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The impact of age and exposure on EFL achievement in two learning contexts: formal instruction and formal instruction + content and language integrated learning (CLIL)
Abstract
This study investigates the role of biological age and L2 exposure on the achievement of two groups of Catalan-Spanish intermediate learners of English in secondary school (Group A, Formal Instruction (FI), N = 50; Group B, FI + CLIL, N = 50) regarding receptive and productive L2 skills as well as grammatical knowledge. Learners were matched for hours of exposure (1.330–1.400) in a first comparison, and secondly, for age (13–14 years old). When matched for number of hours of exposure, results confirmed the older learners’ advantage in FL contexts, as non-CLIL students (2 years older) significantly outperformed CLIL learners in listening comprehension and in two measures of writing: accuracy and coordination index. When matched for age, the group with extra L2 exposure (FI + CLIL) was significantly better than the non-CLIL group in reading comprehension and in several dimensions of writing: lexical richness, linguistic and communicative competence. These findings illustrate the language learning potential of a partial CLIL programme in an EFL context. A threshold of 300 CLIL hours may need to be surpassed for CLIL learners to reap the benefits of additional exposure across L2 skills.
... Building on this, recent studies have urged the need to focus on receptive skills (Artieda et al., 2020;Merino & Lasagabaster, 2018;Pladevall-Ballester, 2016;Pladevall-Ballester & Vallbona, 2016) given their pivotal role in successful language learning (Rumlich, 2017) and more generally, in our current interconnected and intercultural society. Moreover, the scant research targeting receptive skills has yielded mixed results. ...
... The author suggests that this discrepancy may be attributed to a modest difference in accumulated exposure (250 h) or the underdeveloped cognitive, learning, and transference strategies of primary school learners. Artieda et al. (2020) also explored the impact of age and exposure to English in both non-CLIL and CLIL programs, specifically focusing on receptive and productive skills and grammatical knowledge. Older students in the non-CLIL program obtained results that were comparable to, or even better than in certain tests (listening and written accuracy and coordination index), CLIL learners who were two years younger. ...
... However, existing research from programmes in which the hours of exposure have been held constant or very similar has yielded contradictory findings, making it challenging to anticipate results for the mid-intensity and low-intensity groups. Some studies show no clear advantages for CLIL (Cimermanová, 2020;Nieto Moreno de Diezmas, 2015;Prieto-Arranz et al., 2015), while others reveal asymmetrical outcomes, with advantages for non-CLIL learners in listening (Pladevall-Ballester & Vallbona, 2016) or for CLIL learners in reading (Artieda et al., 2020). Consequently, forming realistic expectations about the effects of lower-intensity programs on listening and reading skills is complex. ...
The implementation of L2-medium education, exemplified by Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), is becoming increasingly popular in primary schools (García Mayo, 2021). While previous research highlights CLIL’s positive impact on linguistic competence (Jimenez-Catalan & Ruiz de Zarobe, 2009), differences in linguistic achievement are often associated with varying exposure hours (Pladevall-Ballester & Vallbona, 2016). Despite CLIL’s growing popularity, studies examining linguistic achievement in varying-intensity CLIL programs remain scant. We address this gap by comparing low and high-intensity CLIL programs, alongside a standard English as a foreign language (EFL) program in primary schools. Focused on 11-year-olds’ receptive skills, our results show that high intensity programs significantly enhance proficiency in listening and reading when compared to their lower-intensity counterparts. Distinctions between low intensity and EFL programs are non significant. These findings underscore the critical role of the intensity of exposure in shaping the effectiveness of CLIL programs and contribute insights for refining CLIL program design guidelines.
... Looking at various aspects of language learning in a little more detail, most studies on reading skills suggest a positive impact of CLIL (e.g., Admiraal et al., 2006, Artieda et al., 2017Pérez-Vidal & Roquet, 2015;Prieto-Arranz et al., 2015;Sylvén & Ohlander, 2019a). Yet, it should be noted that in Artieda et al.'s (2017) study, CLIL students significantly outperformed their peers only when matched for age and not when matched for hours of exposure, indicating that a certain threshold of exposure time would be needed to harness a positive effect. ...
... For example, Juan-Garau et al. (2015) reported that CLIL learners presented a steeper learning curve than their EFL-only peers. When matched for age, Artieda et al. (2017) also observed a CLIL advantage, but when matched for hours, the groups were rather similar in their knowledge about grammar. Taking a longitudinal perspective, Lorenzo et al.'s (2019) findings ...
... Therefore, CLIL has been criticized for promoting selectivity and elitism (Bruton, 2011(Bruton, , 2013Dallinger et al., 2018;Paran, 2013). Indeed, a number of outcome-focused studies that factored in initial differences in terms of level of ability (e.g., Artieda et al., 2017;Olsson, 2015;Verspoor et al., 2015), motivation, and/or socio-economic or parental background (Alejo & Piquer-Píriz, 2016;Bruton, 2013;Bulon, 2020;Dallinger et al., 2018;Dios Martínez-Agudo, 2019;Fernández-Fontecha, 2015;Möller, 2017;Pérez Cañado, 2020;van Mensel et al., 2020) found that contextual variables, and especially socio-economic background, seem to account for a substantial part of the learning differences between CLIL and mainstream students. Nonetheless, most of these studies argue that while contextual factors do explain parts of observed learning advantages, so does the type of instruction, i.e., CLIL. ...
Being an educational approach that was primarily introduced to innovate language instruction, it is not surprising that Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has mostly been researched from the perspective of applied linguistics. Concerns relating to subject learning, in contrast, have only recently started to gain attention. With subject learning taking on a greater role in CLIL research, the content-and-language-integrative nature of this educational approach has become one of the central themes in the field. Conceptually, several propositions have been made concerning the integration of content and language learning, many of which aligning with systemic functional linguistics and/ or sociocultural theory. While these theoretical approaches have yielded interesting insights into the integration of subject and language learning, they do not translate into classroom practice easily. One notion allowing conceptual integration while appearing to be tangible for practitioners is the construct of cognitive discourse functions (CDFs; Dalton-Puffer, 2013). Being both anchored in linguistics and education, CDFs are assumed to be the generic linguistic manifestation of cognitive processes essential to learning and teaching. In the field of history education, too, CDFs have been shown to be tightly linked to history skills, both conceptually and empirically. Thus far, however, this construct has not been operationalized for pedagogical use, and generally more research is needed concerning the nexus of content-and-language-integrative learning, pedagogical practice, and didactic materials, also considering that CLIL teachers urgently lack integrative material as well as conceptual understanding in this respect.
