 316/2009, atua no processo de elaboração da Lista Oficial da Fauna Ameaçada e na elaboração de planos de ação nacionais, buscando pactuar com diversas instituições, mecanismos de recuperação e proteção para as espécies ameaçadas nos seus ecossistemas. O PAN Papagaios da Mata Atlântica inclui quatro espécies ameaçadas do gênero Amazona: papagaio-de-cara-roxa (Amazona brasiliensis), chauá (A. rhodocorytha), papagaio-charão (A. pretrei) e papagaio-de-peito-roxo (A. vinacea), com metas e ações para atingir o patamar de conservação para estas espécies, aumentando para quase 20% o número de espécies de aves ameaçadas com planos de ação elaborados. Além disso, aborda questões relacionadas ao papagaio-verdadeiro (Amazona aestiva), espécie de interesse especial, dada a sua intensa pressão de captura para o abastecimento do comércio ilegal.
Parrot populations in Africa and Madagascar are declining and the need for conservation actions to address threats is increasingly recognised. Effective conservation requires a robust knowledge base on which decisions over appropriate actions can be made, yet at present there is no current and readily accessible synthesis of the status of populations, the threats they face and knowledge gaps. Here we begin to address this shortfall for the larger species in the region belonging to the genera Coracopsis, Poicephalus, Psittacus and Psittacula. We review developments since the production of the IUCN Parrot Action Plan published in 2000, identify areas where critical knowledge is lacking and highlight opportunities to address them. While advances have been made over the last decade, progress has not been evenly spread, with a strong bias towards populations in southern Africa. To date much research has focused on describing aspects of ecology and behaviour and there remains a need for studies determining the current status of populations and the factors limiting distributions and abundance. This review aims to provide a basis upon which progress towards an improved understanding of the conservation needs of the larger parrots of Africa and Madagascar can be made.
Los requerimientos de anidación del loro cabeza-amarilla (Amazona oratrix) son poco conocidos a pesar de su amplia distribución histórica, la alta demanda como mascota y estar en peligro de extinción. Esta información es necesaria para diseñar acciones específicas de restauración y conservación. Durante diez años estudiamos la ecología de anidación del loro en Michoacán, México. Las variables estudiadas incluyeron en escala local las especies de árboles-nido, sus dimensiones y posición geográfica, dieta y estructura de parches de bosque; y a mayor escala el uso de la vegetación y las variables climáticas asociadas a la distribución de árboles-nido, obtenidas con un modelo de nicho ecológico utilizando Maxent. También evaluamos la tolerancia del loro al manejo de la tierra, y comparamos los árboles-nido encontrados, con 18 árboles-nido de Tamaulipas (Golfo de México), estudiados en los ochentas en un rancho privado intensamente manejado. Los loros anidaron en árboles altos en cavidades del dosel, registramos 92 árboles-nido en 11 especies de árboles, pero el 72.8% se presentó en Astronium graveolens y Enterolobium cyclocarpum que califican como árboles clave. Los bosques de anidación presentan 54 especies de árboles como máximo, y 50% sirven como alimento, también las zonas presentan alta abundancia de árboles dieta. La menor riqueza de árboles y de árboles dieta se presentó en un rancho ganadero, mientras que las áreas en regeneración natural presentaron mayor riqueza. La altura de la entrada de la cavidad en los árboles-nido del Pacífico fue mayor que en los del Golfo de México. Hipotetizamos que las diferencias se deben al comportamiento del loro, adaptado a la presión diferencial de saqueo de nidos y disponibilidad de cavidades. Los árboles-nido se encontraron en seis tipos de vegetación, pero el loro prefirió el bosque tropical subcaducifolio conservado, y ribereño, anidó menos en bosque tropical caducifolio y nunca en campos agrícolas transformados, difiriendo de lo esperado por la disponibilidad de hábitat. Las principales variables climáticas asociadas con la distribución potencial de nidos son: temperatura promedio del trimestre más lluvioso, oscilación diurna de la temperatura, y precipitación del mes más lluvioso. Las áreas de presencia potencial de árboles-nido representan el 61% de la región, sin embargo la mayor parte es bosque tropical caducifolio (55.8%), y el bosque tropical subcaducifolio sólo ocupa 17%. Los resultados indican la importancia del bosque tropical subcaducifolio conservado como hábitat de reproducción del loro cabeza-amarilla, y muestran la urgente necesidad de implementar acciones de conservación y restauración. Las acciones deben incluir la prohibición del cambio de uso del suelo del bosque tropical subcaducifolio, y de la tala selectiva de especies clave, la creación de santuarios de vida silvestre en las áreas de anidación y programas de restauración de los bosques tropicales de la costa del Pacífico central.
