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Gender-stereotyped preferences in childhood and early adolescence: A comparison of cross-sectional and longitudinal data
Abstract
Children are exposed to a gender-specific environment on an everyday basis through media, books, school supplies and especially toys. Children’s movies and television programs were found to portray protagonists’ occupational and private roles in a very traditional, gender-stereotypical way. The present two studies aimed to investigate gender-specific preferences in childhood and early adolescence. Cross-sectional data (study 1) were compared to longitudinal one (study 2) as we specifically aimed to investigate changes in gender preferences over time. A person-oriented approach, namely Configural Frequency Analysis was applied, to categorically analyze the relationship and development of gender-stereotyped preferences throughout childhood and early adolescence. Consistent with former studies, study 1 showed that gender-stereotypical preferences increased by age, for boys to a higher extent than for girls. By the age of twelve, these preferences had decreased supporting the theory of Kohlberg that children’s gender-stereotypic preferences continuously grow until around six years of age to finally lower thereafter. Gender-specific preferences generally became much more flexible over time.
... The study of the use of free time by children is recent, and the majority of work in this area has concentrated on 'structured' free time; as a result, there are studies that focus on activities carried out by children in an 'extracurricular' manner, but few that address 'unstructured' free time. However, the most recent literature on the topic accounts for the fact that including both types of activity complicates the vision of children's daily life (Kanka et al., 2019;Sauerwein & Ress, 2020). In any case, and broadly speaking, the majority of research approaches the study of the use of free time among children by quantifying it through questionnaires (surveys or 'schedule filling'; Archbell et al., 2020;Larson & Verma, 1999;Mullan, 2018;Sauerwein & Ress, 2020;Hofferth & Sandberg, 2001), although iconic studies in the field with ethnographic and qualitative approaches also stand out (Lareau, 2000;Lareau, 2011). ...
... Some of the most interesting findings within this field refer to the variables that influence the use of free time by children. Among them, one of the first and most important is the cultural and economic capital of parents (Lareau, 2011;Lareau, 2000;Kanka et al., 2019;Sauerwein & Ress, 2020), who make decisions about structured time (e.g. by choosing extracurricular activities) or establish limits on unstructured time. In this sense, the evidence indicates that children from more affluent classes in the United States would be more susceptible to experiencing their free time within the structure imposed by their parents, while children from lower classes would tend to experience a much more informal organisation of their free time (Lareau, 2000). ...
... Exploring this evidence at greater depth, empirical studies on free time activities and play among children assert that these activities are strongly marked by gender stereotypes (González & Rodríguez, 2020;Kanka et al., 2019;Todd et al., 2017;Ferrar et al., 2012;Freeman, 2007;Servin et al., 1999). Several interesting conclusions have arisen from this literature, and one of the most validated is that boys have a greater attachment to gender stereotypes in the choice of activities they carry out compared to girls (Alexander et al., 2009;Campbell et al., 2004;Freeman, 2007;Miller et al., 2009 ). ...
This article discusses the differentiation by gender displayed by children between 8 and 12 years old on how they used their free time during the COVID‐19 pandemic in Chile. This study had a qualitative approach, where 43 in‐depth interviews were conducted with children from three different regions of the country, using participatory photo‐elicitation as the central tool. The main results of the study show a configuration of free time based on gender stereotypes, showing that boys are the ones who most adhere to such stereotypes, triggering a crisis in the identity construction of masculinities during childhood. The study also suggests that socioeconomic and territorial differences between children configures different experiences of the use of free time.
... Shortly thereafter, children often show preferences for toys and clothing stereotypically associated with their genders (Campbell et al., 2000;Davis & Hines, 2020;Halim et al., 2014;Jadva et al., 2010;Serbin et al., 2001) and prefer same-gender peers (Martin et al., 2011;McHale et al., 2004). Children's preference for gender stereotypical objects, activities, and same-gender peers are generally observed throughout childhood and adolescence, though the degree to which they show these preferences varies across developmental stages (Kanka et al., 2019;Skinner & McHale, 2018; for a review see Halim et al., 2011). While most youth show these patterns, there is variation, wherein some youth show strongly gendered identity and preferences, others show weaker identity and preferences, and still others come to identify and/or have preferences more often associated with another gender (Golombok & Rust, 1993;Golombok et al., 2012;Gülgöz et al., 2019;Martin & Ruble, 2010). ...
... Importantly, most investigations of gender preferences and identity in children have been cross-sectional, rather than longitudinal, making it unclear whether the same children who, for example, showed especially strong same-gender preferences at one age, do so at another age. Much of the longitudinal work that does exist has focused on very early childhood (i.e., infancy, toddlerhood, and preschool years) in which there is mixed evidence about stability or connection between or across gender concepts (e.g., Campbell et al., 2000Campbell et al., , 2004Halim et al., 2013;Kanka et al., 2019;Zosuls et al., 2009). In contrast, in the present work, we investigated the consistency of gender identity and preferences in middle childhood-a time when gendered behavior is regularly documented and central to children's self-concept (Carver et al., 2003), yet is less often the focus of longitudinal study. ...
While considerable research has examined gender development in middle childhood, little longitudinal work has been conducted at this time to indicate whether, for example, youth who show more or less gender conformity at one point continue to do so later. The present study investigated the consistency of gender identity and preferences for gender-stereotypical toys, clothing, and same-gender peer preferences among groups of transgender youth (n = 158), their siblings (n = 79), and an unrelated group of cisgender youth (n = 128) from a mean age of 7.0 (range 3.0-10.9) to a mean age of 9.6 (range 5.1-12.0). Furthermore, 65.5% of the youth were girls, 69.7% were White, 72.8% grew up in households with an annual household income of $75,000 or more, and 89.9% of parents had a bachelor's degree or higher. Overall, we found a small-to-medium correlation over this 2.6-year span within each group, both across the composite of measures and most measures individually. Despite the moderate stability over time, we found a decrease in the composite and individual scores over this time span for girls and for transgender participants. Together these results suggested some stability in children's gender identity and preferences in middle childhood and that this was true regardless of whether the child's gender did or did not align with their sex assignment at birth. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Shortly thereafter, children often show preferences for toys and clothing stereotypically associated with their genders (Campbell et al., 2000;Davis & Hines, 2020;Halim et al., 2014;Jadva et al., 2010;Serbin et al., 2001) and prefer same-gender peers (Martin et al., 2011;McHale et al., 2004). Children's preference for gender stereotypical objects, activities, and same-gender peers are generally observed throughout childhood and adolescence, though the degree to which they show these preferences varies across developmental stages (Kanka et al., 2019;Skinner & McHale, 2018; for a review see Halim et al., 2011). While most youth show these patterns, there is variation, wherein some youth show strongly gendered identity and preferences, others show weaker identity and preferences, and still others come to identify and/or have preferences more often associated with another gender (Golombok & Rust, 1993;Golombok et al., 2012;Gülgöz et al., 2019;Martin & Ruble, 2010). ...