To address this gap, this PhD project is set in a framework of design-based research (DBR), which has been heralded as a transdisciplinary methodological approach able to reconcile theory- and practice-related concerns by being dual-focused. As such, this thesis aims to (1) further illuminate the theoretical underpinnings of the integration of content and language learning and (2) to develop practice-oriented tools and materials for upper secondary CLIL history education. With these aims in mind, I closely collaborated with teachers in order to systematically develop CDF-based history materials. First, the needs of participants were determined using individual interviews with teachers, focus group interviews with students, and written competency-based task for the learners, which informed the intervention we designed. Then, the teacher implemented these materials in their own class. Finally, the process and the products were evaluated from the learners’ and the teacher’s perspective as well as via written learner tasks once again. Based on these findings, our approach and the materials were advanced and fine-tuned over three such research cycles in two contexts.
The findings of this study have shown that CDFs present an ecologically valid and effective approach to integrate content and language learning in upper secondary CLIL history education. Yet, for these materials to be accepted and to take effect, several conditions need to be met: First of all, competency-based tasks need to be engaging, interactive, and scaffolded in small steps, and the links between the linguistic support and the subject discipline need to be made explicit. Moreover, such scaffolding should not only consider linguistic forms and functions but also
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subject-specific concepts and notions important in the discipline. Additionally, in the course of the project, the importance of differentiated instruction crystallized. These aspects were crucial for the participants’ acceptance of the new approach, which also seemed to be reflected in the learners’ performance. Initially, both groups involved in the main study struggled with demonstrating subject-specific skills in English in various domains, such as appropriately justifying claims, signalling communicative intentions, or linking ideas. In the case of group A, who received two treatments, ratings improved significantly both in terms of academic language skills and history competences, with the bigger leap in performance in their second round. In contrast, the scores in group B, who received one treatment, increased only moderately (but statistically significantly) in the linguistic domain, while content results remained steady. Finally, this thesis has also demonstrated that the CDF construct is a useful and manageable tool for research. Yet, to ensure reliable coding, further specifications for different subjects may be needed, which this thesis intends to provide for the subject history.
... Yet, in reality, the intensity of CLIL exposure varies a great deal from context to context, that is, from study to study (Lázaro-Ibarrola & Azpilicueta-Martínez, 2024). For instance, in some studies learners only receive one (Pladevall-Ballester, 2019) or two (Artieda et al., 2020) hours of CLIL classes per week on top of the English as a foreign language (EFL) classes, while in other studies CLIL learners receive five (Pérez Cañado, 2018), eight (Merino & Lasagabaster, 2018) or even 13 hours (Somers & Llinares, 2021) of extra exposure to English. Finally, in primary school, research remains rather scarce and the few available studies offer confounding results. ...
Although multiple factors influence language proficiency in instructed settings, the prevalence of content and language integrated learning (CLIL) research in recent decades has placed intensity of exposure (via CLIL lessons) at center stage, sidelining other variables. This study aims to rectify this by examining the impact of CLIL alongside three additional factors: extramural English (EE), socioeconomic status (SES), and non-verbal intelligence (NVI). Specifically, this study analyses the interplay of these variables in the proficiency of 171 young English learners (aged 10–11 years) in Navarre, Spain. The participants were divided into a low-intensity (LI) ( n = 54) group and a high-intensity (HI) ( n = 117) group depending on exposure to English in school. Results indicate that HI learners are superior in reading, and even more clearly in speaking. EE is very frequent in both groups but more abundant among HI learners, and it shows several positive associations with learners’ scores. Higher NVI levels positively correlate with all skills in both groups, except for speaking, which appears to be affected by EE and, to a lesser extent, by SES.
... . studies focusing on participants who were not older adults (e.g., Artieda et al., 2020); . non-empirical studies (e.g., Armstrong et al., 2021). ...
In the past three decades, there has been a surge in empirical studies exploring the benefits of Lx learning and bilingualism for individuals and society (Baker & Wright, 2021). However, there is limited knowledge about older adults (especially those aged 60 and above) learning an additional language, an emerging research area. This study synthesised 47 empirical research papers published between 1900 and 2022, revealing five major themes related to Lx learning in various countries. The synthesis highlighted non-cognitive benefits of Lx learning, such as positive language learning emotions, improved access to information, and subjective well-being. The study aims to inform stakeholders about the value of Lx learning and encourage multidisciplinary research and promotion of Lx learning and bilingualism.
... Muñoz also adds that other variables, such as having an initial language advantage and extramural exposure to the L2, may affect the CLIL variable, but these are very difficult to control. In a more recent study by Artieda, Roquet, and Nicolás-Conesa (2020), the researchers gathered data from two groups of secondary school students where one group received CLIL classes in Science for 3 years (from grade 5 onwards) in addition to English as a subject of study from pre-school, and the other group studied English as a subject only, also from preschool. Language practice in Science was mostly meaning-oriented and dependent on reading L2 texts to compose texts about science topics. ...
In Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) contexts, when students are prompted to express content in a second language, they are expected to draw on their knowledge of the topic at hand and use linguistic resources they have learnt implicitly or explicitly in the content and/or language class. In some CLIL programs, while some students study academic subjects like history in the L2, other students study fewer and more practical subjects such as art. This is the case with high-exposure (HE) and low-exposure (LE) groups, respectively, in the Madrid bilingual secondary school programs. Thus, HE students are expected to perform better in the expression of academic content in the L2, but it is not clear if this is also the case when prompted to write about a topic that is not part of their curriculum. In this study, we compare the texts written by groups of CLIL students with different degrees of exposure to English (HE and LE) in response to a prompt on the Women’s Movement (Feminism) eliciting Cognitive Discourse Functions, such as defining or evaluating, among others. The aim of the study was to compare how HE and LE students make specialist-knowledge claims and use their voices in this topic, which they have not been instructed in, across different CDFs. Results show differences both across groups (HE and LE) and across CDFs, showing an advantage for knowledge transfer in the HE group. (The article is available at https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s42321-023-00151-y)
... Existing literature documented that there are gender differences (Guez et al., 2020) and age differences (Artieda et al., 2020;Gentry et al., 2002) in academic achievement, indicating that these two variables should be controlled while investigating the relationship between parental support, academic self-concept, and academic achievement. In the present study, gender and age were treated as covariates in the SEM analysis. ...
The contribution of parental support to academic achievement has been adequately explored. However, the mediating mechanisms between parental support and academic achievement should be more studied, especially in teaching English as a foreign language (EFL). Consequently, this study was designed to examine whether academic self-concept a mediating between parental support and academic achievement among Chinese EFL learners. Participants were 499 Chinese secondary EFL learners selected through convenience sampling. The relationship between parental support, academic self-concept, and English achievement was explored by structural equation modelling analysis (SEM) and mediation analysis while controlling for gender and age. Results showed that parental support could affect English achievement directly and indirectly through academic self-concept. Additionally, academic self-concept fully mediated the relationship between parental support and English achievement. Theoretical and practical implications, limitations and directions for future research are discussed.
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... It was found that the gender variable [29] and age variable [30] played a role in students' EFL proficiency. Thus, gender and age were controlled as covariates when exploring the relationship between FLB, organizational strategies, and FLP. ...
