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79:6 (2017) 213–220 | www.jurnalteknologi.utm.my | eISSN 2180–3722 |
Jurnal
Teknologi
Full Paper
EARTH OBSERVATORY DATA FOR MARITIME SILK ROAD
DEVELOPMENT IN SOUTH EAST ASIA
Mohamad Shawkat Hossaina, Mazlan Hashima,b*
aGeoscience & Digital Earth Centre (INSTeG), Research Institute for
Sustainable Environment, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM
Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
bFaculty of Geoinformation & Real Estate, Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
Article history
Received
12 May 2017
Received in revised form
14 June 2017
Accepted
10 August 2017
*Corresponding author
mazlanhashim@utm.my
15 August
Graphical abstract
Abstract
Malaysia is one of the leading maritime countries surrounded by the South China
Sea. Since the emergence of Maritime Silk Road (MSR) concept and its operational
implementation, economic growth, development and cooperation, particularly in
the context of Southeast Asia (SEA) including Malaysia has enhanced, but
simultaneously traffic congestion and tensions in the South China Sea through
claiming Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) by the law enforcing agencies of the
regional countries have increased. To trade China within SEA, has to follow longer
shipping route, linking the mainland of China with ports throughout the Middle East,
traversing the South China Sea. Given there are many uncharted and emerging
islands in the South China Sea, that still undetected and therefore, delineation of
these island boundaries could be a major step forward in reducing maritime
tensions. An integrated MSR network plan can be developed through recognizing
those islands as potential EEZ for the related regional countries based on
international water boundary law suits. The set of initiatives recommended in this
paper gives strategic focus to – how earth observatory (EO) data can be used in (1)
delineating emerging islands, (2) designing and developing coastal infrastructural
facilities, and (3) protecting the integrity of the maritime environment. The future
study can emphasize on investigating the potential usefulness of EO data, inter alia
optical and radar for mapping emerging islands, possibilities of appearing islands in
future based on shallowness predicted from bathymetric and sedimentation data
analysis, and forecast opportunities and risks of using those as MSR transportations.
The environmental risks associated with water pollution, degradation of coastal
habitats, and marine ecosystem health and vulnerabilities can be assessed by
analysing current and historical EO data. The particular emphasis should be given
on protecting environmental pollution in the effort to introduce the philosophy of
sustainable development in the local maritime sector.
Keywords: Earth observatory data, Maritime Silk Road, South East Asia, emerging
island, EEZ, maritime pollutions
214 Mohamad Shawkat Hossain & Mazlan Hashim / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 79:6 (2017) 213–220
Abstrak.
Malaysia adalah salah satu daripada negara-negara maritim terkemuka dikelilingi
oleh Laut China Selatan. Sejak kemunculan konsep Jalan Sutera Maritim (MSR) dan
pelaksanaan operasinya, pertumbuhan ekonomi, pembangunan dan kerjasama,
terutamanya dalam konteks Asia Tenggara (SEA) termasuk Malaysia telah
dipertingkatkan, tetapi pada masa yang sama berlaku kesesakan tarfik dan
ketegangan di Laut China Selatan melalui tuntutan Zon Ekonomi Eksklusif (EEZ)
dengan undang-undang agensi penguatkuasa negara-negara serantau telah
meningkat. Untuk berdagang dalam SEA, China harus mengikuti laluan yang
menghubungkan tanah besar China dengan pelabuhan-pelabuhan di seluruh
Timur Tengah, menyeberangi Laut China Selatan. Memandangkan terdapat
banyak kemunculan baru pulau-pulau kecil di Laut China Selatan yang masih
belum tidak diterokai dan dipetakan, persempadanan pulau-pulau ini boleh
menjadi satu langkah ke hadapan dalam mengurangkan ketegangan maritim.