... Importantly, most investigations of gender preferences and identity in children have been cross-sectional, rather than longitudinal, making it unclear whether the same children who, for example, showed especially strong same-gender preferences at one age, do so at another age. Much of the longitudinal work that does exist has focused on very early childhood (i.e., infancy, toddlerhood, and preschool years) in which there is mixed evidence about stability or connection between or across gender concepts (e.g., Campbell et al., 2000Campbell et al., , 2004Halim et al., 2013;Kanka et al., 2019;Zosuls et al., 2009). In contrast, in the present work, we investigated the consistency of gender identity and preferences in middle childhood-a time when gendered behavior is regularly documented and central to children's self-concept (Carver et al., 2003), yet is less often the focus of longitudinal study. ...
While considerable research has examined gender development in middle childhood, little longitudinal work has been conducted at this time to indicate whether, for example, youth who show more or less gender conformity at one point continue to do so later. The present study investigated the consistency of gender identity and preferences for gender-stereotypical toys, clothing, and same-gender peer preferences amongst groups of transgender youth (n=158), their siblings (n=79), and an unrelated group of cisgender youth (n=128) from a mean age of 7.0 (range 3.0-10.9) to a mean age of 9.6 (range 5.1-12.0). Furthermore, 65.5% of the youth were girls, 69.7% were White, 72.8% grew up in households with an annual household income of 75,000$ or more, and 89.9% of parents had a bachelor’s degree or higher. Overall, we found a small-to-medium correlation over this 2.6-year span within each group, both across the composite of measures and most measures individually. Despite the moderate stability over time, we found a decrease in the composite and individual scores over this time span for girls and for transgender participants. Together these results suggested some stability in children’s gender identity and preferences in middle childhood and that this was true regardless of whether the child’s gender did or did not align with their sex assignment at birth.
... The choice of activities where students spend their leisure time highly depends on the gender, the place where the children live and the educational level of the parents [26][27][28][29][30][31][32]. Moreover, these activities are related to mother's and father's education and family size [28,30,31], while in recent years there has been a shift in organized activities, such as sports, arts and reading, which have stereotypical characteristics, according to a nationwide study [33,34]. In terms of student leisure time, there is a marked increase in play and sports activities involvement, television watching, dancing, reading literature, engaging in music, surfing on the internet and playing electronic games, as well as learning foreign languages [35][36][37][38]. ...
... The above finding is in agreement with the results of the Pan-Hellenic study of Kokkevi, Stavrou, Kanavou and Fotiou [34], where a variety of leisure activities as well as the differentiation of gender employment between boys and girls with the arts, were concluded. Moreover, according to Wikberg [45] and Kanka, Wagner, Buchmann and Speil [33] girls report a higher rate of arts-related-activities compared to boys. In contrast, boys report higher rates than girls in activities such as sports, electronic games, programming and television. ...
The present study focuses on the investigating of children's attitudes and beliefs about the role of the arts in their leisure time. Study Design: Mixed method research. Place and Duration of Study: Greece and Cyprus, between May 2014 and May 2016. Methodology: We included 3.117students (age range 9-12 years). Results: According to the results, children enjoy engaging in activities that bring them into contact with various forms of art, much less to other leisure activities.Gender differences and stereotypes of occupation also emerged.
... As early as 2 years of age, children demonstrate an understanding of gender both for themselves and others (Hill & Flom, 2007). Although there are individual variations in early childhood in the stability of children's preferences for clothing, toys, and behaviors typically associated with their gender (Kanka et al., 2019), longitudinal research has found remarkable stability of children's gender identity and preferences as they move through middle childhood (Golombok et al., 2012), and this stability is consistent for both cisgender and transgender children (Hässler et al., 2022). For example, prepubescent children expressing a gender different from their assigned sex at birth have demonstrated similarities to cisgender children of their same gender in implicit and explicit gender preferences and in their gender identity (Olson et al., 2015), illustrating the developmental consistency of gender identity for both cisgender and transgender children (Gülgöz et al., 2019). ...
The master narrative of gender within contemporary U.S. culture is that there are two mutually exclusive categories of men and women. This leaves transgender individuals with the precarious position of creating alternative narratives in response to that master narrative. The current qualitative research study was undertaken to better understand the varieties of alternative narratives transgender individuals create for themselves. Thematic life story interviews were conducted with 19 American transgender emerging adults, asking them to reflect on their experiences with gender throughout their lives. A discursive thematic analysis resulted in three themes: persistence of the binary, rejection of the binary, and pressures of transnormativity. Binary expectations persisted through gender binary policing, binary requirements of passing, and a lack of options within the binary. Participants rejected the binary by discovering transgender concepts and role models and subverting other people’s binary expectations. Participants also felt pressure to follow a particular alternative narrative, transnormativity, from gatekeepers both within and outside the trans community. However, despite the cultural power of these master and alternative narratives persisting, our participants demonstrated a wealth of creativity and strength by searching for information that fit their gender experiences, creating supportive communities with caring others, and disrupting this cultural power by flourishing as their full gendered selves.
... Se hipotetiza que la socialización parental puede tener un rol en las preferencias que niños y niñas tienen a partir de las cogniciones de género estimuladas. Kanka et al. (2017) reportan hallazgos similares con grupos de niños y niñas entre los 2 y 6 años, en un estudio que hizo seguimiento de la muestra inicial por seis años. Las conclusiones aluden a la existencia de identificaciones rígidas en edades iniciales, que con el tiempo se muestran flexibilizadas e influenciadas por el entorno social. ...