Drawing upon the control-value theory (CVT), various subject domains have explored the relationship and mediating mechanism between academic boredom and academic achievement. However, few studies have explored the potential mediating effect of cognitive strategies in the association between academic boredom and achievement, especially intheEnglish as a foreign language (EFL) learning context. A sample of 524 Chinese secondary EFL learners from one middle school using convenience sampling participated in the study. Results of structural equation modelling (SEM) analyses and mediation analysis indicated that organizational strategies partially mediated the link between foreign language boredom (FLB) and foreign language proficiency(FLP). This research further revealed the mediating mechanism between FLB and FLP. Implications, shortcomings, and directions for future research are discussed
... When applied to subject-specific writing at the elementary school level, SFL has proved useful in helping teachers in Australian and North American contexts make explicit to students the relationship between the communicative purposes and discourse functions of texts (Santiago Schwarz & Hamman-Ortiz, 2020;Schleppegrell, 2004). Comparatively, the impact of CLIL on learners' production of cognitive discourse functions has hardly been analyzed, as CLIL research has largely been limited to contrastive studies with non-CLIL programs on the quality of texts produced by students (e.g., Artieda et al., 2017;Lahuerta, 2020). Two recent studies, however, have attempted to shed light on the academic language competence of grade 6 primary and grade 8 secondary school learners by analyzing their oral production of classification and comparison functions in L2 English and L1 Spanish in science and history (Evnitskaya & Dalton-Puffer, 2020) and their written definitions in history (Nashaat-Soby & Llinares, 2020). ...
The present study analyzed how a group of young Spanish-speaking English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in a content and language integrated learning (CLIL) science class responded to an instructional unit integrating attention to functional language and an inquiry-oriented approach to science. Working in cooperation with the researchers, a year 4 primary school teacher implemented a teaching sequence on levers with 48 9-10-year-olds over three weeks. The sequence, which was intended to raise the children’s awareness of the demands involved in understanding (content goals) and expressing as written reports (rhetorical goals) how levers work, scaffolded their activity from item-based writing to the production of full texts. On completing the unit, each child independently wrote a report on levers, all of which were analyzed from the perspective of cognitive discourse functions and ideational meaning. The results of these analyses are discussed in terms of their significance for CLIL writing with young learners.
... Educational institutions have a number of facilities which provide great support for standardization. These facilities may be listed as: Artieda, et al. (2017) ...
This chapter considers the research conducted on ELF-awareness and English
language teacher education. It examines studies published in well-known journals and
in edited volumes between the years of 2008 and 2018, and that focus on both preservice and in-service English language teacher education. Bearing in mind the results,
this review reveals that pre- and in-service teachers continue to be largely dependent
on standard norms and seem somewhat confused in terms of the implications of an
ELF-aware pedagogy. In-service teachers also seem concerned especially about their
teaching context and the restrictions associated with it. However, it is evident that
English teachers are open to new ELF perspectives and could be potential agents of
action if they receive the necessary educational and insitutional support.
... Consequently, L2 researchers began investigating the relative contribution of these variables to learners' L2 achievement. The conducted studies have discussed the effects of various learner variables on general L2 achievement of learners, such as their attitudes and motivation (e.g., Csizér, 2017;Moskovsky et al., 2016), beliefs about language learning (Alhamami, 2018;Aragão, 2011), age (e.g., Artieda et al., 2020;Marinova-Todd et al., 2000), and gender (e.g., Bećirović, 2017;Mori & Gobel, 2006;Norton & Pavlenko, 2004). Meanwhile, several studies have focused on the effect of each of these variables on specific aspects of L2, such as, for example, different skills and subskills (e.g., Amiryousefi, 2018;Ke & Chan, 2017;Lee & Pulido, 2017;Ruiz-Funes, 2015;Vandergrift & Baker, 2015) and specific teaching methods or approaches (e.g., Namaziandost & Çakmak, 2020;Baker-Smemoe et al., 2014). ...
To provide insights into a wide array of individual learner variables implicated in intercultural education in home and study abroad contexts, this study systematically reviewed the effects of such variables on the development of intercultural competence. The corpus consisted of 56 journal articles published over the past two decades (2000-2020). The purpose of this study was to explore: (a) learner variables that were described in research on intercultural competence, including, inter alia, their age, gender, first language (L1) background, proficiency level, and attitudinal orientations; (b) settings in which learners’ intercultural development was studied, including both home contexts and study abroad contexts; and (c) effects of learner variables on the development of their intercultural competence. The results of this synthesis indicate that a growing number of studies have started to document intercultural instruction in both home and study abroad contexts. They show how learner variables were considered in conducting these studies and how variation in these variables impacted the effectiveness of instruction that targeted intercultural competence. The findings can considerably broaden our understanding of both opportunities and constraints in intercultural education in terms of learner variables and in particular variables that make the most contribution to intercultural development in home and study abroad contexts.
... Whereas significant advantages for CLIL groups in terms of various aspects of target language proficiency are commonly reported in the different regions of Spain (and also in the one Italian program investigated) (e.g., Goris et al., 2013;Pérez Cañado, 2018;Pérez-Vidal & Roquet, 2015), null effects are predominant in the other countries (e.g., Rumlich, 2017;Verspoor et al., 2015). A more recent study in Germany also found no significant CLIL effect on target language proficiency after controlling for selection and preparation effects (Feddermann et al., 2021), whereas studies in the Spanish context confirm the potentially positive impact of CLIL (Artieda et al., 2020;Castellano-Risco et al., 2020;Gallardo del Puerto & Gómez Lacabex, 2017). A tentative explanation for this is that, since English proficiency is not as developed in Spain and Italy as it is in countries such as the Netherlands and Sweden (European Commission, 2012), there is simply more room for additional improvement in the aforementioned countries. ...
Since its official introduction in 2014, an increasing number of Flemish secondary schools provide a CLIL program next to their regular monolingual Dutch programs. This longitudinal study investigates the effect of teaching one or several content subjects in French on secondary school pupils’ L2 French listening comprehension (n = 545) and speaking proficiency (n = 273) as well as on their L1 Dutch reading comprehension (n = 579). To ensure comparability between the CLIL and the non-CLIL groups, data collection started at the onset of secondary education, which aligns with the onset of CLIL programs, and information on relevant background variables such as L2 French motivation and anxiety, contact with L2 French outside school and pupils’ socioeconomic status was incorporated in the analyses. The results show that following a CLIL program has a positive impact on the development of French listening and speaking, whereas it does not affect pupils’ L1 Dutch reading comprehension. These results suggest that even a limited amount of CLIL (i.e. one to five hours per week) can have a positive influence on pupils’ proficiency in the target language.
... The picture that emerges is that English learners who begin CLIL instruction later in primary school reach equivalent proficiency levels and display faster rates of FL learning compared to learners who have been in the CLIL program since the beginning of primary education (see also Lorenzo, Casal, & Moore, 2010). In a recent study on the question of how much additional exposure to the FL through CLIL is necessary for learners to enjoy linguistic gains, Artieda, Roquet, and Nicolás-Conesa (2017) analyzed two different constellations of partial CLIL instruction in Spanish secondary school: two groups of students with similar hours of instruction but different ages in two contexts-formal instruction (FI) and CLIL-and students with the same age but different hours of instruction. Keeping starting age constant, they found that CLIL learners needed to be up to 2 years younger than their FI counterparts to outperform them with the same number of hours of instruction. ...