The nesting requirements of the Yellow-headed Parrot (Amazona oratrix) are poorly understood, despite their broad historical distribution, high demand for pet trade and current endangered status. Information concerning their nesting requirements is required in order to design specific restoration and conser- vation actions. To assess this, we studied their nesting ecology in the Central Pacific, Michoacan, Mexico during a ten year period. The analyzed variables ranged from local scale nest site characteristics such as nesting tree species, dimensions, geographic positions, diet and nesting forest patches structure, to large scale features such as vegetation use and climatic variables associated to the nesting tree distributions by an ecological niche model using Maxent. We also evaluated the parrot tolerance to land management regimes, and compared the Pacific nest trees with 18 nest trees recorded in an intensively managed private ranch in Tamaulipas, Gulf of Mexico. Parrots nested in tall trees with canopy level cavities in 92 nest-trees recorded from 11 tree species. The 72.8% of nesting occurred in trees of Astronium graveolens, and Enterolobium cyclocarpum which qualified as key- stone trees. The forests where the parrots nested, presented a maximum of 54 tree species, 50% of which were identified as food source; besides, these areas also had a high abundance of trees used as food supply. The lowest number of tree species and trees to forage occurred in an active cattle ranch, whereas the highest species rich- ness was observed in areas with natural recovery. The nesting cavity entrance height from above ground of the Pacific nesting trees resulted higher than those found in the Gulf of Mexico. We hypothesize that the differences may be attributed to Parrot behavioral differences adapting to differential poaching pressure and cavity avail- ability. Nesting trees were found in six vegetation types; however the parrots preferred conserved and riparian semi-deciduous forest for nesting, with fewer nests in deciduous forest, while nesting in transformed agricultural fields was avoided. The main climatic variables associated with the potential distribution of nests were: mean temperature of wettest quarter, mean diurnal temperature range, and precipitation of wettest month. Suitable cli- matic conditions for the potential presence of nesting trees were present in 61% of the region; however, most of the area consisted of tropical deciduous forests (55.8%), while semi-deciduous tropical forests covered only 17% of the region. These results indicated the importance to conserve semi-deciduous forests as breeding habitats for the Yellow-headed Parrot, and revealed the urgent need to implement conservation and restoration actions. These should include a total ban of land use change in tropical semi-deciduous forest areas, and for selective logging of all keystone tree species; besides, we recommend the establishment of wildlife sanctuaries in important nesting areas, and a series of tropical forest restoration programs in the Central Pacific coast.
Captive and wild psittacines are vulnerable to the highly contagious psittacine beak and feather disease. The causative agent, beak and feather disease virus (BFDV), was recently detected in the largest remaining population of endangered Cape parrots (Poicepahlus robustus), which are endemic to South Africa. Full-length genomes were isolated and sequenced from 26 blood samples collected from wild and captive Cape parrots to determine possible origins of infection. All sequences had characteristic BFDV sequence motifs and were similar in length to those described in the literature. However, BFDV coat protein (CP) sequences from this study did not contain a previously identified bipartite nuclear localisation signal (NLS) within residues 39-56, which indicates that an alternate NLS is involved in shuttling the CP into the nucleus. Sequences from the wild population shared a high degree of similarity, irrespective of year or location, suggesting that the disease outbreak occurred close to the time when the samples were collected. Phylogenetic analysis of full-length genomes showed that the captive Cape parrot sequences cluster with those isolated from captive-bred budgerigars in KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. Exposure to captive-bred Cape parrots from a breeding facility in KwaZulu-Natal is suggested as a possible source for the virus infection. Phylogenetic analysis of BFDV isolates from wild and captive Cape parrots indicated two separate infection events in different populations, which highlights the potential risk of introducing new strains of the virus into the wild population. The present study represents the first systematic investigation of BFDV virus diversity in the southern-most population of Cape parrots.