La infancia temprana es un período fundamental para el desarrollo posterior de los seres humanos. En esta etapa da inicio el desarrollo de la identidad de género, el cual es un proceso complejo y multideterminado por factores biológicos, psicológicos y sociales. Existen teorías que describen el desarrollo de la identidad de género a partir de los procesos de cognición involucrados condicha identificación. El objetivo de este estudio es caracterizar los procesos cognitivos involucrados con el desarrollo de la identidad de género en la primera infancia, comprendida entre los 0 y 6 años. Se realizó una revisión sistemática de la literatura pertinente, en inglés y en español, durante el período 2010- 2021. Se consultaron las bases de datos Scopus y Web of Science. En paralelo se revisó literatura gris y se controlaron referencias de trabajos seleccionados. Se seleccionaron 30 estudios a partir de la búsqueda sistemática. Los resultados evidencian una trayectoria evolutiva de procesos de identificación, estereotipos, constancia de género, esquemas y otros. Se revisan antecedentes biológicos e influencias sociales que impactan a nivel cognitivo y se analizan en relacióncon las teorías cognitivas. Así, se evidencia que la identidad de género es un concepto multidimensional y su desarrollo depende de la interacción entre influencias prenatales, sociales y las cogniciones de género. Se presentan modelos integradores en torno al sexo y género y se discuten diferencias entre estos modelos y aquellos con tendencia a los reduccionismos. Se señala la necesidad de incorporar definiciones más amplias del género en la literatura científica.
... Nevertheless, gender stereotypes seem to be a universal phenomenon and to develop from an early age. Although most studies mentioned focused on children in North American, children in other cultures such as Spain [16], Austria [17], and Taiwan [18,19] seem to share similar beliefs and attitudes toward gender roles. ...
Despite the growing recognition of gender equality worldwide, plausible strategies that reduce young children’s gender stereotypes remain limited. Cognitive-based interventions have been widely used in school settings and have been suggested to play important roles in children’s gender stereotyping and in their processing of counter-stereotypic information. We aimed to determine whether exposure to counter-stereotypical information could break gender stereotypes in kindergarten children. Fifty-four children (61–79 months old) from two public kindergarten classes in northern Taiwan participated in this study. One of the two classes was randomly selected as the experimental group (n = 28), and the other was the control group (n = 26). The experimental group consisted of a gender equality curriculum including script relationship training for two months, while the control group continued their regular curriculum. The picture classification task (PCT) was measured before and after the intervention to assess gender stereotypes. Before interventions, 87.50% of the children chose a gender stereotypic relationship, while 12.50% chose script/other relationships in PCT. After the interventions, the gender stereotypic relationship dropped to 73.22% in the experimental group. Children in the control group were more likely to maintain their gender stereotypic relationship choices in PCTs. Our findings suggest that cognitive-based interventions, such as a gender equality curriculum, have the potential to break gender stereotypes in kindergarten children.
... For one, students compare themselves to other students in their class and thus gain a somewhat realistic perception of their capabilities, which is reflected in the self-assessment of their competencies Wentzel et al. 2017). Students are also susceptible to implicit group-specific stereotypes of ability, performance, and effort, particularly those related to gender and social class (Kanka et al. 2019;Kriesi and Buchmann 2014), potentially distorting the self-assessment of their capabilities. The amalgam of realistic and stereotypical student assessment of their capabilities is likely to influence educational attainment (DiPrete and Jennings 2012), including educational upward mobility. ...
In tracked and highly stratified educational systems, where educational reproduction is particularly strong, the chances of students to achieve more education than their parents did are truncated. Little is known, however, what may help students raised in lower-educated families to become upwardly mobile at the transition to upper-secondary education. In tracked educational systems, this transition is decisive for ultimate educational attainment across the life course. The study addresses this research gap by examining whether quality of social relationships (i.e., social capital) among students, parents, and teachers matters for student and teacher assessment of students’ agentic capabilities (i.e., work habits) at age 15. If so, the question is whether these assessments help students become enrolled in high-status upper-secondary school tracks at age 18, thus achieving educational upward mobility. The analyses are based on 401 students from two cohorts in the German- and French-speaking parts of Switzerland, interviewed at the ages of 15 (T1) and 18 (T2) (60.35% females, Mage15 = 15.2, SDage15 = 0.2; 58.35% older cohort), including data collected by questionnaire from primary caregivers and teachers at student age of 15. The students come from families where highest parental education attainment is below the high-status academic or vocational baccalaureate in upper-secondary education. They may thus experience the opportunity to gain access to these high-status tracks at the transition to upper-secondary education. A structural equation model reveals the role of student assessment of their agentic capabilities and teacher assessment of these competencies in mediating the relation of social capital accrued at home and at school to educational upward mobility. This novel evidence on mechanisms of social advancement may be prone to inform interventions helping students from less-educated families to succeed in tracked and stratified educational systems.
... Teniendo en cuenta los resultados, la mayoría de los estudiantes encuestados presenta una competencia mediática por debajo de la media, lo que corrobora resultados de estudios sobre la competencia mediática de otros grupos etarios (Rivera, et al., 2015;Ferrés, Aguaded & García, 2012). Estos resultados son coincidentes con estudios previos realizados en estudiantes de educación infantil (García-Ruiz, Ramírez- realizado al segmento en general, sobre todo si tomamos en cuenta que las preferencias mediáticas por género se hacen más flexibles conforme los niños crecen (Kanka et al., 2019). ...
Digital social networks have been widely studied as modern media that are constantly evolving. In
addition to facilitating communication, these networks provide their users with a range of useful services
and applications, i.e. news access, games, etc. The use of these social media by the elderly has been
restricted by factors such as: limited access to the Internet, equipment costs and lack of training; but
mainly due to generational aspects that make them digital migrants. The objective of this systematic
literature review is to identify which social networks are most used by the elderly, as well as their usage
habits. The results of this study are expected to establish the basis for future strategies that facilitate the
adoption and use of digital social networks by this important segment of the population. It is evident
that there are relevant studies that identify the most used social networks and the applications for which
they are used by elderly users, but which describe in a very limited way their usage habits. Additionally,
none of these studies have been conducted in Ecuador.