Pelan rangkaian MSR bersepadu boleh dikembangkan melalui mengiktiraf pulau-
pulau dengan potensi EEZ bagi negara-negara serantau berdasarkan undang-
undang sempadan laut antarabangsa. Set inisiatif yang dicadangkan dalam artikel
ini memberi tumpuan strategik kepada - bagaimana data-data cerapan bumi (EO)
boleh digunakan dalam: (1) menentukan sempadan kemunculan pulai-pulau kecil
baru, (2) merekabentuk dan membangunkan kemudahan infrastruktur pantai, dan
(3) melindungi integriti persekitaran maritim. Kajian masa depan boleh menekankan
kepada kajian kegunaan potensi data EO, melibatkan data-data optik dan radar
untuk kemunculan pulau-pulau baru, kemungkinan terdapat pulau-pulau diimasa
depan boleh berdasarkan ramalan dari analisis kedalaman dan pemendapan, dan
ramalan peluang dan risiko dalam laluan MSR. Risiko alam sekitar yang berkaitan
dengan pencemaran air, kemusnahan habitat pantai, dan kesihatan ekosistem
marin dan kelemahan boleh dinilai dengan menganalisis data-data EO semasa
dan lama. Penekanan perlu diberikan untuk melindungi pencemaran alam sekitar
dalam usaha mempelorori falsafah pembangunan mampan bagi sektor maritim
tempatan.
Kata kunci: Data cerapan Bumi, Jalan Sutera Maritim, Asia Tenggara, kemunculan
pulau, EEZ, pencemaran maritim
© 2017 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Since the emergence of Maritime Silk Road (MSR)
concept and its operational implementation,
strengthening economic ties trough trade and
investment, and cultural communication and
cooperation among of the states along the route
have been observed [1,2]. The new MSR initiative, led
by China is believed to trigger trade and investment
and eradicate territorial disputes. Maritime and
territorial disputes in SEA have been evolved tensions
among the states bordering the South China Sea for
decades [3]. From the six major initiatives of dispute
resolution in Asia, consisting of (1) Gulf of Tonkin
maritime boundary agreement (2000), (2) Singapore-
Malaysia Pedra Branca dispute (2008), (3) Malaysia-
Vietnam continental Shelf joint submission (2009), (4)
Bangladesh-Mayanmar maritime boundary dispute
(2012), (5) Japan-Taiwan fisheries agreement (2013),
and (6) Indonesia-Philippines maritime boundary
dispute (2014) (http://amti.csis.org/maritime-
disputes/) appears that, disputes are outstanding.
These dispute resolution initiatives have a common
need for (a) demarcating the maritime border, (b)
sharing fisheries resources, (c) shelving oil and gas
rights, and (d) claiming to a 200 nautical mile EEZ
boundary in the disputed areas of Asia. It’s well
recognized that, these disputes evolved chiefly due
to claiming access to marine resources, such as oil
and gas by the contesting states [4]. Along with
active oil and gas fields, those states are continually
involved in discovering new field to meet the
hydrocarbon demand (Figure 1). Inflexible stand in
their claims have included negative impact on
bilateral relations. Though the major focus of dispute
resolution is mutual economic benefits, none of those
has positioned coastal and marine resource
conservation as a priority issue.
The coastal water and seabed of the SEA are
based upon a diverse array of coastal and marine
resources [5]. Most maritime countries have signed
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) and the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species (CITES) for the sustainable management and
sharing of resources. They are agreed in the
implementation of these institutional arrangements
(agreements and conventions) at both the national
regional levels. Despite of international cooperation
for sharing resources between states, there is no
effective framework for sustainable harvesting of
resources across the region [6]. The anthropogenic
disturbances are identified as a main cause of
215 Mohamad Shawkat Hossain & Mazlan Hashim / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 79:6 (2017) 213–220
habitat degradation and loss of marine organisms.
However, there is paucity of data sources and
nonexistence of periodic monitoring system with
relation to marine resource distribution and status,
transboundary migration of living organisms, and their
living condition (water quality and pollution sources)
[7–9]. Availability and sustainability of resources within
contesting waters and seabed could be one of the
determining factors of diplomatic negotiating
objectives [10]. Delineating the maritime boundaries
could be only a solution of maritime claims, not an
effective implementation of sustainable
management of coastal and marine resources, for
which, the contesting sates claim their jurisdiction.
Question is how earth observatory (EO) system and
data sources can play the pivotal role in marine
resource assessment and help achieving MSR goals
and objectives?
Figure 1 Location of Oil and gas fields’ concentrations in the
South China Sea – the main reason of territorial disputes?
