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Manual Balance de Masa Glaciar
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... Además de ella, existen otros mecanismos para la acumulación. Por ejemplo, la precipitación líquida puede ser transformada en hielo por efecto de las bajas temperaturas, la neblina puede ser integrada por deposición en la superficie del glaciar y el agua de derretimiento puede formar una capa de hielo sobreimpuesto por recongelamiento (Rivera et al., 2016). ...
... La ablación ocurre fundamentalmente por el derretimiento de la nieve y hielo superficial, seguido por el escurrimiento en la superficie, a través del glaciar o en el fondo. Otras formas de ablación son la deflación y la sublimación (Rivera et al., 2016). ...
Este artículo presenta los resultados de las mediciones del balance de masa del glaciar Tarija utilizando el método glaciológico o directo, durante el El Niño 2015-2016. Este glaciar fue recientemente equipado con una red de balizas de ablación y perforaciones en la zona de acumulación por lo que ahora es posible contar con mediciones de la evolución del glaciar con un mayor detalle. Los resultados muestran que
se produjo un balance de masa muy negativo de -1245 mm eq.a. con una elevación de la línea de equilibrio de 5140 msnm y 45% de área cubierta por la zona de acumulación.
... Ablation occurs throughout the year, although it is higher during the wet season due to humidity and temperature conditions (Peruvian summer). These ablation processes are lesser during the dry season, when water demand is lower and the contribution of glaciers in response to water supply is reduced (Rivera et al. 2017;INAIGEM 2018). Finally, (c) the dates of the images should correspond to periods of El Niño or La Niña with neutral or weak intensity according to (A) the Coastal El Niño Index (ICEN, for its acronym in Spanish) proposed by the Peruvian Geophysical Institute -IGP (Takahashi et al. 2014), and (B) neutral to moderate intensity in the Southern Oscillation Index (SOI) proposed by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration -NOAA (Rasmusson & Carpenter 1982) (see Table 1 and Tables S1 and S2 in the Supplementary material). ...
Increase in average global temperature over the last few decades has caused an accelerated retreat of tropical glaciers. Andean populations live in strict dependence on the water services provided by mountains and glaciers. The present study aims to generate a glacier melt projection map in the Peruvian Central Cordillera based on vulnerability maps over the 1990–2021 period. Seven satellite images were selected to determine the changes in glacier coverage based on normalized indexes. Subsequently, seven parametric maps consisting of terrain and climate characteristics were assimilated into a vulnerability analysis based on the frequency index and the Shannon entropy index model, allowing one to identify areas most susceptible to glacial retreat. The results show that the most important criteria for the southern and northern glacial study areas are surface temperature, elevation, precipitation, aspect, orientation, and slope. The validation results revealed the most accurate set of parameters from the vulnerability map in terms of projecting melting areas and were used to produce a spatial projection map for the period 2021–2055. From 2021, a glacier loss in the range of 84–98% would be reached by 2050s.
... This chapter will analyze the glaciers located in Chilean Patagonia, understood as the region of the southern Andes located from 41°S to the southern tip of the continent, which historically has also been called western Patagonia. In this region there are glaciers on the western slope of the Andes and some on the eastern slope, especially in the Southern Patagonia Icefield (SPI), the largest ice mass in South America [7]. ...
Patagonian glaciers (41°–56°S) have experienced strong volume losses and retreats during recent decades in response to the climatic changes affecting this part of Chile, contributing significantly to global sea level rise. These changes have had an impact on the region’s ecosystems, due to processes such as the expansion of fjords and lakes, altered hydrology and geology risks, higher sediment loads contributed to rivers, and changes in the altitude and composition of nearby vegetation. These factors affecting the ecosystem services provided by glaciers, such as runoff and flood regulation, slope stability, biodiversity, and cultural services they generate as one of the few remaining pristine components of the Earth. The recent changes in glacier volume make them highly vulnerable to the adverse effects of ongoing climate change, a condition that affects other Subantarctic natural systems of Chile. We emphasize the need to enhance the systematic monitoring of glacier volume and surface extent in Patagonia.