... These changes generally highlight adaptive pathways that can be qualified by adolescent maturation (for a review see Meeus 2019). Notably, gender differences can account for variations in mean-level changes of morality, competence, and sociability very likely because of gender stereotypes underlying socialization processes (Alfieri et al. 1996;Cole et al. 2001;Kanka et al. 2017). Research has shown that stereotypic representations of males and females become salient early in development (Bigler and Liben 2007;Prentice and Carranza 2002). ...
Morality, competence, and sociability have been conceptualized as fundamental dimensions of social judgment that individuals use to evaluate themselves and other people and groups. The way in which adolescents perceive themselves along these dimensions affects the quality of their relationships across multiple social contexts. Given the centrality of morality, competence, and sociability for adolescents’ social life, the purpose of this study was to understand how these dimensions develop over time with a focus on gender differences, since males and females can show distinct trajectories due to socialization and developmental processes. Participants were 916 (51.4% girls; Mage = 15.64 years) adolescents involved in a three-wave longitudinal study with annual assessments. The findings highlighted that females reported increasing levels of morality and competence, while males showed decreasing levels in all dimensions. Furthermore, females also showed greater consistency in the configuration of morality, competence, and sociability, and inter-individual differences appeared to be already well-settled in each dimension for both males and females. Overall, this study increases the developmental understanding of how core dimensions of social judgment change in the adolescent phase, highlighting gender differences and similarities.
This report updates the Invergowrie Foundation STEM report Girls’
Future-Our Future (2017), and contains the outcomes of three focused
investigations: a) STEM in early years (0-8 years) education; b) STEM
mentoring and role models and c) careers advice. The investigations
were connected through the use of a common framework, the Spheres
of influence consisting of four spheres that represent physical or social
distance from the individual.
The influence of contextual factors on parent-child interactions, and the role of these factors in the incidence of gender differences in communication, was examined. Twelve daughters and twelve sons (mean age = 43 months) visited a university laboratory on separate occasions, once with their mothers and once with their fathers. During both visits, the parent-child pair played with a relatively masculine-stereotyped toy set, oriented toward construction play (a take-apart car), and a relatively feminine-stereotyped toy set, oriented toward social-dramatic play (props for a grocery store). Transcripts of the parent and child speech acts were coded while listening to audiotape recordings of the interactions. The results indicated that the play activity, and not the speaker's gender, significantly affected both parents' and children's use of different speech acts. Parent gender was an additional predictor of children's speech. All of the significant effects had large effect sizes. The findings support theoretical models and other research reports that emphasise the importance of activity settings in the sex-typing process.
This paper considers how young children in early childhood education draw on popular texts and consumer goods in their constitution of subjectivities and social relations. The paper draws on poststructuralist theories of subjectivity, agency, consumption and power, to explore how performative practices of consumption figure in the constitution of economically oriented subjectivities. Drawing on data generated in research undertaken in early childhood centres in the culturally diverse outer metropolitan region of Greater Western Sydney, Australia, the paper considers how economic discourse informs children's cultural knowledges, shaping the ‘techniques of the self’ through their engagement with commercially available images and products. The argument is made that children make strategic use of their knowledge of popular culture and its potential to locate them advantageously in material and symbolic economies, and that the deployment of symbolic and material goods that shapes children's dress, play, and conversation is an important means of rendering oneself intelligible within normative discourses of economic participation.
The present commentary gives a brief overview of the person-oriented and variable-oriented approaches, how they are commonly used in longitudinal research, and what one should take into consideration before using either approach. In addition to presenting an empirical example on girls' adjustment problems using both approaches, this commentary uses the contributions in the present issue of Merrill Palmer Quarterly to illustrate some of the main issues surrounding these two perspectives. Special attention is also given to the contrast between the person-oriented and variable-oriented approaches in terms of aggregation and disaggregation, model appropriateness and usefulness, and prediction as a goal. Future directions with regard to implementing a person-oriented approach are discussed, including the importance of conceptual clarity, practical and theoretical training, and method development.
Gender schema theory proposes that the phenomenon of sex typing derives, in part, from gender-based schematic processing— a generalized readiness to process information on the basis of the sex-linked associations that constitute the gender schema. In particular, the theory proposes that sex typing results from the fact that the self-concept itself is assimilated in the gender schema. Several studies are described, including 2 experiments with 96 male and 96 female undergraduates, that demonstrate that sex-typed individuals do, in fact, have a greater readiness to process information—including information about the self—in terms of the gender schema. It is speculated that such gender-based schematic processing derives, in part, from the society's ubiquitous insistence on the functional importance of the gender dichotomy. The political implications of gender schema theory and its relationship to the concept of androgyny are discussed. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Parent–child play behavior of 33 preschool children (18 boys, 29 European-American, middle- and upper-middle-class families) was videotaped in separate pretend and physical play sessions. Children's play behavior with a same-sex peer also was observed. Analyses focus on contextual differences in parent–child play behavior, as well as associations between parent–child play and child–peer play. During the pretense play session parent–daughter dyads, particularly mother–daughter dyads, engaged in more pretense play than did parent–son dyads. During the physical play session father–son dyads engaged in more physical play than did father–daughter dyads. These data suggest that context may play an important role in gender differentiated patterns of parent–child play behavior. As for children's peer play behavior, consistent with previous evidence, girls were more likely than boys to engage peers in pretend play and boys were more likely than girls to play physically with peers. Children whose parents engaged in more pretense play engaged in more pretense play with a peer, whereas children's whose parents engaged in more physical play engaged in more physical play with a peer. These findings suggest that parents may contribute to children's gender-typed play behaviors with peers.
Young children construct understandings of gender during the preschool years. They accurately apply common gender stereotypes
to toys by the time they are three and readily predict their parents’ opinions about gender-typical and cross-gender play.
This study involved 3- and 5-year-old children in identifying “girl toys” and “boy toys”. It also asked them to predict their
parents’ reactions to their choices of gender-specific toys. These children’s parents were surveyed in an effort to describe
their preferences about gender-specific toys and behaviors. Responses indicated that, in spite of evidence that many of these
parents reject common gender stereotypes, their children predicted parents would consistently apply these stereotypes as reflected
by their approval or disapproval of children’s choices to play with gender stereotyped or cross-gender toys. The mis-match
between parents’ self-described beliefs and children’s perceptions of the messages they have received about genderized play
are discussed.