Recent advances of EO system have
demonstrated ability to extract marine resource
information and mapping at large spatial scale
which can be incorporated to the MSR initiatives
through an integrated management approach
[11,12]. The remotely sensed EO system has been
continuously providing satellite images of long-term
global observations from atmosphere to sea bottom
features. MSR development initiatives should address
the following questions: how do advances of EO
system relative to remote sensing methods used in
assessing MSR implementation strategies benefit the
national and regional economy when an initiative to
connect the marine biodiversity, communities and
environmental changes has not been implemented
at local to regional and global level? Are there
adequate EO data sources that can help through
providing information about (a) unchartered and
emerging islands, (b) sources and causes of marine
pollution, and (c) finally, a large-scale marine
conservation plan development? Before developing
a framework so as to choosing appropriate EO
system and data dimensions, interconnectivity
between the issues such as maritime activities
(transportation, pollution, resource sharing) and
biodiversity assessing approaches need to be
developed for the sustainable development of MSR.
Therefore, this paper discusses trade and marine
conservation interrelated issues and challenges and
the potential of using EO data for the successful
development of the new MSR initiatives in SEA.
2.0 EO SYSTEM AND MSR DEVELOPMENT
CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES
The coastal ecosystem made up of the coastal
environment, communities (flora and fauna) and the
mineral resources is interconnected and complex;
the more diverse the communities and associates
species, the greater the level of interdependency
and interconnectivity (Figure 2). Therefore,
addressing any of the issues either trade or
biodiversity is inherently impacted by the maritime
construct (shipping activities) and depending on
one’s connectivity on the other. A tipping point is
that, the efficient use of satellite-based monitoring
system enabling the establishment of a credible
economy, broader marine ecosystem services and
human wellbeing through poverty eradication
(Figure 2). This probably true in maritime countries of
SEA where economies are tangibly related to marine
resource exploitation (fishery, oil and gas). Similar
interconnectivities, illustrated in Figure 2 could be
established for other impartial issues, embedding the
overall connectivity and the need for an integrated
and regional collaborative mechanism among the
maritime states. To address these interconnected
issues the satellite-based monitoring approach must
underpin all aspects of the regional disputes
incorporating resource sharing agreements,
interrelationships, externalities (power exercised by
military forces, geopolitical influences) and the
actual costs and benefits of transshipment routes
and activities with regard to the natural capital.
216 Mohamad Shawkat Hossain & Mazlan Hashim / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 79:6 (2017) 213–220
Earth observation systems are of two main classes,
active and passive remote sensing. The active sensor
utilizes its own energy source to illuminate the
objects, and includes lidar and radar. The passive
sensor uses the energy reflected by the objects and
include multispectral and hyperspectral cameras,
video cameras, and thermal imagers. The choice of
remote sensor or combination of sensor generally
depends on capability to detect target object,
purpose of the project and mapping coverage –
large or small. Each sensor and method, so far
examined, has advantages and limitations because
of inherent spatial and spectral attributes, and the
surrounding marine environment that hinder the
target object to be detected, that have made
remote sensing research in the marine environment
challenging [13–17]. However, both the active and
passive remote sensing methods are potentially
useful in resolving maritime transportation (trade and
economy) and biodiversity conservation related
issues through providing information at global and
regional levels.
Figure 2 A framework for illustrating interconnectivity
between trade and biodiversity issues, EO data flow, and
MSR development data dimensions.
2.1 Trade and Economy Related Issues
2.1.1 Unchartered Emerging Island
Malaysia, one of the leading maritime countries in
Southeast Asia (SEA) shares the maritime boundary,
recognized by the United Nations Convention on the
Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) with the Philippines,
Singapore and Vietnam, and it shares both the
maritime and land boundaries with Brunei, Indonesia
and Thailand (Figure 3). Through the enforcement of
UNCLOS, the maritime neighboring countries are
entitled to share coastal waters, contiguous zones,
and exclusive economic zones (EEZ), although,
regional disputes are there due to disagreement on
resource sharing and ambiguity in legal perspectives
[3,18,19]. Territorial disputed issues encompassing the
Paracel (the Pratas islands) and the Spratly islands
between Taiwan, China, Brunei, Malaysia, Vietnam
and the Philippines are known [20,21] (Figures 1 and
3). Moreover, there are islands that remain sunken
under the sea emerge by means of mainly
volcanism, but none can precisely assume how the
territorial boundary dispute might escalate after the
new island emergence. Question arises: should there
be re-allocation of EEZ boundaries with discovery of
island(s)? Early detection of these emerging islands
may reduce risk of the sovereignty disputes. An
integrated MSR network plan can be developed
through recognizing those islands as potential EEZ for
the related regional countries based on international
water boundary law suits (Figure 3).