Tras implementar el “Plan Nacional de Acción para los Loros Amenazados de Colombia”, a partir de 2002, los avances en el conocimiento de las especies de interés y las acciones de conservación ejecutadas evidenciaron el valor de dicho documento como directriz para asegurar la permanencia de las poblaciones de dichas especies. Sin embargo, la vigencia de los objetivos y actividades planteados en el plan nacional culminó en 2007. Así, de la mano con organizaciones gubernamentales y no gubernamentales, ornitólogos y miembros de las comunidades, la Fundación ProAves decidió recopilar toda la información disponible y reevaluar la situación de cada loro amenazado, con el fin de identificar las acciones de conservación formuladas e implementadas desde 2005 y las necesidades particulares de cada especie. Presentamos los resultados en investigación del Programa Loros Amenazados de ProAves y resultados de otras instituciones y personas, detallando los requerimientos de cada especie, de acuerdo a su situación actual. Incluimos en total 15 especies, las nueve abarcadas durante el plan 2002–2007, más otras varias las cuales consideramos de importancia en este documento. Entre ellas: dos especies amenazadas no cubiertas por el plan anterior (la Guacamaya Verdelimón Ara ambiguus – VU y el Periquito Alipunteado Touit stictopterus – EN); una especie que actualmente no es considerada bajo categoría alguna de amenaza, pero cuya situación resulta ser preocupante (la Cotorra Carirrosada Pyrilia pulchra); tres taxa del género Pyrrhura actualmente reconocidos como subespecies que no han sido considerados como amenazados (el Periquito del Sinú – P. picta subandina, el Periquito de Todd – P. picta caeruleiceps y el Periquito Coligranate del Pacífico – P. melanura pacifica). Nuestros resultados muestran que las especies más críticas (i.e. la Cotorra Aliazul – Hapalopsittaca fuertesi, el Loro Orejiamarillo – Ognorhynchus icterotis y el Periquito de Santa Marta – Pyrrhura viridicata) son aquellas para las cuales se ha colectado más información científica y se han ejecutado un mayor número de acciones de conservación. Entre algunos resultados positivos de dichas acciones de conservación, se ha documentado un incremento en las poblaciones del Loro Orejiamarillo y el uso exitoso de nidos artificiales por parte de la Cotorra Aliazul. Las necesidades de estos loros en términos de investigación deben centrarse en estudios demográficos, ecológicos y genéticos detallados. Nuestros análisis evidencian la existencia de un grupo de especies cuya situación es alarmante, ya que además de presentar distribuciones y poblaciones pequeñas y fuertes presiones a diferentes escalas espaciales, el desconocimiento sobre su biología y ecología agrava su estado actual, entre ellas: la Guacamaya Verdelimón, el Periquito del Sinú, el Periquito de Todd, el Periquito del Pacifico y el Periquito Alipunteado.
The ecology and natural history of Todd's parakeet Pyrrhura picta caeruleiceps is scarcely known. We describe some aspects of its habitat use, diet and flight behaviour at two localities in north-eastern Colombia. Our observations indicate that, at least locally, these birds tolerate and frequently use transformed areas. However, their flight patterns (usually near forest canopy) support the idea that long-distance flights would be affected where forest fragmentation occurs at a landscape level, as happens in other congeners. Observations also suggest a second breeding peak for Todd's parakeet starting from July/August, as seems to occur in other Andean species of Pyrrhura.
Brazil’s rich biological and cultural diversity makes it an exceptional location for examining the commerce in live wild birds and its implications for conservation. This paper catalogues the live bird species being traded in Brazil, characterises the trade in these animals, and discusses the implications for avian conservation. In spite of being illegal, capturing and selling birds is still a very common practice in Brazil and involves many actors who make up part of a large commercial network that distributes wild animals to every corner of the country. Our survey revealed that at least 295 bird species are illegally sold as pets in Brazil, with estimates derived from this data pointing to a total of more than 400 species - about 23% of the number of extant bird species in the country. Of the bird species recorded, two were classified as “Critically Endangered”, nine as “Endangered”, six as “Vulnerable”, and 19 as “Near Threatened” according to the most recent IUCN Red List. Most of the species recorded in this study as being widely bought and sold (including on the international market) are not listed by CITES even though many of them are in fact threatened. In light of the widespread illegal trade in wild birds in Brazil and the conservation implications for the species involved, there is an urgent need for actions that can control these activities. Steps should be taken to address the illegal traffic directly and these must include monitoring, law enforcement, effective sentencing (including deterrent sentences), targeting end-users, captive breeding, and education at all levels, taking into account the cultural, economic, social, and ecological aspects of the human populations involved.