Girls and boys differ in their preferences for toys such as dolls and trucks. These sex differences are present in infants, are seen in non-human primates, and relate, in part, to prenatal androgen exposure. This evidence of inborn influences on sex-typed toy preferences has led to suggestions that object features, such as the color or the shape of toys, may be of intrinsically different interest to males and females. We used a preferential looking task to examine preferences for different toys, colors, and shapes in 120 infants, ages 12, 18, or 24 months. Girls looked at dolls significantly more than boys did and boys looked at cars significantly more than girls did, irrespective of color, particularly when brightness was controlled. These outcomes did not vary with age. There were no significant sex differences in infants' preferences for different colors or shapes. Instead, both girls and boys preferred reddish colors over blue and rounded over angular shapes. These findings augment prior evidence of sex-typed toy preferences in infants, but suggest that color and shape do not determine these sex differences. In fact, the direction of influence could be the opposite. Girls may learn to prefer pink, for instance, because the toys that they enjoy playing with are often colored pink. Regarding within sex differences, as opposed to differences between boys and girls, both boys and girls preferred dolls to cars at age 12-months. The preference of young boys for dolls over cars suggests that older boys' avoidance of dolls may be acquired. Similarly, the sex similarities in infants' preferences for colors and shapes suggest that any subsequent sex differences in these preferences may arise from socialization or cognitive gender development rather than inborn factors.
Although the multidimensionality of gender roles has been well established, few researchers have investigated male and female roles separately. Because of the substantial differences in the ways male and female roles are portrayed in our culture, boys and girls may think and learn about these roles differently. The male role is more clearly defined, more highly valued, and more salient than the female role; thus, children's cognitions about these two roles may be expected to differ. The present study addressed the question of whether there is sex-typical variation in gender labeling, gender-role knowledge, and schematicity. Participants were 120 families; 15% were from minority ethnic groups, and 17% were single-parent families; 25% of the parents had a high school education or less. Results indicated that at 36 months of age, boys were less able to label gender and less knowledgeable about gender roles than were girls. Boys' knew more about male stereotypes than female stereotypes, whereas girls knew considerably more than boys about the female role and as much as boys about the male role. Boys and girls were found to be similar in gender schematicity. Traditionality of parental attitudes regarding child-rearing and maternal employment were not strongly related to children's gender cognition. Peer Reviewed http://deepblue.lib.umich.edu/bitstream/2027.42/45617/1/11199_2004_Article_226122.pdf
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The present research examined developmental and gender differences in the relative accessibility of different gender stereotype domains. A 1988 Northeastern US sample of 256 children ages 3 to 10 years old provided open-ended descriptions of girls and boys. Responses were coded by domain to examine differences by grade, gender of participant, and gender of target. Analyses revealed that girls and older children provided a higher proportion of stereotypes, and that appearance stereotypes were particularly prevalent in descriptions of girls and activity/trait stereotypes were more prevalent in descriptions of boys. Results are discussed in terms of implications for research on the stereotype knowledge-behavior link and the need for more attention to the role of appearance stereotypes in the gender stereotype literature.
Evidence indicating that sex-linked toy preferences exist in two nonhuman primate species support the hypothesis that developmental sex differences such as those observed in children's object preferences are shaped in part by inborn factors. If so, then preferences for sex-linked toys may emerge in children before any self-awareness of gender identity and gender-congruent behavior. In order to test this hypothesis, interest in a doll and a toy truck was measured in 30 infants ranging in age from 3 to 8 months using eye-tracking technology that provides precise indicators of visual attention. Consistent with primary hypothesis, sex differences in visual interest in sex-linked toys were found, such that girls showed a visual preference (d > 1.0) for the doll over the toy truck and boys compared to girls showed a greater number of visual fixations on the truck (d = .78). Our findings suggest that the conceptual categories of "masculine" and "feminine" toys are preceded by sex differences in the preferences for perceptual features associated with such objects. The existence of these innate preferences for object features coupled with well-documented social influences may explain why toy preferences are one of the earliest known manifestations of sex-linked social behavior.
Describes the development of a new sex-role inventory that treats masculinity and femininity as 2 independent dimensions, thereby making it possible to characterize a person as masculine, feminine, or "androgynous" as a function of the difference between his or her endorsement of masculine and feminine personality characteristics. Normative data, provided by 561 male and 356 female college and junior college students, are presented, as well as the results of various psychometric analyses. Findings indicate that: (a) The dimensions of masculinity and femininity are empirically and logically independent. (b) The concept of psychological androgyny is a reliable one. (c) Highly sex-typed scores do not reflect a general tendency to respond in a socially desirable direction, but rather a specific tendency to describe oneself in accordance with sex-typed standards of desirable behavior for men and women. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Human differentiation on the basis of gender is a fundamental phenomenon that affects virtually every aspect of people's daily lives. This article presents the social cognitive theory of gender role development and functioning. It specifies how gender conceptions are constructed from the complex mix of experiences and how they operate in concert with motivational and self-regulatory mechanisms to guide gender-linked conduct throughout the life course. The theory integrates psychological and sociostructural determinants within a unified conceptual structure. In this theoretical perspective, gender conceptions and roles are the product of a broad network of social influences operating interdependently in a variety of societal subsystems. Human evolution provides bodily structures and biological potentialities that permit a range of possibilities rather than dictate a fixed type of gender differentiation. People contribute to their self-development and bring about social changes that define and structure gender relationships through their agentic actions within the interrelated systems of influence.
Ninety-eight young U.S. children (mean age = 48 months) with either European, Latin American, or multiple ethnic backgrounds were videotaped with their mothers and their fathers on separate occasions in their families' homes. Parent-child pairs played for 8 min each with a feminine-stereotyped toy set (foods and plates) and a masculine-stereotyped toy set (track and cars). Levels of affiliation (engaging vs. distancing) and assertion (direct vs. nondirect) were rated on 7-point scales every 5 s from the videotapes for both parent and child. Overall, the play activity accounted for a large proportion of the variance in parents' and children's mean affiliation and assertion ratings. Some hypothesized gender-related differences in behavior were also observed. In addition, exploratory analyses revealed some differences between the different ethnic groups. The results highlight the importance of role modeling and activity settings in the socialization and social construction of gender.
