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Stressors, coping, and well-being among sports coaches: A systematic review
Abstract
Objectives: Sports coaching can be an inherently stressful occupation because coaches must fulfill multiple roles and cope with various expectations. Further, stress and well-being have implications for coach performance. The objective of this study was, therefore, to conduct a systematic review of literature on stressors, coping, and well-being among sports coaches.
Design: A systematic review using PRIMSA guidelines.
Method: Thorough and systematic literature searches of PsycINFO, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science were conducted. To be eligible for inclusion, papers had to be published in the English language between January 1994 and March 2016 and as full papers in peer-reviewed journals.
Results: The final sample consisted of 38 studies that were conducted with 4,188 sports coaches. This sample consisted of 19 qualitative, 17 quantitative, and two mixed methods studies. The findings demonstrate that coaches experience a variety of stressors relating to their performance and that of the athletes they work with in addition to organizational, contextual, interpersonal, and intrapersonal stressors. The findings also highlight that coaches use a variety of coping strategies (e.g., problem solving, social support, escaping the stressful environment) to reduce the negative outcomes of stress. Five studies that were included in this review focused on coaches’ well-being and found that basic psychological needs satisfaction, lack of basic psychological needs thwarting, and self-determined motivation are needed for coaches to be psychologically well.
Conclusion: Future research should address gaps in extant literature by using longitudinal study designs to explore coaches’ appraisals of stressors, coping effectiveness, social support, and well-being among the unique sports coaching population.
Keywords: cognitive-affective, cognitive-motivational-relational, high performance, transactional
... Coaches work in a complex and dynamic environment in which they have to manage a variety of personal, social, and organizational demands (see Norris et al., 2017 for a systematic review). Especially at elite levels of sport, such as National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I in the United States, coaches navigate daily concerns related to time management, professional isolation, unforeseen events, and work-life balance (Lumpkin & Anshel, 2012;Readdy et al., 2016). ...
... Especially at elite levels of sport, such as National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I in the United States, coaches navigate daily concerns related to time management, professional isolation, unforeseen events, and work-life balance (Lumpkin & Anshel, 2012;Readdy et al., 2016). These and other challenges must be considered in the context of the public scrutiny and expectations to achieve competitive success that exist in elite sport settings (see Norris et al., 2017;Potts et al., 2021). This pressure is further magnified by the fact that competitive outcomes are not only predominantly dependent on the performance of athletes-over whom coaches have only limited control Readdy et al., 2016)-but they are also often directly associated with coaches' job security (McLean & Mallett, 2012;Potts et al., 2021). ...
... In summary, it is not surprising that many assistant coaches experience some degree of stress and burnout in their profession (e.g., Norris et al., 2017;Olusoga et al., 2019) and may even leave coaching altogether (Kilo & Hassmén, 2016;Potts et al., 2021). As a result, there seems to be a critical need for coach educators and sport psychology practitioners to nurture and maintain optimal psychological functioning among coaches in general-and those who serve in the assistant role and in NCAA Division I in particular -to allow them to experience well-being and perform at a high level, just like the athletes for whom they are responsible. ...
According to basic psychological needs theory, the quality of individuals’ cognition, affect, and behavior is determined by their perceptions of autonomy, competence, and relatedness. The purpose of this study was to investigate National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I assistant coaches’ basic psychological need satisfaction and frustration and the respective influence of the behavior of the head coach for whom they work on those perceptions. A total of N = 445 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I assistant coaches (191 women and 254 men; M age = 34.9 ± 9.6 years) participated in the research. Participants reported relatively high levels of both satisfaction and frustration (i.e., compared with previous research) for all three basic psychological needs. A structural equation model (root mean square error of approximation = .06; comparative fit index = .95; Tucker–Lewis index = .95; standardized root mean square residual = .04) indicated that participants’ need satisfaction was significantly associated with the degree to which they perceived their head coaches to engage in need-supportive, need-thwarting, and need-indifferent behavior. Similarly, perceived need-supportive and need-thwarting behavior was also related with assistant coaches’ sense of need frustration. Findings highlight not only the importance of head coaches in shaping assistant coaches’ psychological functioning but also multiple important avenues for future research.
... Parallel to it, Almeida was also a Physical Education Teacher in different schools and contributor to Futsal Programme Development projects with different FA's. Despite researchers examining the stress and coping experiences of elite coaches (see Norris et al., 2017), many have considered the components of the stress process in isolation, lacked sport-specific insights, and overlooked the wider impact of stress on mental well-being. Consequently, we aimed to explore: (a) the stress experiences of elite football coaches; and (b) the impact of these experiences on their well-being and how they function in their personal and professional lives. ...
... Norris, L., Didymus, F., Kaiseler, M. (2017). Stressors, coping, and wellbeing among sports coaches: A systematic review. ...
... We will discuss the versatility of the TSMI, the importance of indirect coaching functions and collaboration, and how it may be suitable for and appropriately adapted to suit the needs of coaches and athletes in women's community sport. Research has established the stressful nature of sports coaching at a variety of levels (Norris et al., 2017). Contemporary stress theory proposes that individual responses to stress are determined by cognitive appraisals broadly consisting of perceptions of situational demands and personal resources, thus coaches can experience stress in useful (challenge) or debilitative (threat) ways (Meijen et al., 2020). ...
This will be an extraordinary opportunity to state Lisbon and Portugal as a destination of excellence in the organization of international events but also an opportunity to afirm portuguese coaches in the Coaching World. It will also be an unique chance for portuguese and portuguese-speaking coaches to share best coaching practices with both ICCE and Coaches of Europe and the World. The Global Coach Conference will be held from 17-21 November 2021 in the venue “Aula Magna” of the University of Lisbon!
... Coaches face stressors within (e.g., performance stressors, organizational stressors) and outside (e.g., life stressors) their sport environments (Norris et al., 2017). c: i think i will try pausing practice to address the issue as a team. ...
... Coaches may perceive reduced coaching effectiveness when stressed, leading to adverse behaviors, such as unclear and aggressive communication, that impacts athletes' performance, development, and well-being (Norris et al., 2017;Thelwell et al., 2017). Within our segmented vignette, the coach used adverse coaching techniques, such as verbally belittling athletes after the team performed poorly, possibly due to job insecurity as described by participants. ...
... MPCs can use these descriptors to derive interventions unique to the stressors, creating either problem-or emotion-focused interventions. Problem-based interventions can be used to manage controllable aspects of a situation causing stress (Norris et al., 2017). Referencing our segmented vignette, if the performance stress resulted from losing games, the MPC can probe the coach to brainstorm a list of factors that may have contributed to the defeat. ...
Although the cancer role is becoming increasingly studied within sports psychology research, there is a dearth of applied interventions for improving the negative consequences caused by the cancer role. Using insights from a previous pilot project drawing on Canadian interuniversity athletes’ stories of a staff cancer and recommendations from athlete maltreatment literature, we provide MPCs with varying degrees of proactive interventions to empower coaches to modify their own behaviors to signify growth in their coaching practices and reactive interventions to be used if a cancer’s influence is adversely impacting athletes.
... Thorough electronic searches of three databases (PsycArticles, PsycInfo, SPORTDiscus) were conducted, monitored, and updated until June 2021. These databases mirrored those used in previous systematic reviews of stress and well-being (Norris et al., 2017) and stress management in sport (Rumbold et al., 2012), and were deemed appropriate due to the volume of relevant papers that were returned during manual keyword searches in comparison to other databases (e.g. Web of Science). ...
... The SQAC has been applied in health science contexts (Kmet et al., 2004) and within other published systematic reviews in sport (e.g. Norris et al., 2017;Staff et al., 2017). Each included paper was scored against each relevant SQAC item to determine how well it satisfied the criteria (2 = fully meets the criteria, 1 = partially meets the criteria, 0 = does not meet the criteria, n/a = not applicable). ...
... This approach to synthesis reflects the protocol used in other published systematic reviews in sport psychology (e.g. Norris et al., 2017;Staff et al., 2017), and is reflected herein in a way that allows effective grouping and presentation of relevant findings, connections, and conclusions (Popay et al., 2006). ...
Research on organizational stress in sport has grown exponentially within the last two decades. Despite the volume of literature available, no systematic reviews exist to bring findings together in a single, rigorous point of reference. Filling this void helps researchers and practitioners to better understand organizational stress and its implications for health, well-being, and performance. The objectives of this study were to search for, appraise, and critically synthesize the literature on organizational stress (i.e., stressors, appraisals, coping, emotions) and or well-being within the context of organizational stress in competitive sport. In addition, we aimed to identify strengths of and gaps in the literature to progress conceptual, methodological, and applied understanding. A systematic review of literature was conducted using PRISMA guidelines and robust searches of PsycArticles, PsycInfo, and SPORTDiscus databases. The final sample comprised 55 methodologically sound studies with athletes, coaches, and or support staff. The findings of this review revealed a myriad of organizational stressors that were underpinned by a range of situational properties and were managed using a variety of coping options (e.g., problem solving, social support). Some important components of stress transactions (e.g., appraisals, emotions) and well-being have received scant attention in the context of organizational stress. Experiences of organizational stress among athletes, coaches, and support staff have highlighted implications for health- and performance-related outcomes. Future research should consider the use of longitudinal, diary, and integrative designs, in addition to analytical pluralism within under-represented populations (e.g., coaches, support staff) to deepen our understanding.