... The modern snowline in a west-east transect across the Andes at the latitude of Lago Llanquihue (41°15′S), estimated from the median elevation of ice fields on high volcanic peaks, rises inland from about 1900 m elevation at Volcán Calbuco alongside Lago Llanquihue to 2250 m elevation in the Argentine Andes (Porter 1981;Denton et al. 1999b;Condom et al. 2007). The present-day regional equilibrium line altitude (ELA) resides at~2000 m asl (Rivera et al. 2016). ...
We describe the stratigraphy, age, geochemistry and correlation of tephra from west to east across the northern Patagonian Andes (c. 40–41°S) with a view to further refining the eruptive history of this region back to the onset of the Last Glacial Termination (~18 cal. ka). Eastwards across the Andes, rhyodacite to rhyolitic tephra markers of dominantly Puyehue-Cordón Caulle source are persistently recognised and provide a stratigraphic context for more numerously erupted intervening tephra of basalt to basaltic–andesite composition. Tephra from distal eruptive centres are also recognised.
West of the Andean Cordillera, organic-rich cores from a small closed lake basin (Lago Pichilafquén) reveal an exceptional high-resolution record of lowland vegetation–climate change and eruptive activity spanning the last 15 400 years. Three new rhyodacite tephra (BT6-T1, -T2 and -T4) identified near the base of the Pichilafquén record, spanning 13.2 to 13.9 cal. ka bp, can be geochemically matched with correlatives in basal andic soil sequences closely overlying regolith and/or basement rock. The repetitiveness of this tephrostratigraphy across this Andean transect suggests near-synchronous tephra accretion and onset of up-building soil formation under more stable (revegetating) ground-surface conditions following rapid piedmont deglaciation on both sides of the Cordillera by at least ~14 cal. ka bp.
... Chile possesses the biggest glacial surface in South America (around 76% of glacier mass) [2], which are 18,896 glaciers, according to Chile's General Water Directorate (DGA) [3]. The area of study is located in the Southern Glaciological Zone [3] at Comau Fjord, Los Lagos region; it shows morphoclimatic temperate rainy characteristics [4], where temperate glaciers, mountain glaciers, cirque glaciers, and ice aprons can be found. ...
This research analyses the glacier recession in the surface area of the Vodudahue river basin glaciers located in Chile, at Comau fjord. A multi-temporal analysis was performed by utilizing Landsat imagery from 1987 to 2017 at a 10-year interval. Also, climate variations regarding temperature and precipitation provided by San Ignacio de Huinay weather station were analyzed. The results show a close relation between the glacier recession in the surface area of identified glaciers and the climate variability in recent years.
... Terminology standards and best observational practices for in situ glacier measurements have been developed by Cogley et al (2011). For further information, we refer to the classic guidebook by Østrem and Brugman (1991) and the manuals by Kaser et al (2003) and Rivera et al (2016). The manual by Francou et al (2004) focuses on the Tropical Andes in particular. ...
Glacier observation data from major mountain regions of the world are key to improving our understanding of glacier changes: they deliver fundamental baseline information for climatological, hydrological, and hazard assessments. In many mountain ecosystems, as well as in the adjacent lowlands, glaciers play a crucial role in freshwater provision and regulation. This article first presents the state of the art on glacier monitoring and related strategies within the framework of the Global Terrestrial Network for Glaciers (GTN-G). Both in situ measurements of changes in glacier mass, volume, and length as well as remotely sensed data on glacier extents and changes over entire mountain ranges provide clear indications of climate change. Based on experiences from capacity-building activities undertaken in the Tropical Andes and Central Asia over the past years, we also review the state of the art on institutional capacity in these regions and make further recommendations for sustainable mountain development. The examples from Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, and Kyrgyzstan demonstrate that a sound understanding of measurement techniques and of the purpose of measurements is necessary for successful glacier monitoring. In addition, establishing durable institutions, capacity-building programs, and related funding is necessary to ensure that glacier monitoring is sustainable and maintained in the long term. Therefore, strengthening regional cooperation, collaborating with local scientists and institutions, and enhancing knowledge sharing and dialogue are envisaged within the GTN-G. Finally, glacier monitoring enhances the resilience of the populations that depend on water resources from glacierized mountains or that are affected by hazards related to glacier changes. We therefore suggest that glacier monitoring be included in the development of sustainable adaptation strategies in regions with glaciated mountains.