This study reveals hitherto overlooked effects of age of onset (AO) in immersive school contexts, using multiple measures over time so as to focus on fluctuations and trends in individual data. The second language (L2) English development was studied in 91 children who received 50–50 content and language integrated learning (CLIL) instruction in German and English and varied in their AO (5, 7, or 9). Data collection occurred 4 times annually for up to 8 school years (ages 5–12), via oral and written production tasks, motivation questionnaires, and interviews. Meaningfully integrating quantitative analyses (GAMM) and qualitative analyses, the study focuses not only on the process itself and on quantification of change but also on the underlying environmental and psychological reasons for change. Results reveal that (a) slightly later CLIL beginners (AO 7) turn out to show similar L2 development to that of the earlier beginners (AO 5), (b) besides external states and events, many internal states at any given moment contribute to significant L2 growth, (c) learners show significant improvement in the last 2.5 years of primary school, starting from age 10, and (d) there are significant differences between L2 oral and written performance in terms of height and shape of learner trajectories across (pre)primary school.
... A school which offers two CLIL subjects triples the number of contact hours compared with a school merely offering a standard L1-medium programme with foreign language classes. This increased contact time with the L2 makes CLIL a potentially suitable strategy to promote plurilingual education (see, for example, Artieda et al. 2017;Dalton-Puffer 2008).On the other hand, a minimal CLIL programme may not be sufficient to make a difference, at least in the short run (Pladevall-Ballester & Vallbona 2016). ...
Aquest article aspira a familiaritzar a qualsevol persona interessada - sigui docent, professional de la formació del professorat, o persona amb responsabilitats educatives - amb l’ enfocament Aprenentatge Integrat de Continguts i Llengua (AICLE). L’article situa l’AICLE en el context de la política lingüística de la Unió Europea (UE) encaminada a promoure un plurilingüisme actiu per a tota la ciutadania, presenta alguns principis teòrics que fonamenten aquest enfocament, i adverteix sobre pràctiques observades en aules AICLE que poden amenaçar el seu potencial educatiu.
... Hence, the distribution of language instruction deserves attention as the intensity of instruction makes positive changes on language attainment, language learning attitude and motivation (Collins & White, 2011;Spada & Lightbrown, 1989). Some studies show positive benefits of more exposure at earlier ages (Artieda, Roquet & Nicolás-Conesa, 2017;Munoz, 2012). However, if instructional hours are not used effectively, it is unlikely that successful results are obtained (Djigunovic, 2012;Collins & Munoz, 2016). ...
In search of ways to better the foreign language proficiency levels of their citizens, governments frequently announce macro foreign language policies. In Turkey, the latest education reform in 2013 lowered the onset of foreign language learning to the second grade. The piloting of the latest foreign language policy is in progress to transform the fifth grade to an English Language Preparation Program (ELPP). In line with the current changes, this study collects the secondary school English language teachers’ opinions at the initial stage of the implementation. This qualitative case study questions the advantages, disadvantages, success and possible challenges of the implementation, and the necessary support mechanisms. The secondary school English language teachers reflect on their past experiences of intensive language programs and hold an overall positive approach to the new ELLP implementation. All in all, to achieve success, the findings highlight the need for teacher training on teaching English to young learners, for a sound integration of communicative language teaching with authentic materials.
This research was a quasi-experiment that examined the effects of CLIL in an educational context in Taiwan’s higher education. Two groups of first-year undergraduate students were involved. One (65 students) was taught with CLIL; the other (59), the conventional approach. Their knowledge of the content and learning attitudes (self-efficacy and motivation) were quantitatively compared through achievement tests and a questionnaire. A qualitative semi-structured survey asked both groups for their perspectives on and perceptions of the treatments. The quantitative results show that both approaches were significantly effective for improving students’ knowledge of the content of the target subject (literary text), but the EG outperformed the CG. Likewise, both groups had positive learning attitudes to their treatments, but the EG also outweighed the CG. Furthermore, the qualitative accounts generated diverse results, reflecting the underlying difference between the approaches but showing that both approaches were welcomed. However, the conventional method was more favored than CLIL, mostly because of the participants’ learning preferences or because of the learning patterns which they had formed over years of studying in the specific cultural-education system (i.e., that of Taiwan) chosen for the study.
This study addresses gaps in the existing literature on foreign language anxiety (FLA) by examining its impact on the oral proficiency of Chinese as a second language (CSL) learners. Unlike previous research, this investigation includes less commonly taught languages and considers the role of language contact as a mediating variable. Using structural equation modelling (SEM), we reveal that (1) CSL learning anxiety negatively affects CSL oral complexity and fluency in a direct way, but does not influence oral accuracy; (2) language contact affects CSL oral proficiency, with verbal contact having a particular impact on oral fluency; and (3) language contact does not mediate the relationship between CSL learning anxiety and oral proficiency. This study contributes to current theories of FLA in L2 acquisition by highlighting the roles of anxiety in different oral proficiency measurements even though the mediating effect of language contact does not exist.
Yn 2017, cyflwynodd Llywodraeth Cymru Cymraeg 2050, strategaeth uchelgeisiol i gynyddu nifer y siaradwyr Cymraeg yng Nghymru (Llywodraeth Cymru, 2017). Mae system addysg Cymru yn nodwedd hanfodol bwysig o’r strategaeth hon. Yn 2013, nododd adolygiad o addysgu Cymraeg yng Nghyfnodau Allweddol 3 a 4 (Davies, 2013) fylchau sylweddol yn y gwaith o baratoi a hyfforddi athrawon i addysgu Cymraeg fel Ail Iaith, ethos Cymraeg gwael mewn llawer o ysgolion, a diffyg cyffredinol o ran adnoddau i gefnogi addysgu’r Gymraeg. Roedd yr argymhellion yn cynnwys sawl dimensiwn gan gynnwys cynnwys y cwricwlwm, ymarfer addysgegol, ac asesu, hyfforddiant ac adnoddau athrawon. Gyda dyfodiad fframwaith cwricwlaidd cenedlaethol newydd (Llywodraeth Cymru, 2015), mae’r astudiaeth hon yn adeiladu ar adolygiad Davies (2013) ac yn rhoi manylion digynsail am ganfyddiadau myfyrwyr o addysgu Cymraeg. Dadansoddwyd data a gynhyrchwyd drwy grwpiau ffocws gyda myfyrwyr gan ystyried damcaniaeth dynameg gr?p Dörnyei, gan roi beirniadaeth ddeifiol o’r nodau ar gyfer addysgu Cymraeg, ymarfer addysgeg athrawon, a’r hyn y mae myfyrwyr yn awgrymu ei fod yn ddiffyg cysylltiad cyffredinol rhwng addysgu Cymraeg a’r defnydd o’r iaith yn eu bywydau bob dydd.