... There is little consensus across the academic community about how best to define well-being (Giles et al. 2020;Norris, Didymus, and Kaiseler 2017). While many researchers define this concept according to its dimensions (e.g. ...
... Thus far, literature on PWB among coaches has adopted quantitative methods and typically explores how coach behaviour can impact PWB (see, for a review, Norris, Didymus, and Kaiseler 2017). Indeed, the extant literature concludes that three conditions are needed to facilitate coach PWB: basic psychological needs satisfaction, lack of basic psychological needs thwarting, and self-determined motivation (e.g. ...
... These experiences relate to findings from Olympic and international level coaches (Didymus 2017) and have connotations for coaches' PWB, particularly their ability to master the environment and their relationships with others. Indeed, fostering positive relationships with others and strong social support networks are both important elements for improving and maintaining PWB (Alcaraz, Torregrosa, and Viladrich 2015;Norris, Didymus, and Kaiseler 2017). This finding has applied implications for the coaches themselves, as it appears important for them to improve communication and relationship building skills, such as active listening (Moen and Federici 2013), in an effort to develop and maintain strong working relationships (Rhind and Jowett 2010) with athletes and parents. ...
Research attention has been directed toward coaches’ stressor experiences, yet less is known about the role of stress appraisals and psychological well-being (PWB). Considering the links between PWB, mental health, and retention in the coaching profession, this study will explore primary appraisals and PWB among sports coaches. Guided by our constructivist paradigm that underpinned our relativist ontology and subjectivist epistemology, we conducted theoretically informed semi-structured interviews with six coaches (five men and one woman) who represented both team and individual sports. We analysed data thematically using an abductive approach and constructed 10 composite vignettes that describe a powerful and shared account of the coaches’ lived experiences. The vignettes offer insight to the coaches’ primary appraisals and the impact of stress transactions on PWB. For example, benefit appraisals had a positive impact on environmental mastery and self-acceptance, threat appraisals had a negative impact on autonomy and environmental mastery, and harm/loss appraisals are shown to influence health. Based on these findings, we propose several impactful recommendations for researchers, practitioners, and National Governing Bodies (NGBs). For example, we recommend that practitioners working with coaches should foster positive working relationships with athletes to support coaches’ PWB. Further, we encourage NGBs to work closely with coaches and practitioners to promote safe and favourable working environments, increasing coaches’ autonomy, and maximise flexible working conditions.
... A few studies used other concepts, such as flow experience [36,37] or sense of coherence [38], to indicate mental well-being. Some studies measured the negative outcomes on well-being (ill-being) through the prevalence of disorders, burnout, depression, anxiety and fear of failure, and negative affect [39][40][41][42][43][44][45]. Blood cortisol levels were also used as a marker of psychophysiological stress [46]. ...
... Aspects relating to the social well-being were prosocial and antisocial behavior and social cohesion [47][48][49]. Furthermore, the basic psychological needs (i.e., sense of autonomy, competence, and relatedness) are related to well-being through the self-determination theory [39][40][41][42][43][44]47,48,[50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57]. Effort, commitment, and enjoyment were used to measure positive coach-athlete relationship outcomes, and closeness, commitment, and complementarity as indicators of coach-athlete relationship quality [57][58][59][60][61]. Figure 2 illustrates the main themes identified in the included studies. ...
... In turn, coaches' well-being and positive affects is associated with autonomy support toward the athletes [34,65]. However, coaches' well-being is endangered by occupational stressful experiences, traumatic events, and a variety of performance-related, organizational, contextual, interpersonal, and intrapersonal stressors [42]. The working environment and the coaching context is not necessarily autonomy-supportive; sport coaching is traditionally rather controlled, taking place in a disciplinary environment [67], which is rather thwarting of basic psychological needs and well-being. ...
There is convincing evidence on the effects of sport and exercise on mental health and well-being. Less evidence is provided about how to achieve these benefits in the context of grassroots sport coaching. We systematically reviewed the scientific literature of three databases to narratively synthesize the current knowledge about which coaching-related factors influence well-being or ill-being, and how to promote mental health in adult athletes through sport coaches. The review includes 52 studies with different methodological and theoretical approaches and mental health outcomes. The wide range of themes were mapped and synthesized within two clusters, i.e., coaching behavior, antecedents, and context; and coach–athlete relationship and social support. The results highlight the importance of the promotion of empowering environments, autonomy-supportive coaching behavior, and coach–athlete relationship quality that relate to the satisfaction of basic psychological needs. The review also calls for a critical perspective, in the sense that the coaching context and working environment may not be empowering and supportive to the well-being of coaches and consequently to the athletes, and that coaches who want to provide autonomy-supportive environments may face various obstacles. Finally, the review synthesizes recommendations for the training of coaches, as one piece of a holistic mental health promotion.
... Consequently, for some time, coaches have been referred to as performers in their own right (e.g., Thelwell et al., 2008), as failure to cope effectively with the demands they experience can lead to detrimental implications for their performance and how they function in their wider lives. It is with the knowledge of such stressrelated outcomes that a range of empirical studies have emerged focusing on the stress experiences of elite coaches (for a review, see Norris et al., 2017). ...
... Researchers investigating coach stress have explored individual components of the stress process, including the nature and categorization of stressors experienced (e.g., Olusoga et al., 2009;Thelwell et al., 2008), coping strategies employed (e.g., Thelwell et al., 2010), responses to stressors (e.g., Olusoga et al., 2010), and the situational properties and appraisals of stressors (e.g., Didymus, 2017). Collectively, this research has indicated that coaches: (a) experience a range of stressors emanating from performance-, organizational-, and personal-derived sources that are underpinned by a range of situational properties (e.g., ambiguity, event uncertainty, and imminence); (b) appraise stressors as threatening or challenging more than as beneficial or harmful/losses; (c) employ a range of coping strategies (e.g., increasing effort, seeking advice) to manage stressors; and (d) experience a range of mental (e.g., negative cognitions and emotions), behavioral (e.g., sharper tone of voice), and physical responses (e.g., increased heart rate) to stressors, suggested to negatively affect the coaching environment and their athletes (see Norris et al., 2017). In relation to the impact of coach stress responses (i.e., strain) on athletes, Thelwell et al., (2017) reported that athletes are able to identify when coaches are experiencing strain via verbal and behavioral cues, which can result in negative environmental (e.g., suboptimal training environment) and personal implications for athletes (e.g., increased anxiety). ...
... Thus, irrespective of the micro-political culture in elite, professional football that may inhibit discussion and sharing of stress experiences (cf. Thompson et al., 2015), coaches may be better served by utilizing a range of (social) support networks as more efficacious ways of coping (see Norris et al., 2017). ...
The stress experiences and their impact upon the daily lives and mental well-being of English Premier League professional (soccer) football coaches were explored using an in-depth qualitative design. Eight participants were interviewed using a semi-structured approach with thematic and causal network analysis revealing that (a) a range of contextually dependent demands were experienced and interpreted in relation to their situational properties; (b) many demands were appraised and emotionally responded to in a negative manner; (c) a range of coping strategies were adopted to cope with stress experiences, with many reported as ineffective; and (d) stress experiences often led to negative implications for their daily lives and eudaimonic and hedonic well-being. Positive adaptations to some demands experienced were reported and augmented perceptions of mental well-being. The findings of this study make a novel and significant contribution to understanding the interrelationships between the principal components of the stress process and the prospective links between stress and mental well-being.
... Collectively, this research has identified that a lack of PWB contributes to absenteeism; poorer health; and reduced job satisfaction, morale, and productivity (Harnois & Gabriel, 2000;Sparks et al., 2001), which can lead an individual to withdraw from their working environment. The systematic quantitative evidence exploring PWB among sports coaches (see, for a review, Norris et al., 2017) highlights that three conditions may be needed to facilitate coach PWB: basic psychological needs satisfaction, lack of basic psychological needs thwarting, and self-determined motivation (Alcaraz et al., 2015;Bentzen et al., 2016a;Stebbings et al., 2011Stebbings et al., , 2012Stebbings et al., , 2015. Accordingly, coaches who have more self-determined motivation tend to perform better (Gillet et al., 2009) and often foster stronger autonomy supportive environments for athletes (Norris et al., 2017). ...