Figure 3 Extent of EEZ of countries across the South China
Sea
Using the detecting ability of EO methods and/or
development of EO data extraction and
interpretation approaches can provide necessary
information related to which state should be under
jurisdiction of the emerging and unchartered islands.
2.1.2 Shipping Route, Navigation and Port Facilities
With the economic integration through MSR
initiatives, maritime transportation which relies on
shipping lanes has increased traffic congestion and
risk of shipping accident in this region. Rapid
economic growth has raised concern regarding
energy security. Coastal states and MSR countries
need to place themselves regarding port facilities to
provision for this growing trade and optimize their
217 Mohamad Shawkat Hossain & Mazlan Hashim / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 79:6 (2017) 213–220
economic benefits. The Straits of Malacca have
become the most important shipping in SEA for
international and local trade (Figure 4). China had to
import great bulk of oil (three-quarters) using single
check point waterways, the Straits of Malacca to
balance its demand and supply [22]. Heavy traffic
congestion has occurred due to increased
transshipment of oil and cargo vessels (more than
60,000 ships per year), traversing shallow and narrow
channels of the Straits. This has increased frequency
of shipping accidents [22] and disposal of hazardous
materials. While the Straits are rearing renewable
natural resources including mining and natural gas,
rich in marine diversity including seagrass meadows,
corals, aquaculture, tourism, the shipping lanes
developed for the straits are less concerned
regarding biodiversity management and
conservation issues compared to economic gains.
Figure 4 The Straits of Malacca, Malaysia
Satellite data can be used in designing port
facilities and developing sea traffic management
systems. Satellite-based database allows for
monitoring actual traffic condition that can reduce
risk of ship collision [23] and generate real time
bathymetric data that can ensure shipping
navigation and traffic safety. Evaluation on relative
efficacy between multispectral and acoustic remote
sensing methods can help the project manager to
choose the appropriate method. Ocean
bathymetric data can be used as proxy of shipping
navigation through providing data on sea floor
depth at required spatial and temporal scale.
Microwave radar is potentially useful in detecting
oil spills and ships for a larger search areas compared
to optical EO sensors [24,25]. There are a number of
potentially useful satellite sensors for detecting debris
in the open ocean [26].
2.1.3 Designing Shortest Shipping Lane
For distribution of goods in containers in the fuel
efficient trade context, shortest routes are preferred
that traverse the EEZ areas. To trade China within
SEA, has to follow longer shipping route, linking the
mainland of China with ports throughout the Middle
East, traversing the South China Sea. The shortest
route, through seaport of Riga (Latvia) has been
suggested for China to trade within the European
Union [27]. Similarly, the shortest route for the MSR
could be designed using EO data sources.
2.2 Biodiversity Conservation Related Issues
2.2.1 Resilience to Stressors
Climate change due to sea level rise, blue carbon
emission and changing temperature, from costal
habitat degradation to impacts upon migration of
marine organisms have been explicitly discussed in
the literature [11,28–33], but the concept of
integrating maritime transport and resilience to
climate change stressors are relatively new [34]. The
maritime transport activities of Asian countries
assumed to affect CO2 emissions [35] and
consequently resilience to climate change. Mining
activities are often identified as a source of marine
pollution as evident in the waters of the Straits of
Malacca [36]. Sea waters absorbed around 25% of
anthropogenic CO2 due to industrialization and
subsequently increased ocean acidity by 26% [37].