Despite many efforts to increase gender fairness in education in recent years, the issue has not yet become obsolete: Gender discrimination still exists and nds expression in unused chances and limited action repertoires for both sexes. This article gives an overview on existing gender differences across the lifespan before providing explanations for these differences from a developmental perspective. We present psychological theories of development dealing with the adoption of gender typical preferences and behaviors in children, and draw the connection to the role parents’ and teachers’ gender stereotypes play in this process. The mechanisms contributing to the perpetuation of gender differences are illustrated via empirical studies. Finally, we offer starting points for interventions to prevent the development of these gender di erences, and introduce the REFLECT program which enhances gender competence in secondary school teachers and their students, and a training program for kindergarten teachers as concrete examples of such interventions.
The empirical investigation of causal relationships typically requires knowledge about where cause - effect relationships might exist. If this knowledge is not available, researchers have no statistical methods at their disposal. This paper proposes using Configural Frequency Analysis (CFA) as a searching device for the identification of possible causal relationships. Three causal concepts - the Wedge, the Fork, and Reciprocal Causation - are considered. It is shown how certain patterns of CFA types and antitypes can be interpreted as conforming to these causal concepts. Data examples from nutritional, clinical, and developmental studies are used for illustration. Conceptual issues concerning the estimation of expected frequencies and the interpretation of CFA-identified causal relationships are discussed.
From the first day of life, children are exposed to gender-stereotyped environment (e.g. Golombok & Fivush, 1994). Despite some slight differences, there is a common idea about what is typically " male" or " female" across cultures and children are raised upon those beliefs (Wiliams & Best, 1990). By the age of three, children recognize their own sex (Kohlberg, 1966) and which behavior patterns are " appropriate" for being a boy or a girl. Compared to former studies, it is the intention of this study to add knowledge on gender-stereotypism in children by (1) focusing on gender-stereotyped attitudes and gender-stereotyped behavior patterns, by (2) studying kindergarten children, and taking into account the perspectives from children and parents. For data collection in children a new test instrument-which children would experience as an exciting game-was developed whereas parents' data were collected by questionnaires. In the present study, 89 kindergarten students (46 girls and 43 boys), aged 2;10 through 6;05 years, and 67 parents participated. Results showed a trend in higher gender-stereotyped attitudes in boys than in girls. While responses concerning gender-stereotyped behavior were nearly identical for boys and their parents, girl's responses were less stereotyped than those of their parents. Thus, boys are still showing more gender-stereotyped attitudes and behavior than girls whereas girls are already open-minded about different sex roles and more modern-nontraditional- views. With regards to the results of the present study, sex roles, traditional and progressive perspectives, should not only be part of the kindergarten curriculum but also part of parental education. Parents and kindergarten teachers hence would not only need more " hands-on material" (like games) but also the awareness that there are differences in boys and girls and how to perfectly handle them without treating their children in a gender-stereotypical way. © Common Ground, Margit Kanka, Petra Wagner, Barbara Schober, Christiane Spiel.
Thirty-six children who had participated in two separate preschool studies of play interests were given an interest questionnaire when in elementary school. Sex differences in interests were studied with both age groups, with both sexes showing more varied interests in elementary school than they had in preschool. There was a significant correlation between preschool and elementary school masculinity-feminity scores for boys but not for girls. The implications of the broadening of interest patterns for both sexes and the lack of significant sex role correlations for girls were discussed in terms of changing sex role standards.
Gender-role stereotyping by children has aresearch literature which dates back 25 years. Thisarticle reviewed studies which examined children'soccupational choice or gender assignmentto a listofoccupations called a fixed-response format. Also reviewedwere studies in which children were given a free-choiceresponse capability in which they were asked to identifytheir occupational aspirations. Trends and changes in children's occupational stereotypingover the years were identified. Unlike 20 years ago,recent studies found that girls identify a greaternumber of different occupational aspirations than do boys. New data, which was collected from alongitudinal sample of over 200 elementary schoolchildren examined in the second, fourth, and sixthgrades, is also presented. Eighty-six percent of thesample was white and the majority of the non-whitesample was Hispanic. Hypotheses from Gottfredson'stheory of circumscription and compromise and sociallearning theory were tested with support found foreach.
Methodological and ethical challenges that researchers face when they conduct research with children are the focus of this article. The discussion is based on a study conducted with 2-6-year-old children in Iceland, where the purpose was to shed light on children's perspectives on their early childhood settings. The study is built on the conviction that children, just like adults, are citizens who hold their own views and perspectives, they have competencies and the right to be heard, and they are able to speak for themselves if the appropriate methods are used. The article reflects on methodological dilemmas and challenges as well as ethical issues related to informed consent, confidentiality, protection and interactions.
Abstract We review research on the family's role in gender development during childhood and adolescence. Our discussion highlights children's dyadic family relationship experiences with their parents and siblings; additionally, we describe ways in which the larger system of family relationships, including gendered dynamics in the marriage and the differential family experiences of sisters versus brothers may have implications for gender development. We also emphasize the significance of contextual factors—ranging from situational demands and affordances to forces emanating from the larger social ecology—in family gender socialization. We conclude that family experiences may have a more important impact on gender development than has previously been believed, and we highlight directions for future study. These include: (1) applying more complex models of parent socialization and family dynamics to the study of the family's role in gender development; (2) expanding on research directed at the socialization of sex differences to study how family dynamics are linked to individual differences in girls’ and boys’ gendered qualities and behaviors; and (3) further exploring how contextual factors exert an impact on gender socialization in the family.
Zusammenfassung. Die vorliegenden Studien sind Teil des Projekts “Zeitaufwand fur die Schule“. Intention war (1) die Evaluation der Vorgaben der Wiener Schulbehorde, in denen speziell fur das Gymnasium wochentliche Maximalzeiten der hauslichen Arbeit festlegt wurden, und (2) die Aufklarung der hohen Variabilitat in der Arbeitszeit. Die Arbeitszeit fur die Schule wurde durch ein Tagebuch erhoben, in welches die SchulerInnen eine Woche lang Eintragungen vornahmen. Die ersten vier Studien wurden in der 10. Schulstufe (Gymnasium) durchgefuhrt. Fur die Auswertungen lagen vollstandige Daten von 236 SchulerInnen vor. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, dass die SchulerInnen mit mehr als 11 Stunden im Mittel deutlich mehr Zeit aufwendeten als von der Schulbehorde vorgesehen (7.5 Stunden), wobei die Madchen langer zu Hause fur die Schule arbeiten als die Knaben. Zur Aufklarung der Variabilitat der Arbeitszeit trugen vor allem schulischer Leistungsdruck, Prufungsangst und Arbeitsverhalten bei. Intention der Studie in der 3. Sc...