... The systematic quantitative evidence exploring PWB among sports coaches (see, for a review, Norris et al., 2017) highlights that three conditions may be needed to facilitate coach PWB: basic psychological needs satisfaction, lack of basic psychological needs thwarting, and self-determined motivation (Alcaraz et al., 2015;Bentzen et al., 2016a;Stebbings et al., 2011Stebbings et al., , 2012Stebbings et al., , 2015. Accordingly, coaches who have more self-determined motivation tend to perform better (Gillet et al., 2009) and often foster stronger autonomy supportive environments for athletes (Norris et al., 2017). ...
... The second more recent review systematically drew together research on stressors, coping, and PWB among sports coaches (Norris et al., 2017). This work highlighted that coaches experienced stressors relating to their own and their athletes' performance, contextual factors (e.g. ...
Approximately 200,000 coaches cease coaching each year in the United Kingdom alone. The reasons for this dropout are not fully understood, but they could be linked to the stressful nature of coaching and the potential for this to impede health and psychological well-being (PWB). The aim of this meta-synthesis is to systematically search for and draw together the qualitative research evidence on coaches’ experiences of stressors, primary appraisals, emotions, coping, and PWB. Using a rigorous and systematic search protocol, 11 studies were identified, assessed for research quality, and synthesized thematically to generate new insight. The findings highlight the plethora of stressors that coaches can experience, the impact of coaches’ appraisals on PWB, and the coping families that coaches can use to foster adaptation. In doing so, the meta-synthesis deepens our understanding of coaches’ stress transactions and their experiences of PWB. There is a significant lack of qualitative research evidence on coaches’ appraisals and PWB. Qualitative and or longitudinal research is warranted to develop knowledge in these areas. Such research should be used to develop interventions that are applicable to different coaching populations (e.g. working parents and part-time coaches) to help minimize stressors, facilitate positive appraisals and emotions, and foster PWB.
... However, comparatively little attention has been directed toward coaches' own mental health. This is remarkable given the fact that coaches themselves engage in a highly demanding, volatile, and often stressful profession (e.g., Norris, Didymus, & Kaiseler, 2017;Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008). ...
... Over the past decade, a number of studies have examined the stressors-defined as "environmental demands" (Fletcher & Scott, 2010, p. 128)-experienced by coaches within high-performance sports (for a review, see Norris et al., 2017). Different types of coach stressors can be classified into performance (i.e., directly related to the performance demands of elite sports); organizational (i.e., related to the organizational context of elite sports); and personal (i.e., related to the personal life domain) stressors (Sarkar & Fletcher, 2014). ...
... Failure to cope successfully with such stressors might place considerable strain on coaches' well-being (Norris et al., 2017;Olusoga & Thelwell, 2016). In one of the few studies examining the psychological impact of coach stressors, Olusoga, Butt, Maynard, and Hays (2010) found that many coaches experienced decreased mental well-being, including negative cognitions, such as worrying thoughts or sleepless nights, or emotional responses, such as anger and frustration. ...
Coaching in elite sports can be a highly volatile and stressful profession. Nevertheless, limited knowledge is available on how coach stressors impact elite-level coaches’ mental health. The present study therefore aimed to assess the self-perceived impact of coach stressors on coaches’ mental health, in terms of psychological and social well-being, as well as the prevalence of symptoms of a number of common mental disorders. Furthermore, the role of resilience was examined as a potential protective resource against mental health issues in coaches. Data were collected cross-sectionally, using an online survey with 119 elite-level coaches from the Netherlands and Belgium. Results showed that, although coach stressors were commonly experienced, the self-perceived impact on mental health was low to moderate. Nevertheless, symptoms of common mental disorders were prevalent within the coaches, ranging from 39% for depression/anxiety to 19% for distress and adverse alcohol use. Furthermore, organizational stressors were found to be a positive predictor for symptoms of depression/anxiety, whereas resilience was a negative predictor. The results highlight the need for more research and attention to the mental health of coaches in elite sports.
... A growing body of research has shown that combining all these responsibilities in one role is highly challenging (Fletcher & Wagstaff, 2009;Knight, Reade, Selzler, & Rodgers, 2013). Thus, coaches are potentially exposed to a range of stressors in their work that may ultimately result in negative consequences, such as coach burnout (Fletcher & Scott, 2010), mental health problems, and descending performance, both for the coaches themselves and their athletes (Nicholls & Polman, 2007;Norris, Didymus, & Kaiseler, 2017). It is therefore paramount to investigate how coaches cope with this inevitably stressful environment of elite sports. ...
... 9). In sport psychology, this is the most frequently adopted conceptualization of stress and coping (Nicholls & Polman, 2007;Norris et al., 2017). In line with this conceptualization, the current study utilized Fletcher et al.'s transactional meta-model of stress, emotions, and performance when searching and analyzing the coping literature (Fletcher et al., 2006;Fletcher & Scott, 2010). ...
... As Table 1 indicates, the search for relevant documents was conducted through four databases (Web of Science, PsycNet, Scopus and PsycInfo) between June 8 and August 10, 2017. These databases have been used in previous systematic reviews in sport and exercise psychology (e.g., Nicholls & Polman, 2007;Norris et al., 2017). As such, they are well-established amongst the academic community and represent a variety of disciplines that help ensure the comprehensiveness of this systematic review. ...
The current study presents a systematic review of six empirical research studies that have explored coping amongst elite-level sport coaches. The study was carried out employing Fletcher et al.’s meta-model of stress, emotions, and performance as a basis for the review. The present results clearly revealed that, despite being an important aspect of coaches’ functioning, coping is almost never researched in its full complexity, and scarce attention is given to cognitive appraisals and long-term outcomes. To our knowledge, current research has so far been limited to the perceived stressors and employed coping strategies. Compared with problem-focused coping, emotion-focused coping is less frequently reported. Emotion-focused coping also has some limitations regarding occurrence and diversity in reported strategies. The reasons for this are not well-known due to the lack of comprehensiveness in the research. Hence, researchers are encouraged to further investigate coping amongst elite-level coaches and to do so by treating it as a concept affected by appraisals and personal and situational characteristics that exist in the context of a larger stress process.
... To the best of the researcher's knowledge, this study is the first to have used ROPDMS with sport coaches. Based on this online delivery and given that coaches encounter various performance and organizational demands (e.g., managing athletes, staff, and parents during and outside of competitive environments), alongside managing their own well-being (Norris et al., 2017), several applied recommendations can be proposed. Despite coaches appearing to benefit from existing public speaking skills, coaches can still feel apprehensive about the prospect of ROPDMS. ...
... Furthermore, our findings are useful for coaches as the delivery of an online ROPDMS session served the purpose of enhancing ingroup ties, cognitive centrality, and FIC. Therefore, as coaches are required to navigate complex interpersonal dynamics for the benefit of their athletes, peers, and organization (Norris et al., 2017), online ROPDMS can provide the platform for enhanced communication and understanding even when members cannot be in the same physical environment. To assist future researchers, a series of guidelines for conducting online ROPDMS are presented in Table 2. ...
The present study examined the influence of an online relationship-oriented personal-disclosure mutual-sharing (ROPDMS) intervention upon diverse measures of group functioning during a national lockdown. Twelve soccer coaches and one senior member of staff from a professional female soccer academy participated by openly disclosing and sharing unknown personal stories with one another. Social identity dimensions (in-group ties, cognitive centrality, and in-group affect), friendship identity content, social support, self-esteem, and a nonequivalent dependent variable were measured across four time points, while social validation was obtained immediately and 4 weeks after ROPDMS. Quantitative data revealed significant increases for in-group ties, cognitive centrality, and friendship identity content after ROPDMS, while the nonequivalent dependent variable did not significantly change. Qualitative data revealed that the coaching staff felt the session was worthwhile and enhanced aspects of team functioning. Online ROPDMS therefore appears to be a viable team-building method for practitioners seeking to strengthen social identity dimensions and friendship identity content during a national lockdown.
... Coaches face multiple challenges, such as performance pressures, long working hours, low job security, satisfying board/management expectations (Didymus, 2017;Knights & Ruddock-Hudson, 2016;Thelwell et al., 2008), and personal stressors, including social isolation and relationship issues (Olusoga et al., 2009;Thelwell et al., 2008). This combination of performance, organisational, and personalrelated stressors may impact the well-being and mental health of coaches (Norris et al., 2017). Thus, taking into account these multiple stressors, it is crucial to ensure that coaches have adequate coping strategies to protect their mental health and that of their athletes (Olusoga et al., 2010;Thelwell et al., 2010). ...