This systematic review addressed the following question: Which are the relations between L1 and/or L2 foundational and upper-level language skills, cognitive skills, high-order cognitive and self-regulation factors and L2-English reading comprehension skills in 11-to-19 year EFL secondary school students with different L1 language profiles? Following preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses guidelines, twenty-seven studies were included for a systematic synthesis of results in the light of the different grades of “family language distance” between L1 and L2-English (i.e., “close related” vs. “partially related” vs. “not related”). We found that several L1 and L2 language skills (e.g., vocabulary, morphological awareness), cognitive skills (e.g., working memory) and high-order factors as metacognitive knowledge were positively associated with L2-English reading comprehension, regardless of different language groups. Conversely, we found that several well-known predictors of text comprehension are neglected in the scientific literature on reading in L2. We discuss practical implications and key recommendations to support school and future research.
This study explores the ways in which young second language learners in an intact fourth‐grade content and language integrated (CLIL) science class drew on the affordances of multiple semiotic resources including language, images, sound, movement, etc., to construct disciplinary knowledge in the context of a multimodal project on machines. After an instructional period in which attention to literacy was embedded in their science classes, the learners designed and illustrated their own complex machine, filmed a digital video and produced a written explanation. By integrating a systemic functional linguistics‐informed analysis of the linguistic features of the children's written texts with a semiotic analysis of the intermodal relationships in their projects, we offer insights into the interrelation of different modes (linguistic, visual and aural) in facilitating children's meaning‐making in the L2. The results revealed considerable within‐group variability in the learners' written texts and intermodal relations of concurrence and complementarity in their multimodal projects. The role of multimodal tasks in providing all children with effective tools for communicating knowledge is discussed.
The present study aims to contribute to the field of Foreign Language (FL) acquisition by analysing English as a Foreign Language (EFL) vocabulary learning in pre-primary education learners following a Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programme. Although the present study focuses on productive vocabulary acquisition, such results are later compared to receptive vocabulary findings reported in a previous study following the same learners over the same period of time. Additionally, word frequency effects are studied. A 6-month longitudinal study was conducted with Catalan and Spanish bilingual EFL learners (N = 155) aged 4 and 5. Through the programme, two curricular units traditionally taught in the learners' mother tongue were worked on through a soft CLIL approach. Learners were administered a general vocabulary pre-test, and by the end of the intervention, receptive and productive vocabulary tests were given to the students, including the target words presented in the soft CLIL sessions. Positive trends were found in productive vocabulary learning, which may eventually turn into significant differences over a longer treatment period. A significant frequency effect was observed, as there was a higher recollection rate of higher-frequency words. When comparing receptive and productive vocabulary results, statistically significant higher scores were reported in receptive tests than in productive ones.
In 2017, the Welsh Government introduced Cymraeg 2050, an ambitious strategy to increase the number of Welsh speakers in Wales (Welsh Government, 2017). The Welsh education system is a vitally important feature of this strategy. In 2013, a review of Welsh language instruction in Key Stages 3 and 4 (Davies, 2013) identified considerable gaps in teachers’ preparation and training for teaching Welsh as a Second Language, a poor Welsh language ethos at many schools, and a general lack of resources to support the instruction of Cymraeg (or Welsh). Recommendations included several dimensions including curriculum content, pedagogical practice, and teacher assessment, training, and resources. With the advent of a new, national curricular framework (Welsh Government, 2015), this study builds on the Davies (2013) review and provides unprecedented detail into student perceptions of Welsh language instruction. Data produced through focus groups with students were analysed in consideration of Dörnyei’s group dynamics theory, providing a poignant critique of the aims for Welsh language instruction, teachers’ pedagogical practice, and what students suggest is a general disconnect between Welsh language instruction and its use in their everyday lives.
This study explores written corrective feedback processing and uptake with two groups of young learners during a multi-stage writing task using model texts. Eight pairs of 9-to-11-year-olds from different instructional settings in primary education, an EFL class and a CLIL class, were required to write a narrative picture story, compare their drafts with feedback provided in the form of models and rewrite their original texts. The children’s collaborative dialogue protocols and written notes were examined for evidence of the cognitive strategies they used to process the feedback upon noticing a mismatch between the models and their own output. Four strategies were identified in the data, although differences were observed in the extent and nature of their deployment by pairs from each setting, and in their impact on the children’s uptake. While all pairs relied on the identification of surface differences between the model and their own draft, only the CLIL pairs paid attention to new and alternative features in the feedback. Evidence of uptake following unreported noticing was also found in the children’s written texts. This study furthers our understanding of how young L2 learners engage with models and highlights the need to consider contextual variables in studies of feedback.
Research over more than forty years has shown consistently that earlier L2 starters do not in the long term maintain the linguistic advantage of an early start over older starters. What, then, in the light of the widespread setting aside of the evidence regarding the apparent uselessness of an early start, is one to advise in respect of early L2 instruction? In this paper we discuss four factors which emerge as perhaps having relevance in this regard: the role of (bi)literacy skills, the role of language learning motivation, the role of factors relating to the transition from primary to secondary school, and the role of intensity of L2 instruction. We suggest that there are a number of broader macro-institutional factors, such as the impact of classroom experiences, that may impede the goal sought by the offering of numerous years of continued FL instruction.
Content and Language Integrated Learning in English as a Foreign Language : A European perspective.
The effects of age on foreign language learning have been argued to be mediated by context, based on robust evidence that age-related advantages of an early start in a naturalistic setting are not similarly found in instructed settings. This may be explained by limitations in the quantity and quality of the input learners are exposed to. In a Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) programme, learners are exposed to more input than in a regular programme but we still do not know in which ways different-age groups benefit from following a CLIL programme: do younger learners benefit more from the additional exposure to the target language than older learners because they are able to use their allegedly superior implicit learning mechanisms? Or do older learners have an advantage because they are able to use their superior analytical skills to process both content and language in the CLIL lessons? This chapter reviews and compares CLIL outcomes under different starting age and exposure conditions. It also compares those outcomes with outcomes from more intensive language teaching programmes. On the basis of these comparisons, the discussion considers the best time and timing for CLIL.
The present contribution represents an extension of David Singleton’s (2005) IRAL chapter, “The Critical Period Hypothesis: A coat of many colours”. I suggest that the CPH in its application to L2 acquisition could benefit from methodological and theoretical tailoring with respect to: the shape of the function that relates age of acquisition to proficiency, the use of nativelikeness for falsification of the CPH, and the framing of predictors of L2 attainment.