Ocean acidification adversely affects seawater
chemistry, thereby marine organisms, reduces their
growth and survival, and increases of ocean acidity
decreases its capacity to absorb CO2. The MSR
mechanism has not addresses ocean acidification
and blue carbon sequestration role till-to-date and
there is no appropriate EO system to specifically
monitor changes in acidification.
Remote sensing methods can be used in
monitoring ocean acidification [37] and blue carbon
(http://water.usgs.gov/nrp/blue-carbon/nasa-blue-
cms/index.html) changes as evident from on-going
project activities. The visible broad-band of AVHRR,
MODIS is found effective for global calcium
carbonate measurements, and SeaWiFS for
coccolithophore calcite concentration estimation.
Blue carbon sequestration from biomass estimates
[Figure 5; 38] is another important estimate that
indicates marine ecosystem health [39], but less
studied area. As the existing methods have pros and
cons [40,41], further study can address the issues to
precisely estimate coefficients for ocean
acidification and blue carbon emission at global and
regional scale.
218 Mohamad Shawkat Hossain & Mazlan Hashim / Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) 79:6 (2017) 213–220
Figure 5 Landsat (EO data) used to identify seagass biomass
distribution [38], can also be used to estimate blue carbon
sequestration
2.2.2 Ecosystem Service Provisions
What is a wise use of coastal and marine resource?
This perennial issue, always controversial due to
conflicting interests among the maritime countries,
has in the last decade tended to be clothed in the
context of ‘sustainable development’. The rapid
breakthrough of this concept in socio-political and
scientific spheres has brought to our attention the
dependence of human survival and well-being upon
coastal ecosystem services [42–46], as well as the
susceptibility of ecosystems to geopolical influences.
Beyond the power clashes and contesting maritime
claims, the over-exploitation and uncontrolled
harvesting of marine resources particularly fishery are
imposing serious concerns on the health and security
of the marine ecosystem [47]. On the marine
biotechnology has the potential to meet the
demand of global challenges such as sustainable
food supplies, energy security and marine ecosystem
remediation [48–50].
Marine Protected Area (MPA) may provide
required ground-truthing data on biodiversity related
issues at local to regional scales (Figures 1 and 2).
Although remote sensing-based studies mostly
concentrated inventories of mangrove [51], seagrass
meadow [52], coral [53] and their physical
environment, but little attemp were made for the
valuation of their ecosystem services and explore the
linkages to the shipping activities at the seascape
level. The wider-viewing sensor SeaWIFS with seven
multi-spectral bands across the visible and near-
infrared regions is one of the most promising ocean
color sensor and has proven applications including
monitoring phytoplankton, algae, and water quality
on regional scale (Figure 5). Improvement of EO data
analysis methods using multi-spectral Landsat
imagery with moderate resolution (30 m) [13],
Quickbird and IKONOS with high resolution (<3 m) is a
topic of on-going research on change detection in
seagrass and coral habitats and for other
applications.
2.2.1 Conclusion
Regional cooperative actions with a satellite-based
monitoring system, economic valuation of regional
fisheries and MSR regional thinking can be effective
approaches for the sustainable management of
marine resources [54]. Despite SEA states have
proven willing to manage and resolve their disputes
indicated by participation in agreements, the
baseline scenario, structured EO data acquisition
and interpretation scheme, emerging island,
maritime activity implication, broad-scale motoring
data deficiency on marine resources/diversity are
sever constraints in this region. An integrated and
holistic approach for satellite-based marine resource
assessment, monitoring and management is
essentially needed. This paper critically analyses the
interconnected maritime activities and sustainable
marine biodiversity management issues, potential
usefulness of satellite data that could enable a
framework development and thereby ensure the
success of regional MSR initiatives. The concept
discussed in this paper provides a subjective
approach for defining the interconnectivities of MSR
activity and biodiversity conservation problem and
utilises this dependent information to engage suitable
remote sensing method. The knowledge gaps must
be identified and prioritized [55–57], although there
may be quality EO data available for some areas
before adopting a suitable remote sensing system
that should incorporate marine ecosystem processes
and maritime actions.
Acknowledgement
This research is fully supported by a Postdoctoral
Fellowship (Q.J130000.21A2.03E41) of Universiti
Teknologi Malaysia (UTM).
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