In the Configural Frequency Analysis (CFA) of KRAUTH and LIENERT (1973 a, b), overfrequented (or underfrequented) cells in multivariate contingency tables are identified by simultaneous binomial tests. As an alternative, finite and asymptotic tests are proposed, which are derived from the (exact conditional) generalized hypergeometrical distribution of the cell frequencies. These tests allow for considerably more powerful decisions than do the conservative binomial tests.
This article reports the results of a content analysis of 467 commercial characters in the programming between children's cartoons. Replicating and expanding upon Smith's (1994) research, the findings reveal that being in a major role, having active movement in an individual activity, and being in an occupational setting all significantly increase the likelihood of an actor being male. It is suggested that media perpetuation of these stereotypes over time, which exists in spite of decreases in real-world sex-typed behaviors, may be related to a reliance of advertisers on cognitive shortcuts they anticipate their viewers will use while viewing their commercials.
This study examined four- and five-year-oldchildren's predictions concerning the sexof personscarrying out a variety of common activities andoccupations on television. The purpose of the study wasto investigate the possibility that young childrenmay have stereotyped beliefs and expectations which canbe applied in the course of television viewing.Preschoolers of European Australian background viewed short scenes establishing the need for avariety of activities and in each case were asked toindicate who would perform the activity: a man, a womanor both. The children's responses revealed strong gender stereotyped expectations, and these werestrongest in the case of masculine stereotypedactivities. With age, children were more likely to makestereotyped judgments about the ability of males andfemales to perform the activities. The children'sestimates of their own future competence in theactivities also indicated stereotypical beliefs, withthe older girls more likelyto rejectmasculineactivities. It is argued that children's preconceivedexpectations furnish an organizational basis for theirinterpretation of gender related information intelevision.
A social constructionist analysis is used here to examine London primary school children's job choices in interview discussions and role play groups. Children's selections are compared according to gender, and according to the different interactive environments in which they made them. By analysing their responses this paper investigates which gendered constructions appeared to prevail, and the ways in which children explain their ideas. Previous studies of children's occupational choices have found their responses to be gender‐stereotypical. This paper shows that in their interviews the children in this study chose a diverse selection of jobs, which were less gender‐stereotypical than found in previous studies. However, a clear dichotomy remained between the attributes of the jobs chosen by the different genders, and few children chose jobs traditionally performed by the opposite sex. Moreover, in their role play groups children's constructions of gender and adult occupation often appeared different, and sometimes more gender‐stereotypical, than those in the interviews.
Children’s cultural worlds provide them with many different sources of information about gender and work. Early school reader illustrations, for example, are a cultural resource that produces particular meanings about gender, however children may also draw on understandings from other contexts to make their own sense of these representations. The study described in this article interviewed young children about illustrations depicting women and men’s work in two early school readers. Feminist poststructuralist analyses were used to examine representations in illustrations and how children made sense of them. Findings revealed variability of meanings about gender and work in both illustrations and the children’s accounts, assigning women agency and equality on some occasions while locating them in a gender hierarchy below men at other times. Although findings illuminate children’s access to an egalitarian discourse, they also point to an ongoing need to support and encourage children’s critical reading of texts.
Identified developmental trends and patterns of change in sex-typing (ST), assessed the stability of individual traits of ST, and analyzed interrelationships among different components of ST and cognitive development among German children over a 5-yr longitudinal study. Ss were 43 girls and 39 boys (aged 4.6–5.5 yrs at inception of study) who completed a battery of measures of cognitive abilities and ST annually. At all ages, Ss showed a considerable degree of sex-role orientation. Individual changes in self-concept of masculinity–femininity, sex-role preferences, and sex-typed play behaviors were unrelated to cognitive abilities. Stability of interindividual differences did not vary with homogeneity or diversity of individual patterns of change. Girls' and boys' development of ST was similar, suggesting an interplay of the perceiver's developmental status and the perceived characteristics of the social environment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Parents' child-rearing sex-role attitudes were investigated to determine their relationship to social issue sex-role attitudes and selected demographic variables. The sample included 94 parents, 32 couples, and 30 persons who responded individually. Data were gathered by use of a demographic information sheet, the Sex-Role Attitude Scale, and the Child-Rearing Sex- Role Attitude Scale. Findings indicated a relationship between social issue and child-rearing sex-role attitudes. The demographic variables of parents' sex and child caretaker choice were related to both social issue and child-rearing sex-role attitudes. On the other hand, the variables of income, employment status, and type of family unit appeared to have little rela tionship to sex-role attitudes.
This article reviews recent UK-based research that has prioritised children's accounts of their experiences of their daily lives, and focuses on gender differences in these accounts of family life, friendships, use of public space, use of out-of-school care, popular culture and consumption, and children's views of gender differences—drawing mainly from research with children in middle childhood. It then discusses some of the implications for practice and training for a range of professionals working with children. The article suggests that a re-evaluation of theories of gender differences in practitioner textbooks could usefully be undertaken to integrate more sophisticated, contextual notions of gender identities based on children's experiences. Copyright © 2006 The Author(s).
This cross-sectional study investigated toy-choice in 38 one-year-old, 33 three-year-old, and 35 five-year-old children, who could choose between 10 different toys (four feminine, four masculine, and two neutral) in a structured play-session. The children played alone for 7 minutes and together with their accompanying parent for another 7 minutes (play-status). The results showed that girls and boys chose different toys from as early as the age of one year (Mdn=12 months). These sex differences were found at all three ages. In contradiction to earlier studies, our results showed that feminine toys became less interesting for both girls and boys with increasing age. The present study showed no consistent effects of play-status. This study contributes to the knowledge of how early behavioral sex differences can be observed, how these differences develop, and it also raises questions concerning what sex differences stem from.