... In fact, the work environment for coaches could be very challenging and stressful. Their daily work with athletes, combined with performance-related pressures, financial concerns, and relations with other colleagues are a few examples of stressors that impact their day-to-day (Lundkvist et al., 2014;Norris et al., 2017). Although some coaches handle it well, others may feel the strain of accumulating stress, which may be problematic, especially if these stressors are reflecting in their interactions with athletes. ...
The current study aimed to validate The Compassionate Coach Scale-Coaches Version (CCS-CV) that assesses the compassion coaches’ experience towards their athletes. Two independent samples of coaches completed self-reported measures. The calibration sample (N = 196) was used to test the structure of the CCS-CV through a confirmatory factor analysis, and the validation sample (N = 287) was used to confirm its structure, through cross-validation, and examine aspects of its validity. One higher-order factor with two lower-order factors presented an adequate fit to the data. CCS-CV demonstrated high internal consistency, convergent, discriminant, and external validity. CCS-CV is a reliable measure that allows the assessment of the compassion coaches’ experience towards their athletes and seems to be a significant contribution for practical and research fields in sports context. The present study contributes to the availability of a new instrument that allows an assessment of qualities that could be beneficial to coaches and their athletes.
... 3 To elaborate on the literature that has focused on stressors, coaching has been reported as a particularly stressful occupation 4 where coaches encounter a variety of stressors that influence performance and psychological well-being (PWB). 5 Sport psychology researchers have frequently adopted a transactional conceptualisation of stress and defined stressors as 'environmental demands (i.e. stimuli) encountered by an individual'. ...
... The inability to cope effectively with stressors can have negative implications for coaches' engagement and PWB (e.g. Norris et al., 5 Didymus et al. 11 and Tait et al. 28 ). One potentially powerful option for coping is via social support, yet no research exists that has explored stressors and social support resources, including main-and stress-buffering effects, with sports coaches. ...
Research on social support with sports coaches is limited, yet the benefits of social support on performance and well-being within other occupations have been widely reported. This study explored sports coaches’ social support resources over a six-week period to understand how social support resources may alleviate stressors. Longitudinal data were collected from women ( n = 6) and male ( n = 4) sports coaches ( M age = 35.2, SD = 13.0 years, M experience = 13.5, SD = 9.7 years) using three semi-structured interviews over a six-week training and competition period. Interview data were analysed using abductive thematic analysis. Coaches used all four types of social support resources over the six-week period. Informational support for advice, ideas, and feedback on training sessions, new job roles, and player development was used most regularly across the different time points. Coaches also reported that they perceived social support resources may alleviate stressors through stress-buffering and main-effects Social support resources (e.g. esteem) might be more important for buffering the effects of stressors and others (e.g. emotional) may be more important for the main-effects. Given the pertinence of social support resources for performance and psychological well-being, applied interventions should aim to educate coaches on ways to develop a social support network that provides all types of social support resources to help cope more effectively with stressors. Moreover, interventions should aim to alter coaches’ perceptions of potential stressors as less of a threat and more of a challenge to alleviate the prospective negative influences of stressors.
... Additional categories of coping have since been proposed as the use of only two categories was seen as an oversimplification (e.g., Skinner et al., 2003). The five categories most widely used among sport psychology researchers (Norris et al., 2017) include three additional categories, namely avoidance-(e.g., avoidance of the stressor), approach-(e.g., confronting the stressor and trying to reduce it), and appraisal-focused coping (e.g., cognitive re-evaluation of the stressor; . Importantly, argued that coping strategies are seldom if ever Chapter 3. Psychophysiological Stress separated, influence each other, and that they should be seen as a complex process intended to influence the transaction between person and environment. ...
... Previous research has classified coping strategies in different ways (see review by . The majority of research classifies coping into problem-focused (i.e., efforts of changing or eliminating a stressor), emotion-focused (i.e., efforts of regulating emotional processes), avoidance-focused (i.e., efforts of disengaging from a stressor), approach-focused (i.e., efforts to attend to a stressor to reduce or manage the unpleasant experience), and appraisal-focused coping (i.e., efforts to re-evaluate a stressor; Norris et al., 2017). In general, problem-focused coping has been associated with higher perceived effectiveness compared to, for example, avoidance coping (e.g., Nicholls et al., 2010;Kaiseler et al., 2009). ...
Driven by the need to inform evidence-based intervention strategies for performance and health promotion in esports, this thesis aimed to provide a starting point for future research on esports and, in particular, psychophysiological stress in esports. To this end, this work began by addressing why and how sport and exercise psychology could research esports. Following this, a systematic review of the literature on stress in non-competitive and competitive esports was performed. The results indicated that playing esports in competitive settings–in contrast to non-competitive settings–seems to be related to psychophysiological stress responses, and also highlighted a number of theoretical and methodological limitations with research in this area. To build on this initial understanding of stress in esports, a qualitative study was conducted that explored the subjective experiences of professional players. Here, a variety of stressors, perceived stress responses, and coping strategies were identified. To complete the work, a different perspective and approach was taken, using an online questionnaire to investigate perceived performance factors and stress management strategies utilized by sport psychologists and performance coaches in esports. Overall, this work provided a number of implications for future research and applied practice that are addressed in this thesis.
... Coach burnout and social support may be negatively related because poor social support or social network strain tend to be associated with increased stress and potential burnout (Norris et al., 2017). The other way round, burnout may lead to social withdrawal, undermining social support (Price & Weiss, 2000). ...
... Put differently, regardless of time, coach burnout was negatively related to selfcompassion and social support, which were themselves positively related. These findings are consistent with our assumptions and align with other recent research, indicating that self-compassion and social support may reflect protective factors against burnout over time (Bluth & Neff, 2018;Neff & Beretvas, 2013;Norris et al., 2017). Note that the first assessment was conducted before COVID-19 has spread to Europe; the second and third assessments took place during strict lockdown policies in Switzerland. ...
Using a three-wave prospective cross-lagged panel design, the study examined six-month stability of burnout, self-compassion and social support among sports coaches in terms of measurement invariance, mean-level change, rank-order stability, and structural stability. The participating coaches (N = 422; Mage = 44.48, SD = 11.03) completed an online questionnaire measuring self-compassion, social support, coach burnout and demographics at baseline and two follow-ups at three months and six months. The various forms of stability were assessed using structural equation modeling. There was no significant mean-level change in burnout, self-compassion, or social support, and all three constructs exhibited measurement invariance. Rank-order stability remained relatively high, ranging from .78 to .94 across the three time points. For all three constructs, covariances between latent factors were invariant over time, indicating high structural stability. While self-compassion and social support were positively related, both were negatively related to coach burnout. These results confirm the importance of preventing and addressing symptoms of burnout, low self-compassion and poor social support in sports settings.
... As a result, researchers have proposed additional categorizations relating to avoidance, approach, and appraisal (see Table 29.4). These five categories are the most widely used among sport psychology researchers to date (Norris et al., 2017). ...
... Each of these factors can contribute to burnout (e.g., Goodger et al., 2007), which can have negative ramifications for coaches' well-being and performance. To prevent negative consequences of stress and facilitate coach well-being, researchers have highlighted three conditions that are needed (see, for a review, Norris et al., 2017): basic psychological needs satisfaction, lack of basic psychological needs thwarting, and self-determined motivation (e.g., Alcaraz et al., 2015;Stebbings et al., 2012). Furthermore, greater job security, opportunities for professional development, and lower work-life conflict have been linked with improved well-being among coaches (Stebbings et al., 2012). ...
... Elite coaches report a range of personal (e.g., own high expectations; Norris et al., 2017), competitive (e.g., preparing for major events; Didymus, 2017), and organizational (e.g., funding; Olusoga et al., 2012) stressors. The COVID-19 pandemic may have presented additional stressors for those participating in high-performance sport, such as significant financial challenges and coaching constraints (e.g., player recruitment, training venues; Bowes et al., 2020). ...
Guided by transactional stress theory, this study aimed to explore elite U.K. soccer coaches’ perceived stressors, the situational properties, appraisals, and coping during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study also aimed to explore any variation in stress experiences across football league standards A total of 13 professional first-team male U.K. association football coaches between 38 and 59 years of age ( M = 43.00, SD = 6.94) participated in telephone ( n = 5) or online ( n = 8) semistructured interviews. Informed by the philosophical position of critical realism, Braun et al.’s six-phase approach to thematic analysis was used to generate competitive, organizational, and personal stressor themes. Deductive thematic analysis generated themes reflective of all situational properties of stressors identified by Lazarus and Folkman and an array of appraisal and coping strategies. Future research and recommendations for supporting coach performance and well-being post-COVID-19 pandemic are offered.
... Those in the profession of being a sport coach appear to be especially vulnerable to workaholism. More specifically, coaches commonly experience a wide range of stressors related to athlete development and preparation for competition, organizational expectations (e.g., fundraising), and administrative duties (Norris et al., 2017). At the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I level, they also tend to face meaningful self-imposed and external expectations to, for example, recruit the best athletes to win competitions (Frey, 2007), and achieving success is often the only way for coaches to maintain their job security (McLean & Mallet, 2012). ...