The Southern Patagonian Icefield (SPI) is the largest continuous ice mass in the Southern Hemisphere outside Antarctica. It has been shrinking since the Little Ice Age (LIA) period, with increasing rates in recent years. An uplift of crustal deformation in response to this deglaciation process has been expected. The goal of this investigation is to analyze the crustal deformation caused by ice retreat using time-series data from continuous GPS stations (2015–2020) in the northern area of the SPI. For this purpose, we installed two continuous GPS stations on rocky nunataks of the SPI (the GRCS near Greve glacier and the GBCS close by Cerro Gorra Blanca). In addition, ice elevation changes (2000–2019) were analyzed by the co-registration of the SRTM digital elevation model and ICESat elevation data points. The results of the vertical components are positive (36.55 ± 2.58 mm a−1), with a maximum at GBCS, indicating the highest rate of crustal uplift ever continuously recorded in Patagonia; in addition, the mean horizontal velocities reached 11.7 mm a−1 with an azimuth of 43°. The negative ice elevation changes detected in the region have also accelerated in the recent two decades, with a median (elevation change) of −3.36 ± 0.01 m a−1 in the ablation zone. The seasonality of the GPS signals was contrasted with the water levels of the main Patagonian lakes around the SPI, detecting a complex interplay between them. Hence, the study sheds light on the knowledge of the crustal uplift as evidence of the wastage experienced by the SPI glaciers.
The Desert Andes contain >4500 ice masses, but only a handful are currently being monitored. We present the mass changes of the small mountain glacier Agua Negra (1 km ² ) and of the rest of glaciers in the Jáchal river basin. Remote-sensing data show Agua Negra glacier lost 23% of its area during 1959–2019. Glaciological measurements during 2014–2021 indicate an average annual mass balance of −0.52 m w.e. a ⁻¹ , with mean winter and summer balances of 0.80 and −1.33 m w.e. a ⁻¹ , respectively. The Equilibrium Line Altitude (ELA) is estimated to be 5100 ± 100 m a.s.l., which corresponds to an Accumulation Area Ratio (AAR) of 0.28 ± 0.21. Geodetic data from SRTM X and Pléiades show a doubling of the loss rate from −0.32 ± 0.03 m w.e. a ⁻¹ in 2000–2013, to −0.66 ± 0.06 m w.e. a ⁻¹ in 2013–2019. Comparatively, the ice losses for the entire Jáchal river basin (25 500 km ² ) derived from ASTER show less negative values, −0.11 ± 16 m w.e. a ⁻¹ for 2000–2012 and −0.23 ± 14 m w.e. a ⁻¹ for 2012–2018. The regional warming trend since 1979 and a recent decline in snow accumulation are probably driving the observed glacier mass balance.
A degree-day glacier mass-balance model is applied to three glaciers in Iceland, Norway and Greenland for which detailed mass-balance measurements are available over a period of several years. Model results are in good agreement with measured variations in the mass balance with elevation over the time periods considered for each glacier. In addition, the model explains 60-80% of the year-to-year variance in the elevation-averaged summer season mass-balance measurements on the glaciers, using a single parameter set for each glacier.
The increase in ablation on the glaciers due to a warming of 2° C is predicted to range from about 1 m w.e. year−1 at the highest elevations to about 2.5 m w.e. year−1 at the lowest elevations. Predicted changes in the winter balance (measured between fixed date) are relatively small, except at the lowest elevations on the Icelandic and Norwegian glaciers where the winter balance is significantly reduced. Equilibrium-line altitudes are raised by 200-300 m on the Icelandic and Norwegian glaciers. Except at the highest elevations, the winter balance of the Icelandic and Norwegian glaciers is predicted to decrease even if the warming is accompanied by a 10% increase in the precipitation.
No firm evidence of a climate-related variation in the degree-day factors or in the temperature lapse rate on the same glacier could be found. The model, furthermore, reproduces large variations in the mass balance with elevation and from year to year on each glacier using the same parameter set. We assume, therefore, that these parameters will not change significantly for the climate scenarios considered here.