This article provides an updated account of the evolution of Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), from an initial period of CLIL craze to one of CLIL critique to, at present, what could be considered a CLIL conundrum. The controversies which currently affect this approach are documented on three main fronts (characterization, implementation, and research), illustrating how the so-called pendulum effect is at work in all of them. The concomitant challenges posed by these controversies are identified and specific ways to redress them are provided via concrete research-based proposals stemming from two governmentally-funded research projects. The ultimate aim is to identify the chief hurdles which need to be tackled within the CLIL arena in the very near future and to signpost possible ways of superseding them in order to continue advancing smoothly into the next decade of CLIL development.
Galicia, Spain’s north-western region, originally bilingual (Spanish/Galician) and placed in a Spanish-Portuguese intercultural enclave is undergoing a significant change regarding educational parameters. This change is related to the revitalisation of the teaching and learning of foreign languages mainly brought about by the introduction of CLIL.
The same as all European educational systems, the Galician one is giving increasing importance to the learning of foreign languages on the grounds that there is a need to develop citizens’ plurilingual and intercultural competences within the globalisation process taking place in our present-day world. Galicia does not only share bilingualism with Catalonia and the Basque Country, but also an evidenced experience in immersion bilingual programmes attending to environmental languages. This experience has laid good foundations for the development of an educational policy related to foreign languages. With this context in mind, this paper addresses:
1) the analysis of all actions carried out by the Galician Administration aiming at improving foreign language skills of teachers and students, focusing on CLIL implementation and all parallel courses of action redounding to its benefit: immersion programmes, creation of a teacher network and teacher-training programmes mixing in-service training, immersion and materials design;
2) the state of the art regarding formal regulation of CLIL provision: policy models, teacher development, methodology, materials and certificates;
3) the analysis of results of the pilot questionnaire answered by teachers (June 2008); and
4) the analysis of results of the 2009 general objective testing comparing CLIL and non-CLIL students.
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Content and language integrated learning (CLIL) programmes are mushrooming in many different contexts. However, research has mainly focused on their impact on foreign language learning and to a lesser extent on L1 development, whereas the number of studies undertaken in multilingual contexts in which more than two languages coexist is negligible. In an attempt to fill this gap, the overall aim of this research study was to examine the effect of CLIL on the learning of three languages in contact, namely English, Basque and Spanish in the Basque Country, Spain. With this objective in mind, two test rounds were conducted in a longitudinal study spanning one year and in which 285 secondary education students took part. The results revealed significantly higher scores on the part of the CLIL students in English (which represents the L3 and the foreign language in this context) in both test rounds, although a similar linguistic development between the experimental CLIL and the control non-CLIL groups was observed. Additionally, no significant differences were found in the students’ L1 and L2 development (Spanish and Basque), despite the fact that CLIL students had a lower exposure to Basque in the school context.
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Schoolchildren are starting to learn a foreign language sooner than ever as education authorities introduce early-start compulsory foreign language (FL) policies. As a result of this global trend, the learning of FLs is playing a major role in many educational systems (Coleman, 2006). This is the context in which CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) programmes have been implemented during the last few years in many different contexts, in the belief that this will help to improve students' language proficiency and to "nurture a feel good and can do attitude towards language learning in general" (Marsh, 2000: 10). The aim of this paper is to analyze the effect of CLIL on students' attitudes towards English as a FL and the two official languages (Basque and Spanish) in the curriculum of a bilingual context, namely the Basque Country in Spain. The participants in the study were 287 secondary education students from four different schools and the results obtained seem to confirm that CLIL programmes help to foster positive attitudes towards language learning in general.
Practice as a necessity for learning a second language has been a tacit assumption among language teachers for quite some time; however, the concept has not been widely considered from a theoretical perspective until now. This volume of twelve original articles focuses on the topic, with attention to the four skill areas of reading, writing, listening and speaking. The contributors explore a number of questions including what kind of practice is most effective, in what contexts, and for what kinds of learners. This text will serve as a valuable resource and reference for second-language educators and researchers alike.
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) is supposed to improve existing deficiencies in the formal learning of foreign languages (FL) in state schools of the EU, with at least no detrimental cost to the content learning. Apart from this basic justification, which has already been questioned on the basis of the empirical evidence by this author, other benefits are often enumerated. However, it will be shown that for most of the pro-CLIL arguments there are equally valid counterarguments, and, in some cases, contrary empirical evidence, or even a lack of any evidence. Given this, the suggestion here is that there are a number of implicit reasons for the adoption of CLIL, the most obvious being student selection. One conclusion worthy of concern is that the interest in CLIL diverts attention away from the shortcomings of mainstream FL teaching in state schools and the plight of numerous non-CLIL students, including perhaps many of the less privileged, who maybe are still not receiving the FL instruction they deserve.
The aim of the study was to investigate how successfully pupils had learned content in content and language integrated learning (CLIL) and to assess pupils' affective learning factors, such as motivation and self-esteem, in CLIL. Learning was presented in terms of achievement level, which was described as the relationship between measured levels of intelligence and school success. The study indicated that there were no major differences in learning, whether the language used in instruction is the pupils' mother tongue or a foreign language; pupils of different intelligence levels had similar chances to succeed in both cases. However, it was discovered that there may not be as many overachievers among the pupils in CLIL as among the pupils in the Finnish language instruction group. Achievements in the Finnish language, i.e. the mother tongue, were not negatively affected by CLIL. In terms of the affective factors, the study indicated that CLIL pupils had a low self-concept in foreign languages, although pupils had a strong motivation to learn.
This article provides a comprehensive, updated, and critical approximation to the sizeable literature which has been produced on the increasingly acknowledged European approach to bilingual education: content and language integrated learning (CLIL). It begins by tracing the origins of CLIL, framing it against the backdrop of its predecessors: North American immersion and bilingual education programs, and European international schools. It then provides a synthesis of the research which has been conducted on our continent into the effects of CLIL programs. It transpires from this review that, while at first blush it might seem that outcome-oriented investigations into CLIL effects abound throughout our continent, there is still a well-documented paucity of research in this area. The article concludes by identifying future research agendas to continue mapping the CLIL terrain. The ultimate aim of this three-pronged examination of the past, present, and future of CLIL is to depart from the lessons learned from recent research and to signpost ways forward in order to guarantee a success-prone implementation of this timely solution to European plurilingual education.
European educational systems are making great efforts to improve students' command of foreign languages, as there are many students who leave compulsory education with only the most limited ability to communicate in a foreign language. In this context the implementation of CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) courses is becoming commonplace throughout Europe, because this approach is believed to significantly improve overall language competence in the target language. This paper examines the implementation of CLIL in the Basque Country (Spain), a bilingual com-munity in which both Basque and Spanish are official languages and where English represents the third language included in the curriculum. The results show that the CLIL approach is successful and helps to improve students' foreign language competence even in bilingual contexts where English has little social presence.