The Brown-throated Parakeet has been long suspected to be in decline on the Venezuelan islands of Margarita and La Tortuga, due to poaching of nestlings for the illegal pet trade, and to resulting nest destruction. Therefore, we assessed the status of the two subspecies involved, Aratinga pertinax margaritensis and A. p. tortuguensis, and examined the threat presented by nest poaching. During field-work in 2004, we characterized roosting and nesting patterns on both islands, and estimated the population size of A p. margaritensis. On Margarita Island, we found a considerable population (at least 1984 individuals), but the 25 nests found were subject to very high rates of poaching (64%) and destruction (32%). Since the only two active roosts of this subspecies were close to or within Laguna de La Restinga National Park, which is also under anthropogenic pressure, our results suggest that this subspecies classifies presently as Endangered (B1a&b[v]). On La Tortuga Island, we found negligible numbers of A. p. tortuguensis on the eastern portion of the island. Moreover, all six nests found had signs of repeated, regular poaching. These results support other authors' proposed classification of this subspecies as Endangered, but technically still leave it in the category of Data Deficient.
Forests in Flux
Forests worldwide are in a state of flux, with accelerating losses in some regions and gains in others. Hansen et al. (p. 850 ) examined global Landsat data at a 30-meter spatial resolution to characterize forest extent, loss, and gain from 2000 to 2012. Globally, 2.3 million square kilometers of forest were lost during the 12-year study period and 0.8 million square kilometers of new forest were gained. The tropics exhibited both the greatest losses and the greatest gains (through regrowth and plantation), with losses outstripping gains.
The application of genetic approaches has enhanced the identification of cryptic species in a wide variety of taxa, often with immediate conservation implications. Here, we employed multilocus DNA analyses to assess genetic variation and its correspondence to taxonomy within the Mealy Amazon (Amazona farinosa), a parrot species found in Central and South America. DNA sequence data from four mitochondrial regions and two nuclear introns were used to infer relationships among all five named subspecies in this species complex. Two reciprocally monophyletic groups with strong nodal support were found; one comprised of the two Central American subspecies guatemalae and virenticeps and one including all three South American subspecies farinosa,
chapmani, and inornata. Molecular characters diagnosed distinct Central American and South American lineages, with an estimated divergence time of 1.75–2.70 million years ago as inferred from cytochrome-b (3.5–5.4 % corrected distance). Our data support recognizing Central American and South American Mealy Amazons as separate species worthy of independent conservation management. Furthermore, our results suggest recognition of two separate management units within the South American clade, although further study is required. These findings have important conservation implications as Central American A. farinosa are under increased pressure from habitat destruction and collection for the pet trade, yet are listed as of Least Concern due to their current classification as subspecies’ subsumed within the species complex.
Most of our knowledge of reproduction of wild parrots in the Neotropics comes from studies of tropical
lowland species, with few studies addressing species of high-altitude forests. We studied the reproductive biology of Tucuman Parrots (Amazona tucumana) in north-western Argentina between 2004 and 2009. We obtained data on reproductive output for 86 nests and on causes of mortality for 94 nests. Mean clutch-size per nesting attempt was 3.6 eggs�1.0 (s.d.). Hatching success (proportion of eggs laid that hatch) was 0.77�0.17. Fledging success (proportion of nestlings thatfledge) was 0.83�0.13. The overall breeding success (mean number offledglings per laying female per year) was 2.3�0.8. Overallfinite nesting success (daily survival rate to the power of the nesting length) was 0.53�0.27, and chickfinite nesting success rate was 0.74�0.22. We did notfind differences in reproductive rate between Tucuman Parrots and other species of Amazona parrot from lowland habitats. Productivity and nesting success of Tucuman Parrots had high values in some years and low values in others. This was probably related to fruiting events of Podocarpus
parlatorei–a critical food item. The main causes of nesting failure were predation (16%) and abandonment (12%). Our results suggest that for several species of Amazona in lowland habitats, predation and poaching may be the main limiting factors whereas climatic factors and food availability may contribute most to nesting failure at higher altitudes
Parrots are amongst the most beautiful and intelligent bird species in the world. They have been coveted as pets for centuries, particularly in the neo-tropics where they are heavily populated. Unfortunately, this has led to dramatic increases in parrot poaching over the last few decades, making parrots the most threatened bird species in the world. Despite laws against parrot poaching throughout the neo-tropics, the illegal trade continues while parrot populations further decline. This article reviews the literature on the players in the illegal parrot trade (i.e. poachers, itinerant fences, and market sellers), how poaching is largely committed, and which species are more at risk of becoming poached.
We monitored the illegal pet trade in Los Pozos pet market from August 2004 to July 2005. As indicated in Bolivian law, all unauthorized trade in wild animal species is illegal, especially species considered threatened by IUCN. During this period, we recorded 7,279 individuals of 31 parrot species, including four threatened species, two of which were being transported from Brazil through Bolivia to markets in Peru. The most frequently sold species was the Blue-fronted Parrot Amazona aestiva with 1,468 individuals observed during our study, the majority of which (94%) were believed to have been captured in the wild. Most of the purchased birds remain within Bolivia, while the more expensive, threatened species frequently head to Peru; some individuals may even reach Europe. We believe our study describes only a small proportion of the Bolivian parrot trade, underscoring the potential extent of the illegal pet trade and the need for better Bolivian law enforcement.