The response of 2 adjacent glaciers in the central E Alps to climatic variations was observed in terms of length for 60yr and of mass balance for 30yr. Their differing behavior is analysed and explained by topography, area/altitude distribution, different dynamic response times and to a lesser degree by methodical difficulties.-Authors
We present new glacier mass-balance field data from Glaciar Bahía del Diablo, Vega Island, northeastern Antarctic Peninsula. The results provided here represent glacier mass-balance data over a 10 year period (2001-11) obtained by the glaciological and geodetic methods relying on field measurements. Glacier surface digital elevation models(DEMs) were obtained in 2001 and 2011 from a kinematic GPS field survey with high horizontal and vertical accuracies. In situ mass-balance data were collected from yearly stake measurements. The results attained by the two methods agree, which may be considered a measure of their accuracy. A cumulative mass change of -1.90 ± 0.31 m w.e. over the 10 year period was obtained from the annual mass-balance field surveys. The total mass change derived from DEM differencing was -2.16 ± 0.23 m w.e.
Frontal oscillations since the beginning of the 20th century are known at Glaciar Perito Moreno, an eastward outlet glacier of Hielo Patagónico Sur (southern Patagonia ice field). In 1900, the calving front was located about 1 km from the opposite bank. From 1935 to 1988, ruptures of ice-dams occurred at intervals of 1–5 years. Although this glacier has thus oscillated, it can be regarded as having been in a rather stable condition during the last half-century. Ice thickness in the ablation area has also remained unchanged from 1990 to 1996. The near-steady behavior of Glaciar Perito Moreno may be attributed to a regulating effect of the calving rate, namely, a decrease in the ablation amount due to calving with a retreat of the glacier.
Using 12 m long ablation poles, ice-flow velocities at the ablation area were measured several times in 1993 and 1994. The velocity in the early summer (November) was found to be slightly larger than the annual mean. It is concluded that basal sliding is significant throughout the year at this temperate glacier, with large fluctuations within a short period.
Mass-balance quantities at specific points on a glacier as defined in [IHD] (1970) relate either to annual maxima or minima in ice mass at that point (the stratigraphic system), or to values at the beginning and end of a hydrologic year (the annual or fixed-date system). Most quantities measured in the field relate to summer surfaces, which correspond to the annual minima at the measurement points. When stratigraphic system point values are integrated over a whole glacier, the result may be meaningless because annual maxima and minima and summer surfaces may form at different times at different places.
The combined system utilizes several kinds of data to derive meaningful area-average results that can be directly related to other hydrologic and meteorologic information. Measurements to summer surfaces at certain specific times, including the beginning and end of a hydrologic year, are added together with proper recognition of the types of material involved: old firn and ice, snow and superimposed ice of the year under study, new firn formed during that year, and late snow deposited toward the end of the year. Other “balance increment” terms relate values at the beginning and end of a hydrologic year to corresponding area-average balance minima. As a result, two types of “net balance” and many other terms are given precise meaning for a glacier as a whole. The scheme is sufficiently versatile to be used on any glacier, although the terms relating to summer surfaces are not defined on a glacier in which ablation or accumulation is continuous throughout a year.
The results of ice thickness measurements camied out in Chile (30-41°S) during recent years are presented. The information was obteined by means of radar in five glaciers. In all of them, the radar signals were slightly attenuated allowing penetration of the ice to the bedrock. This means that the presence of supra, intra and subglacial meltwater did not affect the signals significantly. The system was tested on bare ice as well as debris covered ice. For debris covered ice areas, the signals were much more noisy than on bare ice, but they were able to penetrate the ice to the bedrock, obtaining a maximum thickness of 230 m in the ablation area of Juncal Norte glacier. The analysis of bed and internal reflection power, allowed the characterisation of cold ice for Tapado glacier (without basal sliding) whilst Juncal Norte glacier was recognised as temperate ice. These radar ice thickness measurements have a high accuracy (1 to 6%), which is much better than other geophysical methods used in Chile, allowing a more accurate and confident estimation of the water equivalent volume storage in the high mountain of this part of the country. An ice thickness measurement programme of representative glaciers from different hydrological basins of the country would improve water resources evaluation, and also allow better monitonng of the glacier variations and responses with respect to the current climate changes affecting that part of the country.