A simple way to find out something about how well a person knows a language (or more than one language) is to ask him or her in language X: "Do you speak language X?" Another is to hire a professional psychometrist to construct a more sophisticated test. Neither of these alternatives, however, is apt to satisfy the needs of the language teacher in the classroom nor any other educator, whether in a multilingual context or not. The first method is too subject to error, and the second is too complicated and expensive. Somewhere between the extreme simplicity of just asking and the development of standardized tests there ought to be reasonable procedures that the classroom teacher could use confidently. This book suggests that many such usable, practical- classroom testing procedures exist and it attempts to provide language teachers and educators in bilingual programs or other multilingual contexts access to those procedures. The emphasis is reversed in this book. We concentrate here on pragmatic testing procedures which generally do not require pre- testing, statistical evaluation, or re-writing before they can be applied in the classroom or some other educational context. Such tests can be shown to be as appropriate to monolingual contexts as they are to multilingual and multicultural educational settings. Most teachers whether in a foreign language classroom or in a multilingual school do not have the time nor the technical background necessary for multiple choice test development, much less for the work that goes into the standardization of such tests. Therefore, this book focuses on how to make, give, and evaluate valid and reliable language tests of a pragmatic sort.
Motivation is a complex psychological construct regarded as one of the determinant factors in successful foreign language learning, which is why it regularly comes to the fore when trying to explain individual differences among language learners. In fact, one of the main objectives of many foreign language teachers in classrooms the world over is to increase student motivation, so that pupils may acquire a good command of English, the current main lingua franca. While many studies have been devoted to the role played by different orientations in this process, this paper focuses on the effect of the approach used in the foreign language classroom. Thus, attention is paid to the relationship between motivation and the language proficiency attained through two different approaches: Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL), among 191 secondary school students. The results confirm the benefits of CLIL from both a motivational and a language competence perspective.
Used multiple-group structural equation modeling to analyze structural relationships between latent factors underlying writing-related developmental skills and component writing skills in Grades 1–6. For handwriting, both motor skills and orthographic coding contributed to the model fit, but only the path from orthographic coding was significant at all grade levels. For spelling, only the path from orthographic coding was significant in the primary grades, but both that path and the path from phonological coding were significant in the intermediate grades. For compositional quality, both reading and oral language contributed in the primary grades, but the model was unclear in the intermediate grades because of high covariance between those factors. Theoretical and educational implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A general advantage in proficiency has been repeatedly reported for learners receiving Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) when compared to learners who only receive English lessons. However, fine-grained studies addressing the aspects which make up this general advantage are still scarce. Within this context, this paper concentrates on the morphosyntactic development of two groups of (Basque-Spanish) adolescents learning English in high-school over a two-year period. One group (n= 15) received CLIL instruction and English classes while the other group (n=11) only received English classes. The results indicate a clear advantage for the CLIL group, which seems to be at a further developmental stage. Nonetheless, both groups improve over the two years and, unlike previous claims in schools, no signs of fossilization are found although inaccuracies in inflection still exist. In light of these results, the value of increasing exposure in the form of CLIL lessons in high-school is discussed.
This paper presents evidence for three generalizations concerning the relationship between age, rate, and eventual attainment in second language acquisition: (1) Adults proceed through early stages of syntactic and morphological development faster than children (where time and exposure are held constant). (2) Older children acquire faster than younger children (again, in early stages of morphological and syntactic development where time and exposure are held constant). (3) Acquirers who begin natural exposure to second languages during childhood generally achieve higher second language proficiency than those beginning as adults. While recent research reports have claimed to be counter to the hypothesis that there is a critical period for language acquisition, the available literature is consistent with the three generalizations presented above.
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For decades educational psychologists have bemoaned the black box approach of much research on learning, that is, the focus on product rather than process, and the absence of fine-grained analysis of the learning process in the individual. One way that progress has been made on this point in the last couple of decades is through cognitive neuroscience, but even there what is documented is mostly the product of learning, possibly at different stages, rather than the process. An alternative way of trying to understand processes that are hard or impossible to observe is to infer them from the way individual difference variables interact with linguistic and contextual variables. In this article I draw from a wide variety of studies to illustrate how the interactions between aptitudes and treatments, age and treatments, age and aptitudes, age and structures, and aptitudes and structures point to different learning processes. I stress how such interaction research is much more than the sum of its parts, making suggestions for a research agenda to sharpen the focus on the process in second language learning.
The effect of age of acquisition on ultimate attainment in second language learning has been a controversial topic for years. After providing a very brief overview of the ideas that are at the core of the controversy, I discuss the two main reasons why these issues are so controversial: conceptual misunderstandings and methodological difficulties. The main part of the article then makes suggestions for improvement in subject selection, data collection, and instrumentation, in the hope that both sides of the debate will be able to agree on them. More sophisticated research in this area is of the utmost importance given how crucial understanding age effects is for educational policy and curriculum design. Where foreign language learning rather than second language learning is concerned, directly relevant research, carried out with classroom foreign language learners, is even more sorely needed.
This study examines the effects of learning context and age on second language development by comparing the language gains, measured in terms of oral and written fluency, lexical and syntactic complexity, and accuracy, experienced by four groups of learners of English: children in a study abroad setting, children in their at‐home school, adults in a study abroad setting, and adults in their at‐home university. Results show that the study abroad context was superior to the at‐home context, and more advantageous for children than for adults in comparative gains, although adults outscored children in absolute gains. The interaction between learning context and age suggests that studying abroad was particularly beneficial for children, who also had more opportunities for oral language practice.
CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) has emerged since the millennium as a major trend in education. Written by Do Coyle, Philip Hood and David Marsh and drawing on their experience of CLIL in secondary schools, primary schools and English language schools across Europe, this book gives a comprehensive overview of CLIL. It summarises the theory which underpins the teaching of a content subject through another language and discusses its practical application, outlining the key directions for the development of research and practice. This book acknowledges the uncertainty many teachers feel about CLIL, because of the requirement for both language and subject knowledge, while providing theoretical and practical routes towards successful practice for all.
The critical period hypothesis holds that first language acquisition must occur before cerebral lateralization is complete, at about the age of puberty. One prediction of this hypothesis is that second language acquisition will be relatively fast, successful, and qualitatively similar to first language only if it occurs before the age of puberty. This prediction was tested by studying longitudinally the naturalistic acquisition of Dutch by English speakers of different ages. The subjects were tested 3 times during their first year in Holland, with an extensive test battery designed to assess several aspects of their second language ability. It was found that the subjects in the age groups 12-15 and adult made the fastest progress during the first few months of learning Dutch and that at the end of the first year the 8-10 and 12-15-year-olds had achieved the best control of Dutch. The 3-5-year-olds scored lowest on all the tests employed. These data do not support the critical period hypothesis for language acquisition.
In this article, we examine current practices in the measurement of syntactic complexity to illustrate the need for more organic and sustainable practices in the measurement of complexity, accuracy, and fluency (CAF) in second language production. Through in-depth review of examples drawn from research on instructed second language acquisition, we identify and discuss challenges to the evidentiary logic that underlies current approaches. We also illuminate critical mismatches between the interpretations that researchers want to make and the complexity measures that they use to make them. Building from the case of complexity, we point to related concerns with impoverished operationalizations of multidimensional CAF constructs and the lack of attention to CAF as a dynamic and interrelated set of constantly changing subsystems. In conclusion, we offer suggestions for addressing these challenges, and we call for much closer articulation between theory and measurement as well as more central roles for multidimensionality and dynamicity in future CAF research.