Resumo
Monitoreamos el comercio ilegal de aves en el mercado de mascotas de Los Pozos, desde agosto de 2004 a julio de 2005. De acuerdo a lo que establece la ley boliviana, todo comercio no autorizado de animales salvajes es ilegal, especialmente de especies consideradas Amenazadas por la IUCN. Durante este periodo, grabamos 7.279 individuos de 31 especies de loros, incluyendo 4 especies amenazadas, de las cuales dos fueron transportadas desde Brasil a través de Bolivia hacia mercados en Perú. La especie más frecuentemente vendida fue el Loro Frente Azul Amazona aestiva , con 1.468 individuos observados durante nuestro estudio, de los cuales creemos que un 94% ha sido capturado en su hábitat natural. La mayoría de la compra de aves permanece dentro de Bolivia, mientras que las más caras especies amenazadas, se dirigen a Perú; algunos individuos pueden incluso alcanzar Europa. Creemos que nuestro estudio describe sólo un pequeão porcentaje del comercio de loro boliviano, subrayando el grado potencial del comercio ilegal de mascotas y la necesidad de una mejor aplicación de la ley boliviana.
During a period of 12 months in 2007 and 2008, a study of the parrot trade within Peru was carried out. In this study, 20 main wildlife markets were visited in eight cities in order to estimate the number of parrot species and individuals traded legally and illegally within a year. The study also gathered extra information from vendors and customers through informal interviews about the trade process. Additionally we contracted one person in two markets between February and May 2008 to monitor how many species and individuals entered the trade. During the study, four threatened species (the Endangered Gray-cheeked Parakeet Brotogeris pyrrhoptera, the Vulnerable Military Macaw Ara militaris, the Vulnerable Yellow-faced Parrotlet Forpus xanthops and the Near Threatened Red-masked Parakeet Aratinga erythrogenys) and one additional species listed in CITES Appendix 1 (Scarlet Macaw Ara macao) were found being traded. Thirty-four species were recorded in total, 33 of which are native to Peru (representing 63% of the 52 known Peruvian parrot species) and one of which (Monk Parakeet Myiopsitta monachus) is native to Bolivia and Argentina. Our results show that even for the seven species which can be legally traded in Peru, the number of individuals being traded can greatly exceed the numbers that can officially be traded legally. We directly counted 4,722 parrots for sale and using a measured detection rate of 3% we estimate a total market size in the cities surveyed of between 80,000 and 90,000 individuals. As our surveys sampled only 8 out of Peru's 24 departmental capitals and there are also other large cities, these numbers are likely to represent only a part of the total trade in Peru. To the best of our knowledge this is one of the first detailed studies of the internal trade in a source country for the international parrot trade. Our results suggest that such internal trade is likely to be a significant conservation issue that has previously been largely overlooked.
"Climate dice," describing the chance of unusually warm or cool seasons, have become more and more "loaded" in the past 30 y, coincident with rapid global warming. The distribution of seasonal mean temperature anomalies has shifted toward higher temperatures and the range of anomalies has increased. An important change is the emergence of a category of summertime extremely hot outliers, more than three standard deviations (3σ) warmer than the climatology of the 1951-1980 base period. This hot extreme, which covered much less than 1% of Earth's surface during the base period, now typically covers about 10% of the land area. It follows that we can state, with a high degree of confidence, that extreme anomalies such as those in Texas and Oklahoma in 2011 and Moscow in 2010 were a consequence of global warming because their likelihood in the absence of global warming was exceedingly small. We discuss practical implications of this substantial, growing, climate change.
Los loros son a menudo considerados plagas agrícolas; sin embargo, difieren de otras especies plaga por ser estrategas K (larga vida y baja tasa reproductiva). Estas especies no se recuperarían fácilmente del control letal que a menudo se implementa para evitar daños a los cultivos. El Maracaná Lomo Rojo (Primolius maracana) está virtualmente extinto en Argentina y aunque la retracción ambiental de su hábitat ha sido señalada como la principal causa de su desaparición, no logra explicarla satisfactoriamente. Basados en 779 días de trabajo de campo, encuestas a pobladores locales y en la biología del Maracaná Lomo Rojo, concluimos que una de las causas fundamentales de su desaparición en Argentina podría haber sido el control letal por parte de productores.