This research examined 3- to 11-year-old children's knowledge of and beliefs about violating several gender norms (e.g., toys, play styles, occupations, parental roles, hairstyles, and clothing) as compared to social and moral norms. Knowledge of the norms and understanding that norm violations were possible increased with age. The children's evaluations of violations of gender norms varied from item to item. Violations concerning becoming a parent of the other gender were devalued in both boys and girls, whereas most toy and occupation violations were not especially devalued in either. Boys with feminine hairstyles or clothing were evaluated more negatively than girls with masculine hairstyles or clothing. On the other hand, girls who played in masculine play styles were devalued relative to boys who played in feminine styles. Evaluations of norm violations were not consistently related to age.
Gender differences in children's play activities, preferred school subjects, and occupational goals were examined in relation to such parental variables as toy-giving and chore assignment. Subjects were 245 children in grades K, 3, 6, and 8. Subjects completed questionnaires before and after Christmas asking what gifts they wanted, asked for, received, and liked best. They also were asked to name their friends and play activities, favorite and least-liked school subjects, occupational aspirations, and chores at home. Children generally wanted, asked for, received, and most-liked gender-typical toys. They were less likely to receive requested gender-atypical toys. Children's preferred activities, job aspirations and assigned chores were along gender-typical lines. Girls preferred masculine toys and jobs more than boys preferred feminine ones. With increasing age, both girls and boys increasingly preferred masculine toys and male friends. No gender differences in favorite or least-liked school subjects were found. School subject preference was related to gender-typing of occupational choice for girls but not boys.
A content analysis was conducted to examine gender-role stereotypes in toy commercials airing during the after-school hours
in October, 2004, on the U.S. Nickelodeon network. The sample included 455 toy commercials, which were analyzed for the type
of toy, number of identifiable boys and girls, gender portrayal, gender orientation, age of children, type of interaction,
setting, and color of setting. The majority of girl and boy characters were featured in gender-specific toy commercials, and
there were more identifiable girls than boys. Almost one-half of the characters were children (6-to-10-years old) who predominantly
played indoors, in mixed colored settings, and engaged in cooperative play. Boys were more likely than girls to be shown outdoors
and playing competitively.
KeywordsStereotypes-Gender-Toys-Nickelodeon-Commercials
The popular Disney Princess line includes nine films (e.g., Snow White, Beauty and the Beast) and over 25,000 marketable products. Gender role depictions of the prince and princess characters were examined with a focus
on their behavioral characteristics and climactic outcomes in the films. Results suggest that the prince and princess characters
differ in their portrayal of traditionally masculine and feminine characteristics, these gender role portrayals are complex,
and trends towards egalitarian gender roles are not linear over time. Content coding analyses demonstrate that all of the
movies portray some stereotypical representations of gender, including the most recent film, The Princess and the Frog. Although both the male and female roles have changed over time in the Disney Princess line, the male characters exhibit
more androgyny throughout and less change in their gender role portrayals.
KeywordsChildren–Disney–Film–Gender–Gender role
Research has shown that gender role development is socially constructed and learned from birth. In this study, the impact of child care and the interactions that take place there are examined, with a focus on gender behavior and stereotypes. Observation data and analysis are presented. Themes representing gender stereotypes and the breaking of gender barriers are examined, and the role that caregivers can play in the fostering of gender-fair behaviors is discussed.
It was hypothesized that gender-stereotyped styles of social interaction are apparent as early as the preschool years, and that the use of these gender-stereotyped behaviors is associated with the child's perceived competence and social support. Using a story-completion method with 47 white middle-class preschoolers, the results of the study confirmed the hypotheses. Boys were more likely to use the male-stereotyped styles of domination and intrusion, while girls were more likely to use the female-stereotyped styles of affiliation and inclusion. In addition, the use of male gender-stereotyped behaviors among boys was significantly related to perceived physical competence and peer acceptance. For girls, use of the female gender-stereotyped behavior of Affiliation was related to perceived cognitive competence and, weakly, to perceived maternal acceptance. For both sexes, use of the feminine-stereotyped behavior of Inclusion was negatively related to competence and acceptance variables.
Our goal was to explore how children's understanding of gender as a social category relates to their acquisition of sex-typed knowledge and preferences. Children's gender concepts, sex-typed preferences, and stereotyped knowledge were measured in 61 boys and girls (3-5 years). Gender concept measures included ability to identify and to discriminate the sexes, understanding gender group membership, temporal stability of gender, and gender consistency over situational changes. Children improved with age on most of the measures except gender consistency. With the exception of consistency, measures of gender concept understanding were found to be related to children's stereotyped toy and clothing knowledge and/or to their sex-typed toy preferences (with age controlled). It was shown that only rudimentary gender understanding is needed prior to children learning about sex stereotypes and prior to showing strong sex-typed preferences for peers or toys. The roles of gender identity, stability, consistency, and group membership in the sex-typing process are discussed.
Unlabelled:
Do children's schemata for occupations they observe in real life differ from those they see on TV? 177 second- and fifth-graders were assigned to conditions in a 2 (real-life or on TV) x 2 (police officer or nurse) design. They answered open-ended questions about what police officers or nurses do (in real life or on TV) and rated the typicality of various job activities. Their schematic knowledge about TV and real occupations was clearly differentiated. TV versions entailed more glamour, higher income, more stereotypes, and more dramatic events without negative consequences. Real-life occupations entailed more effort, status, and excitement. Older children differentiated slightly more clearly than younger ones. Children who perceived television as factual and realistic had real-world schemata similar to TV images. Children who were heavy viewers and perceived television as realistic were most likely to aspire to jobs shown on TV.
Conclusion:
children form separate schemata for social information acquired from TV and from real-world experience, but those who perceive television as socially realistic are apt to incorporate TV messages in their schemata and their aspirations.
Gender schema theory proposes that children's acquisition of gender labels and gender stereotypes informs gender-congruent behaviour. Most previous studies have been cross-sectional and do not address the temporal relationship between knowledge and behaviour. We report the results of a longitudinal study of gender knowledge and sex-typed behaviour across three domains in children tested at 24 and 36 months (N = 56). Although both knowledge and sex-typed behaviour increased significantly between 2 and 3 years, there was no systematic pattern of cross-lagged correlations between the two, although some concurrent relationships were present at 24 months. Future longitudinal work might profitably focus on younger children using reliable preverbal measures of gender knowledge and employing a shorter lag between measurement times.