A number of studies on CLIL, particularly from Spain, which is familiar to this author, will be analysed to show that there are numerous anomalies not only in the research, but in the analysis, and doubts about the conclusions drawn. CLIL instruction is not always necessarily that beneficial, and there is every reason to believe some students may be prejudiced by CLIL, and that not only academic, but also institutional, interests may be taking precedence over some students’ interests in the state educational sector. Some research issues are covered in the detailed analysis of one study before a plea is made for ensuring that disinterested research is carried out into the overall effects of CLIL initiatives in state educational institutions and systems, so that the welfare of all state-school students is recognised and respected.
This paper focuses on the effects of age on second language learning, specifically in foreign language settings. It begins by pointing out that the effects of learners' initial age of learning in foreign language learning settings are partially different from those in naturalistic language learning settings and, furthermore, that studies in the former context have produced conflicting results. In an attempt to clarify these divergent findings, the present paper examines methodological issues as a way of re-analysing the existing evidence from research conducted in foreign language settings. The discussion contends that this kind of methodological clarification may permit robust findings to emerge which are specific to age effects in foreign or instructed language learning settings and go some way towards clarifying the existing picture.
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) represents an increasingly popular pedagogic approach that has evolved in
response to the recognised need for plurilingual competence in Europe. In this article, we present key findings from one of
the first large-scale, multidimensional CLIL evaluation projects. We begin by outlining the emergence of European CLIL and
by comparing it with other, non-European bilingual education initiatives and then we narrow the scope to Southern Spain, where
the research was conducted. We outline the Andalusian Bilingual Sections programme, one of the cornerstones of the government's
Plurilingualism Promotion Plan (2005), within which the research was conducted. In presenting results, we focus on specific areas that we believe make significant
contributions to some of the key concerns in contemporary CLIL research including the linguistic competence of CLIL learners,
the question of starting age, the distribution and functionalities of L2 use in CLIL classrooms, and the ways in which CLIL
appears to be impacting on the educational system in general.
It is argued that the relatively minor impact of research on policy decisions in bilingual education stems primarily not from the lack of research data nor from the sociopolitical ramifications of bilingual education, but from the invalid theoretical assumptions with which the research findings have been approached. In particular, there has been a failure to adequately conceptualize the construct of language proficiency and its cross-lingual dimensions. Two theoretical positions on these issues are elaborated: 1. Cognitive/academic language proficiency (CALP) becomes differentiated and can be empirically distinguished from basic interpersonal communicative skills (B1CS) in both LI and L2; 2. LI and L2 CALP are interdependent - i.e. manifestations of the same underlying dimension. The implications of these positions for bilingual education in the United States are described in relation to current assumptions regarding entry and exit criteria. The “entry fallacy” consists of the assumption that a consideration of superficial linguistic factors is adequate to determine whether or not a particular student, or subgroup of students, requires bilingual education. The “exit fallacy” consists of the assumptions that mainstreaming minority children out of a bilingual program into an English-only program will promote the development of English literacy skills more effectively than if children were maintained in a bilingual program.
This paper presents arguments in favor of using partial dictation as a test of foreign language proficiency. In this kind of test, subjects listen to recordings of material in the foreign language and are required to fill in missing words in a written version of the recordings. Partial dictation is preferable to ordinary dictation in that: (1) it makes possible the use of different voices and speech situations; (2) it is more economical; and (3) the testing situation is more natural, being subject to fewer interruptions. In addition, partial dictation appears to be reliable and to correspond very well to other measures of foreign language proficiency; it is easy to construct, administer, and score; and it is useful, not only as a measure of listening comprehension, but as a global estimate of language proficiency. An incomplete analysis is presented of errors found in connection with this test, on the levels of phonology, lexicology, and grammar. Appendices contain two sample passages used in a partial dictation test, and a listing of average scores for each item, from a random sampling of 20 subjects. (Author/AM)
This paper sets out to position CLIL research within the broader field of bilingual education in the 21st century. In considering the development of CLIL across diverse European contexts, the author problematises the construction of a research agenda which lies at the interface of several different fields of study. A conceptual framework for CLIL is presented which reorientates the integration of language and content in order to inform and develop CLIL pedagogies from a ‘holistic’ perspective. Using the 4Cs Framework for analysis, the author concludes that for CLIL research to ‘mature’, the nature and design of the research must evolve to identify CLIL-specific issues whilst drawing on a much wider frame of reference. This poses a challenge for a future CLIL research agenda which must ‘connect’ and be ‘connected’ if the potential of CLIL is to be realised.
This study was designed to test the Fundamental Difference Hypothesis (Bley-Vroman,
1988), which states that, whereas children are known to learn language almost completely
through (implicit) domain-specific mechanisms, adults have largely lost the ability to learn a
language without reflecting on its structure and have to use alternative mechanisms, drawing
especially on their problem-solving capacities, to learn a second language. The hypothesis
implies that only adults with a high level of verbal analytical ability will reach near-native
competence in their second language, but that this ability will not be a significant predictor of
success for childhood second language acquisition. A study with 57 adult Hungarian-speaking
immigrants confirmed the hypothesis in the sense that very few adult immigrants scored within
the range of child arrivals on a grammaticality judgment test, and that the few who did had high
levels of verbal analytical ability; this ability was not a significant predictor for childhood
arrivals. This study replicates the findings of Johnson and Newport (1989) and provides an
explanation for the apparent exceptions in their study. These findings lead to a
reconceptualization of the Critical Period Hypothesis: If the scope of this hypothesis is limited to
implicit learning mechanisms, then it appears that there may be no exceptions to the age effects
that the hypothesis seeks to explain.
Theoretical claims about the benefits of conversational interaction have been made by Gass
(1997), Long (1996), Pica (1994), and others. The Interaction Hypothesis suggests that
negotiated interaction can facilitate SLA and that one reason for this could be that, during
interaction, learners may receive feedback on their utterances. An interesting issue, which has
challenged interactional research, concerns how learners perceive feedback and whether their
perceptions affect their subsequent L2 development. The present research addresses the first of
these issues–learners' perceptions about interactional feedback. The study,
involving 10 learners of English as a second language and 7 learners of Italian as a foreign
language, explores learners' perceptions about feedback provided to them through
task-based dyadic interaction. Learners received feedback focused on a range of
morphosyntactic, lexical, and phonological forms. After completing the tasks, learners watched
videotapes of their previous interactions and were asked to introspect about their thoughts at the
time the original interactions were in progress. The results showed that learners were relatively
accurate in their perceptions about lexical, semantic, and phonological feedback. However,
morphosyntactic feedback was generally not perceived as such. Furthermore, the nature as well
as the content of the feedback may have affected learners' perceptions.