Workaholism (i.e., working excessively and compulsively) is associated with negative physical, psychological, and social consequences. Researchers have previously examined antecedents of workaholism, but the experiences of sport coaches have not yet been investigated. This study explored (a) differences in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I coaches’ workaholism, as well as need satisfaction and frustration based on gender, coaching role, gender of athletes coached, age, and years of coaching experience; and (b) how coaches’ perceptions of their three basic psychological needs are associated with tendencies to work excessively and compulsively. A total of 873 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I coaches participated in the research. Data analyses revealed significant differences in participants’ workaholism as well as need satisfaction and frustration. Structural equation modeling indicated a significant relationship between reported levels of workaholism and perceptions of the three needs. Findings illustrate the importance of basic psychological needs in preventing coaches’ workaholism and maintain optimal functioning.
... Such research can advance our theoretical understanding of the interpersonal nature of flourishing at a domain level, and inform policies and programs aimed at MH promotion in sport. Additionally, such research can begin to address the lack of information regarding the promotion of flourishing in sport among athletes (Pankow et al. 2021), and the lack of evidence regarding the promotion of coach MH and WB more generally (Norris, Didymus, andKaiseler 2017, Potts, Didymus, andKaiseler 2021b). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate how coaches and athletes can flourish together in the sport domain. ...
Flourishing is a conceptualisation of mental health that considers an individual’s emotional, psychological, and social well-being. Research has indicated that coaches and student-athletes may impact each other’s flourishing, but the process through which this may happen is unclear. The purpose of this study was to investigate how coaches and athletes can flourish together in the sport domain. Ten student-athletes, six coaches, three former student-athletes who coached at the university level, two administrators, one athletic therapist, and one sport psychology consultant participated in individual semi-structured interviews (N total = 23). Following analytic approach, a process map was generated outlining how coaches and student-athletes can flourish together in the context of sport. The process map includes four predictions, beginning with the creation of shared goals between student-athletes and coaches. (i) Once shared goals were established, student-athletes had to learn about and engage with available resources, while coaches provided and taught about the resources to promote goal-oriented growth for student-athletes. (ii) If growth was realised, student-athletes and coaches experienced indicators of flourishing. (iii) Moving from shared goals to indicators of flourishing was facilitated by the quality of the coach-athlete relationship and other personal, relational, and environmental factors. (iv) Coaches and student-athletes who experienced indicators of flourishing would be more likely repeat this process. This process map provides a starting point for understanding how coaches and student-athletes can flourish together in sport, and may provide insight into mental health promotion in other sport domains and relationships.
... 61 Those considered nonsuccessful stories belonged to women who never coached in top-level positions, so future research should explore the reality of highperformance women coaches who decide to disrupt their career once in the top level or get fired, especially with 'older' women coaches (more than 50 years old) as research suggests it is more difficult for them to re-enter the profession. 62 No participants in this study were in the latter stages of their careers, hence exploring this population would add more evidence regarding the exiting of the profession. Moreover, more research on the energize stage is needed to understand the needs and requirements to not leave or re-enter the profession. ...
Framed in the Ecological-Intersectional Model and the Stages of Career Progression Model, the objective of this study was to explore how women coaching in high-performance settings advanced through the ‘bottle-neck’ path. In total 13 women coaches from Southern Europe between the age of 28 and 46 years working in high-performance contexts were interviewed. In order to assess both the subjective perceptions of participants and the structural factors that prevent women from accessing top-level positions, we adopted a critical realist perspective to perform a thematic analysis. Results show that while women coaches may follow a linear coaching career path in their early career stages, once they try to progress to high-performance settings their careers are shaped by the metaphor of a maze. Women need to navigate through a maze while having to overcome jeopardizing factors to find a succeeding career path in sports coaching. Moreover, previous experience as elite athletes, close entourage, role models, organizational support, precarious working conditions and motherhood influenced women's development of a coaching career, with differing relevance depending on the career stage. Women coaches who reach top-level positions associate their success with casual or external factors, instead of causal explanations related to their own achievements. We add evidence on the specificities of women's coaching careers that should be addressed not only to improve their recruitment and professional progression, but also to work on reducing the probabilities of women exiting the role.
... A number of the coaches interviewed in the current study framed stress as a positive influence in terms of focusing attention and speeding up the decision-making process (Coaches 3M, 5M, 7M, and 13M). Consequently, the acknowledgement that stress is part of the job and embracing the somatic and psychological effects (Coach 5M) reframes the idea that stress is largely viewed as negative in coaching (Norris et al., 2017). This could be construed as a "coping" mechanism, highlighting those incidences of stress having a positive impact on performance (Didymus, 2016). ...
Following increased research into how situational and organizational stress affects coaches’ performance and welfare, there is a need to understand how coaches appraise and cope with the stressors they experience. These experiences could help inform applied interventions that facilitate both positive behavioural and performance-related outcomes. This is particularly important in elite coaches who operate in international competitions. Thirteen Olympic coaches participated in semistructured interviews to identify how they appraised stress as they prepared for the Tokyo Olympic Games. The research identified nine subthemes, which were categorized into three general overarching themes: (a) stressors, (b) appraisal of stressors, and (c) coping mechanisms. Despite the prevalence of negative stressors, self-doubt, and self-presentational concerns, many coaches interviewed demonstrated a positive outlook in relation to stress. Furthermore, they had established strong communities of practice as coping mechanisms against the impact of stress on performance, welfare, and health. Therefore, this study provides novel insights into the broad range of physical, psychological, and emotional challenges faced by Olympic and Paralympic coaches in the buildup to Olympic and Paralympic Games. Coach education programmes can use this information to help coaches develop effective coping mechanisms, subsequently leading to more positive outcomes from the stressors they experience.
... As argued in recent sports mental health position papers and frameworks, in addition to key responsibilities related to athlete performance, athlete health, team cohesion and organizational functioning, coaches and HPSS also have critical roles in promoting and protecting the well-being of athletes [1,7,8], including promoting the importance of mental health, recognizing experiences of mental ill health as legitimate, identifying emerging symptoms of mental ill health and encouraging appropriate helpseeking. Coaches and HPSS may share characteristics already established as risk factors for mental ill health in elite athletes (e.g., pressure to perform, maladaptive perfectionism) and may experience specific rolerelated stressors that place them at risk for mental ill health, such as insecure employment, unclear roles, feeling undervalued and doubting their coaching (or role) competencies [9]. Understanding coach and HPSS mental health and well-being is therefore pivotal for understanding the mental health needs and resourcing requirements within elite sports settings holistically and has additional potential benefits that may flow from promoting athlete well-being and creating a flourishing elite sports environment. ...
Background
There is growing understanding of mental health needs in elite athletes, but less is known about the mental health of coaches and support staff who work within elite sport settings. This study examined the prevalence and correlates of mental health symptoms in elite-level coaches and high-performance support staff (HPSS) and compared rates against published elite athlete samples. A cross-sectional, anonymous, online survey was administered to coaches and HPSS working in Australia’s high-performance sports system. Main outcomes were scores on validated measures of psychological distress, probable ‘caseness’ for a diagnosable psychological condition, alcohol consumption and sleep disturbance.
Results
Data were provided by 78 coaches (mean age = 46.4 years, 23.8% female) and 174 HPSS (mean age = 40.0 years, 56.7% female). Overall, 41.2% of the sample met probable caseness criteria, 13.9% reported high to very high psychological distress, 41.8% reported potential risky alcohol consumption and 17.7% reported moderate to severe sleep disturbance, with no statistically significant differences between coaches and HPSS. The most robust correlates of psychological distress and probable caseness were dissatisfaction with social support and dissatisfaction with life balance, while poor life balance was also associated with increased alcohol consumption and poor social support with sleep disturbance. Coaches and HPSS reported similar prevalence of mental health outcomes compared to rates previously observed in elite athletes, with the exception of higher reporting of alcohol consumption among coaches and HPSS.
Conclusions
Elite-level coaches and HPSS reported levels of psychological distress and probable caseness similar to those previously reported among elite-level athletes, suggesting that these groups are also susceptible to the pressures of high-performance sporting environments. Screening for mental health symptoms in elite sport should be extended from athletes to all key stakeholders in the daily training environment, as should access to programs to support mental health and well-being.
... Es fundamental que los estudiantes no se sientan excluidos o abandonados en ningún momento de su proceso de enseñanza-aprendizaje, para garantizar su desarrollo integral. Dependiendo de cómo el profesorado de Educación Física enfoque la acción educativa podrá animar al aprendizaje o, por el contrario, según su provisión puede ocasionar pérdida de confianza y el abandono de la tarea (Norris, Didymus, & Kaiseler, 2017;Krijgsman et al., 2019). En los últimos tiempos, la comunidad científica educativa en el ámbito de la Educación Física ha centrado su atención en varios agentes de cambio, sobre todo, hacia perspectivas de un aprendizaje más situado y social (Kirk, 2010;Kirk, 2013;León-Díaz, Arija-Mediavilla, Martínez-Muñoz & Santos-Pastor, 2020). ...
Esta investigación de diseño cuasiexperimental se centra en analizar las actitudes hacia la práctica de las habilidades gimnásticas y acrobáticas en una muestra de alumnos de Educación Secundaria, según los estilos de enseñanza aplicados. El desarrollo de las destrezas gimnásticas se plantea a través de dos métodos de enseñanza diferentes; por un lado, una enseñanza tradicional utilizando el mando directo y la asignación de tareas y, por otro lado, un método participativo, como es el caso del estilo de la microenseñanza. Los resultados evidencian que a través de las metodologías participativas se favorece la predisposición y satisfacción hacia las prácticas gimnásticas, así como la mejora de actitudes colaborativas; mientras que a través de los métodos tradicionales se fomenta la percepción de la mejora del aprendizaje motor y la corrección de los propios errores técnicos. Por lo tanto, el método de enseñanza adoptado por el profesorado podrá condicionar la relación de éste con los distintos elementos del contexto didáctico, de forma que marcará las propias relaciones entre los mismos. Para potenciar ambientes de aprendizaje óptimos el profesorado deberá dominar, combinar y aplicar diferentes estilos de enseñanza tras establecer un análisis previo de la situación dentro de la convivencia del aula. Abstract. This quasi-experimental research focuses on analysing attitudes towards the practice of gymnastic and acrobatic skills in a sample of High School students, according to the teaching styles applied. The development of gymnastic skills is approached through two different teaching methods; on the one hand, traditional teaching: direct command and assignment of tasks and, on the other hand, a participative style: microteaching. The results show that through participatory methodologies, predisposition and satisfaction towards gymnastic practices are favoured, as well as the improvement of collaborative attitudes; while through traditional styles, the perception of the improvement of motor learning and the correction of one's own mistakes are encouraged. Therefore, the teaching style adopted by the teacher may condition the relationship of the latter with the different elements of the didactic context, in such a way that it will mark the relationships between them. To promote optimal learning environments, teachers must master, combine, and apply different teaching styles after establishing a prior analysis of the situation within the classroom.
... Studies concerning the general population consistently find a positive correlation between personal experience with mental illness and increased mental health literacy (Mendenhall and Frauenholtz, 2013;O'Connor and Casey, 2015). There is current focus on the role a coach's mental health literacy has on an athlete's mental health (Norris et al., 2017). Several studies measured the prevalence of mental illness among coaches, with findings ranging from 15 to 55% of coaches having experience with mental illness (Kim et al., 2020;Smith et al., 2020). ...
... The second level includes the influences coming from external relationships, such as relationships with colleagues, friends, or parents. These sociorelational influences might explain feelings of lack of support and encouragement from a partner or family member (Norris et al., 2017). The third level is the structural/organizational policy. ...
Recent literature has noted the underrepresentation of women in high-performance (HP) coaching and the challenges faced when they do succeed in gaining entry to this male-dominated domain. Initiatives have been implemented in developed sporting nations to address this. However, less is known regarding the experience of women coaching at HP level in small, economically advanced countries and metropolises, where a number of additional sociocultural barriers exist. Underpinned by LaVoi and Dutove’s ecological model, six women currently coaching at HP level in the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg were interviewed, reflecting on their experiences in their role. A social phenomenological analysis approach was taken, with a deductive thematic analysis identifying 32 raw data themes: five supports (e.g., passion for the job) and four barriers (e.g., personal sacrifices) were reported at individual level; five supports (e.g., family support) and three barriers (e.g., lack of federation support) identified at interpersonal level; three supports (e.g., open communication environment) and seven barriers (e.g., lack of entry opportunities) noted at organizational level; and two supports (e.g., increased acceptance by male athletes) and three barriers (e.g., hegemonic masculinity) described at societal level. Further challenges exist in Luxembourg due to coaching not being seen as a legitimate career pathway and an underlying cultural expectation for women to manage domestic duties. The structure of the coach education system in Luxembourg makes it possible to address these barriers and enable a more diverse workforce in leadership positions in HP sport. Doing so should create more opportunities and support for women in coaching.
... There is evidence that coaches have become more professionalised and more stressed ATHLETE BURNOUT 9 themselves, both of which are likely to affect coach behaviours towards their athletes (Norris et al., 2017). In combination with an increasing emphasis on performance outcomes and heightened pressure to win that accompany professionalised sport, it is possible autonomy supportive practices have been replaced by controlling ones (e.g., Bartholomew et al., 2009). ...
With the increasing prevalence of mental health difficulties in sport, athletes may be at greater risk of burnout than ever before. In the present study, we tested this possibility by examining whether average athlete burnout levels have changed over the past two decades, from 1997 to 2019. A literature search returned 91 studies (N = 21,012) and 396 effect sizes. Findings from cross-temporal meta-analysis suggested that burnout symptoms have increased over the past two decades. Specifically, we found that athletes' mean levels of reduced sense of athletic accomplishment and sport devaluation have increased. As burnout symptoms are now typically higher among athletes than in the past, we can expect more athletes to be prone to the negative effects of burnout. Sport is therefore in urgent need of prevention and intervention strategies to stop and reverse this trend.
... Coaching itself is a potentially stressful occupation (Frey, 2007), with the impact of psychological stress on coaches' health and well-being a potential causative factor for burnout and dropout (Fletcher & Scott, 2010;Norris et al., 2017;O'Connor & Bennie, 2006). Indeed, in a recent meta-synthesis, Potts et al. (2021) identified a multitude of stressors that coaches can experience during their roles, including those related to working with their athletes, work-life balance, expectations from others, communication, and competition. ...
Recent years have seen huge growth in coaching and an associated focus on how it can be optimized through a well informed and appropriately professional coaching workforce. An ongoing focus of coaching researchers has been the importance of sufficiently reflective coach learning and development, with an emphasis on the development of sufficiently critical and analytical thinking. This paper shines a light on an area that we believe has a fundamental influence on the aforementioned thinking processes but has been underconsidered in the coaching literature to date: namely, bioenergetics and the impact of energy metabolism. We provide an outline of the bioenergetic view, with a focus on energy metabolism and mitochondrial function and the influence they may have on coach learning and development. We then offer ideas on how coaches might address these impacts through promoting a better appreciation of the impact of stress and diet on energy metabolism. We conclude with a call for open dialogue and further research on this important area.
... Pressures to win among Division I coaches to sustain their careers might explain the connection between career-focused purpose orientation and the alignment of their coaching purpose only with sport-specific competence development. Indeed, high-performance coaches are presented with stressors related to athlete performance and challenges to win, [36][37][38] frequently for sake of their career security. Dabbs et al. 36 for example, showed that for midcareer elite head coaches, one of the challenges is related to success, which is defined through winning. ...
Life purpose plays an important role in the wellbeing of adults. The current study considered domain-general and domain-specific purpose of NCAA coaches to examine whether purpose orientation in life predicted coaching purpose related to holistic athlete development directly and indirectly through coaching identity. A cross-sectional design was used. Collegiate coaches ( N = 380, 62.1% male) from NCAA Division I and III institutions completed questionnaires assessing purpose orientation (career-focused, others-growth, and self-growth), coaching identity (winning-centered, holistic development-centered), and coaching purpose related to athlete development (sport-specific competence, sport-general competence, confidence, connection, and character). Structural equation modeling indicated the following: Coaching purpose related to sport-specific competence was predicted directly and indirectly via winning-centered coaching identity by career-focused purpose orientation. The four dimensions of coaching purpose (sport-general competence, confidence, connection, and character) were predicted indirectly via development-centered coaching identity by others-growth purpose orientation and by career-focused purpose orientation. Others-growth purpose orientation emerged as a significant direct predictor of coaching purpose related to connection. Inconsistent mediation emerged between others-growth purpose orientation and coaching purpose related to confidence. Overall, the findings highlight that purpose orientation can predict coaching purpose and that coaching identity centered around athletes’ holistic development and growth plays a salient role in explaining these relationships.
... Finalmente, cabe mencionar que una de las limitaciones del estudio fue la escasa disposición institucional para que se pudiera tomar más tiempo del trabajo de los entrenadores para la realización de la investigación, por lo que se sugiere considerar los aspectos institucionales para la logística de cualquier investigación, así como identi car la forma en que la institución incide en la respuesta al estrés y en la presencia del síndrome ya que como lo señalan diferentes investigaciones, las cuestiones organizacionales son una fuente importante de estrés (Norris, Didymus y Kaiseler, 2017;Stynes, Pink y Aumand, 2017). ...
... As described within the model, coping strategies can be applied to change the situation (problemfocused coping) or ease negative emotions (emotion-focused coping). Research has shown that athletes (Dale, 2000;Gould et al., 1993) as well as coaches (Norris et al., 2017) apply several coping strategies during competitions. ...
This study uses a thematic content analysis to analyze common stressors for volleyball referees, examine the individual triggered stress responses, and identify the applied coping strategies. A total of 38 German elite volleyball referees (24 male and 14 female, M age = 38.29 years, SD = 7.91 years) were considered for this study. Through the analysis, 17 stressful events, 14 stress responses, and 6 different coping strategies were identified and further clustered into four main dimensions. Common stressors among elite German volleyball referees were identified as stressful game situations, need for game management, situational environment, and demands on self-activation. These stressors triggered emotional stress reactions, cognitive stress reactions, changes in focus, and reactions among the test group after increased strain. In order to deal with these situations and emotions, referees applied self-regulation strategies, improved focus and concentration, searched for a solution, prepared for the match or a stressor, showed a confident appearance, and tried to accept and let go of mistakes or situations. Post hoc Pearson’s correlation analyses showed significant relationships between emotional and cognitive stress reactions with stressful game situations. Consequently, the role of coping with emotions and thoughts becomes essential for volleyball referees to remain focused and perform.
... In contrast, similar experiences in sports coaches have received considerably less attention although these are widely exposed to numerous stressors which can potentially influence their well-being and performance. In 2017, a meta-analysis (Norris et al., 2017) highlighted various stressors influencing the performance of coaches. These include external scrutiny from the public and media, the need to constantly maintain high standards during training and competition and organizational stressors relating to administration, finances, overload, and environment. ...
A considerable body of research has examined stress and wellbeing in athletes (e.g., Arnold et al., 2017). In contrast, similar experiences in sports coaches have received considerably less attention although these are widely exposed to numerous stressors which can potentially influence their well-being and performance. In 2017, a meta-analysis (Norris et al., 2017) highlighted various stressors influencing the performance of coaches. These include external scrutiny from the public and media, the need to constantly maintain high standards during training and competition and organizational stressors relating to administration, finances, overload, and environment. Regarding the elite football setting specifically, coaches must regularly deal with stressors such as job insecurity (Bentzen et al., 2020) and cope with the stress and adversity associated to a highly pressurized workplace environment (Knights and Ruddock-Hudson, 2016). These stressors can cause anxiety, in addition to sleep disturbance, thus there is a clear need to help coaches find ways to deal with such difficulties. In clinical health settings, music-based therapeutic interventions are systematically shown to help improve sleep quality (Chen et al., 2021) and anxiety levels (Umbrello et al., 2019). In sports settings, listening to music demonstrated a positive effect in reducing pre-competition anxiety levels in a cohort of elite shooters (John, Verma, Khanna, 2012) and amateur athletes (Elliott et al., 2014) respectively. Yet to our knowledge no study has investigated the potential benefits of music in sports coaches. In this preliminary study, we investigated 1) the feasibility of implementing a novel smartphone music application in a cohort of elite soccer coaches, and 2) its effectiveness in helping them fall asleep and reducing anxiety levels. A total of 10 elite French soccer coaches (age 28.4 ± 3.9 years, working in clubs belonging to the 4 highest standards of football in France: Ligue 1: n=1, Ligue 2: n=3, Division 3: n=1 and Division 4: n=5) were invited to participate in the present study which was also proposed as part of their personal development plan during a year-long elite coach development course. Prior to their inclusion, participants were informed about the implementation of the study by means of an information document and oral presentation by the research team and were asked to sign an informed consent form to participate. The participants were asked to download the music application (Music Care©, Paris, France) on their personal smartphone/tablet and provided with a headphone set. This music application is typically used in health care settings (see www.music-care.com/en/clinical-evidence.html for list of related research works) and offers personalized music listening according to the patient’s therapeutic need (pain, anxiety, sleep) and musical preferences (e.g., classic, jazz, traditional…). The music sequences (each 20min duration) aim to progressively bring the user into a state of relaxation, and naturally treat pain, anxiety, and sleep disorders. Each participant was instructed to use the application at home in the morning on waking up (choice of anxiety or awakening session) and in the evening prior to falling asleep (sleep session) over a 1-month period. They were asked to record the date, time and duration of each session in a personal diary. Following the sleep session, participants were also requested to respond to the question: did the session help you to fall asleep: yes, no or I don’t know? Finally, immediately before and at the end of each anxiety/awakening session, participants used a Likert scale to rate their current anxiety level (0=no anxiety to 10=maximal anxiety). Data are presented as means, standard deviations and range values unless stated. Owing to the non-normality of the dataset collected for the pre-post session anxiety score ratings, Wilcoxon’s signed-rank non-parametric test was used to compare mean data (significance level, p<0.05). Cohen’s Effect Sizes were also calculated and classified as trivial (<0.2), small (>0.2–0.6), moderate (>0.6–1.2), large (>1.2–2.0) and very large (>2.0–4.0). The BiostaTGV (INSERM, France) package was used for all statistical calculations. Results showed that out of the 10 participants, two did not choose to download the application while among the remaining 8, 2 did not record any information on their music sessions. Regarding the 6 remaining participants, half completed at least one session per day over the 30-day period while an average of 25 sessions were completed per participant (range: 18 to 29). In total, 150 sessions were completed by the participants of which 64% (n=96) were used to aid sleep, 19% (n=28) anxiety and 17% (n=26) wake-up respectively. Each music session was completed in its entirety (20mins duration) on 99.3% occasions. Of the 96 sleep-related sessions completed, 62.5% (n=60) were considered by the participants to have aided them in falling asleep (Figure 1). The comparison of anxiety levels demonstrated a significant reduction in mean values for the pre- versus post-session scores: 6.0±1.0 vs. 4.3±1.5, -28%, p < 0.0001, effect size=1.2 (large). To the best of our knowledge, this investigation is the first to report the feasibility of implementing a novel therapeutic music smartphone application in a group of elite soccer coaches and determine its effects on their current anxiety levels and helping them fall asleep. Altogether, 40% of coaches (4 out of 10) chose not to use the application which is greater than the 20% drop-out rates frequently reported in randomised controlled studies. However, half of the 6 remaining participants completed at least one music session per day over the 30-day period while an average of 25 sessions (with nearly all listened to in their entirety) were completed per participant demonstrating in our opinion a satisfactory level of feasibility. The coaches most often chose sleep sessions (64% of the total) of which nearly two thirds were considered to have helped them to fall asleep. Anxiety sessions were less frequently utilised but nevertheless helped to significantly reduce the coaches’ current anxiety levels (-28% reduction). These positive results follow those observed in clinical health settings (Chen et al., 2021; Umbrello et al., 2019) and athletes (Elliot et al., 2014, John et al., 2012). As such, we suggest that music can be used by elite soccer coaches as a tool to aid anxiety and falling asleep. Further research is nevertheless required to determine why not all the coaches used the application or tended to use it for sleep rather than anxiety purposes. Similarly, a stronger experimental approach employing a longitudinal randomized controlled study design, a larger sample size to increase statistical power in addition to inclusion of qualitative (e.g., questionnaires) and quantitative (e.g., physiological responses) metrics is necessary. We estimate that to achieve a statistical power level of 90%, a sample size of 62 participants (accounting for a 20% drop out rate) would be necessary for a future randomized controlled study.
... Across the SEP literature, there appears to be broad consensus that the extent to which psychological skills (e.g., leadership skills) effectively adapt some of the biopsychological descriptors (e.g., team goals) to various external variables (e.g., the score line) is critical to explaining sport performance and exercise behavior (e.g., Norris et al., 2017;Barcia et al., 2019;Liew et al., 2019). The use of psychological skills mediates the circular relationship between external variables and biopsychological descriptors. ...
The present work contains a personal perspective on what sport and exercise psychology (SEP) is today. It is a global synthesis of research about psychological aspects related to the context and practice of sport and exercise. The intended impact was to positively influence teaching SEP to students, to promote interdisciplinary research and practice, and to assist the development of SEP as an applied science by helping experts develop a more holistic view of the field. Over 650 theoretical and review articles about psychological concepts in connection to sport and exercise were read in the process of creating a conceptual model that reflects the essence of SEP and leads to a conceptualization of SEP based on research topics. The result was a knowledge map of SEP made up of four main research clusters: biopsychological descriptors, external variables, psychological skills, and applied SEP practice. In terms of interdisciplinarity, the present perspective on SEP suggests that sport and exercise can be used as a research paradigm or natural laboratory to study psychological aspects relevant to various scientific fields, and that sport and exercise can be used as a therapeutic framework in response to challenges that researchers and practitioners in these fields are typically addressing.
... Since the work of Frey (2007), sport psychology researchers have examined the stress experiences of coaches, partly because coaches' stress may impact on their relationships with athletes , and, also because stress that is unmanageable could lead to burnout and coach turnover (Kilo & Hassmén, 2016). In a systematic review conducted by Norris et al. (2017), 24 studies that had examined stress in coaches were synthesized. It was concluded from this review that coaches encounter numerous demands relating to their performance and that they also encounter a series of stressors relating to the teams and organizations in which they coach. ...
Organizational stress continues to generate interest and research attention in sport psychology. This is largely because anecdotal and research evidence continues to highlight that the organizational environment in which sport performers, coaches, sport scientists, and other personnel operate is a breeding ground for experiencing stress. Although some individuals may interpret, respond, and cope well with the varying demands that they encounter in their sport teams and organizations, for others, this may have negative outcomes for their sport relationships, well-being, performance, and desire to continue participating in sport. For these reasons, research continues to be conducted to understand the concept of organizational stress in sport, and how it may be best managed to support the well-being and performance of individuals. This chapter will outline key concepts and theory relating to the concept of organizational stress. In addition, a summary of the origins of organizational stress in sport along with discussions of contemporary research in this area will be provided. Finally, a series of practical implications and future research recommendations will be outlined.
... Several reviews of coach stress-related literature (see Norris et al., 2017;Olusoga et al., 2019) have highlighted the variety of organizational, performance, contextual, interpersonal, and intrapersonal stressors reported by coaches. Moreover, Thelwell and colleagues (e.g., Thelwell, Wagstaff, Chapman, et al., 2017;Thelwell, Wagstaff, Rayner, et al., 2017) found athletes to be able to detect strain experienced by their coach, and for coach stressors to effect athletes in numerous, often negative, ways and influence the coach-athlete relationship. ...
High-performance coaches (HPCs) operate in complex and unpredictable environments wherein sustainable performance and well-being are regularly challenged. The purpose of this study was to develop, through an iterative process of data collection, evaluation and action, a brief SMS-based mindful self-reflection intervention to support sustainable high-performance coaching. We present this work through the form of a process evaluation. After an initial pilot intervention, three subsequent phases of development took place with 18 HPCs from athletics and figure skating. In each phase, HPCs completed a daily or weekly brief mindful self-reflection SMS-intervention for 8 weeks prior to taking part in a focus group interview and 6-month or 12-month follow-up. The results of the process evaluation demonstrate exceptionally high fidelity, reach and perceived value of the intervention for the HPCs. The HPCs also perceived the intervention to influence key mechanisms for a sustainable profession such as greater engagement in their well-being (e.g., self-awareness, helpful perspective on vulnerability and self-compassion). Moreover, lasting behavior changes associated with sustainability were reported at 6- and 12-month follow-ups. This process evaluation reflects a rigorously developed and novel procedure for the delivery of a brief mindful self-reflection intervention and appears easy to use by HPCs in their demanding roles.
Lay Summary: We present a process evaluation of a mindful self-reflection intervention developed to foster sustainable high-performance coaching. Over four development phases we refine the SMS-based intervention and report exceptionally high fidelity, reach and perceived value among the participants. At 6- and 12-month follow-ups participants reported lasting behavior changes associated with sustainability.
• Implications for practice
• This brief SMS-based mindful self-reflection intervention facilitated healthy perspectives on vulnerability and help-seeking behavior and prompted behavior change aligned with self-compassion and well-being at 6- and 12-months follow-ups. Hence, the SMS intervention may provide practitioners with a tool for supporting sustainability among high-performance coaches.
• The process evaluation presented here demonstrated exceptionally high fidelity with the simplicity of the SMS intervention seemingly key to this outcome. Moreover, receiving positive reinforcement throughout the intervention and having opportunities to share their experiences in focus group interviews influenced the participants’ perceived value of mindful self-reflection over time.
• This user-friendly intervention offers a mechanism for self and shared understanding in sport organizations and may provide insights for a range of stakeholders regarding the value of new ways of working that promote vulnerability, openness, help-seeking and collaboration.
... The present finding corroborates with previous findings by Altfred et al. (2018) and , which indicate that coaches have to regularly deal with a range of potential stressors in the workplace, ultimately leading to coach burnout. Other research with coaches from a variety of levels (youth to national and elite) suggested that coaches encounter situation specific stressors when performing in training and competition (Chroni et al., 2013;Norris et al., 2017). Conflicts with coaching staff and athletes, professional instability and pressure to form new athletes are sources of stress that affect and contribute to the increase in coaches' stress levels over the training period (Lundkvist et al., 2012;Thelwell et al., 2017;Dixon et al., 2017). ...
This study aimed to monitor and compare the levels of stress and recovery in elite football coaches of youth teams at different moments of one sports season. A descriptive study with longitudinal characteristics was conducted. Twenty-six coaches (37.60±7.37 years old) with experience time (7.20±5.37 years) from the categories U-15, U-17 and U-20 of the main Brazilian elite football teams were evaluated. The coaches filled out the demographic data questionnaire and the RESTQ-Coach in three periods of the sports season: vacation, training and competition. The stress levels were higher in competition periods, as well as during training moments, compared to the vacation period. The recovery levels showed a decrease in the competition period compared to the vacation period. The stress values were not higher than the recovery values of the coaches evaluated at different times of the sports season. Stress and recovery levels oscillate during a sports season. However, recovery levels have remained higher than stress. It seems that the elite football coaches are adapted and support the work pressures to which they are submitted in the sports context over one season.
... (Appendix A) In a sporting context, increasing attention has been paid to the mental health and illness of various groups, including participants, coaches and officials in community (local level) and high-performance sport (at national and international levels). Studies of sports coaches' mental health have typically been derived from psychology (especially organisational psychology), and have focused on, among other things, coaches' perceptions and experiences of workplace stressors [4][5][6][7][8], work-life balance, stress, coping and burnout [9][10][11][12], mental health literacy [13], job control, insecurity and mental wellbeing [5,9], and mental health awareness and seeking help from others [14,15]. Other research has focused on the need to explore other mental health parameters than burnout in coaches [16], the role coaches are expected to play in supporting the mental health of others, especially young people [17,18], parents' views on the roles of coaches in supporting mental health [19,20], and the need to provide coaches with evidence-based guidance on mental health to help facilitate the inclusion of participants who experience, or have experienced, mental illness [21]. ...
There is growing international concern about the mental health of those who work in sport, including coaches. However, we currently know little about the prevalence of mental illness and the experience of mental health among coaches, and their perceptions and use of workplace mental health support services. Little is also known about coaches’ disclosure of mental illness to, and seeking help from, work colleagues. We explore these issues using data from 202 coaches who responded to the first United Kingdom survey of mental health in the sport and physical activity workforce. In total, 55% of coaches reported having ever experienced a mental illness, and 44% currently did, with coaches in grassroots/community settings being most likely to experience mental illness. Depression and anxiety were the most commonly reported conditions and many coaches preferred to access mental health support outside of the organisation for whom they worked or volunteered, with decisions to seek help from others in the workplace being shaped by complex organisational and personal considerations. The findings suggest there is an important public health challenge which needs to be met among coaches, so that we can better address a question of fundamental importance: ‘who is looking after the people looking after the people’?
... This is surprising given the high labour turnover in the coaching profession, the often temporary and irregular nature of coaching work, and the plethora of stressors that coaches may experience. 10,11 Work-related stress may be particularly relevant to women coaches because these individuals can encounter unique stressors relating to work-family conflict; 12,13 undervaluation, exclusion, and increased scrutiny; 14 and lack of job security. 15 The impact of job stressors on women coaches' experiences of strain and PWB is yet to be explored. ...
Despite a globally recognised need for inclusive diversity among sport workforces, women are underrepresented in the inherently stressful profession of sports coaching. This study aimed to work with women sports coaches to answer the following research questions: 1) What demographic and contract-related factors are associated with job stressors? 2) What associations exist between job stressors, strain, and psychological wellbeing (PWB) at work? Women coaches (n = 217) volunteered to complete the revised version of An Organizational Stress Screening Tool (ASSET). Path analyses identified several groups of coaches (head coaches, “other” coaches, disabled coaches) who experienced more job stressors related to their coaching work. They also highlighted the importance of workload stressors and their detrimental relationship with psychological and physical strain but positive relationship with sense of purpose (i.e., eudaimonic wellbeing). Collectively, these findings offer the first assessment of women coaches’ job stressors, strain, and PWB, and offer insight to factors that may influence coaches’ engagement with the profession. They also highlight intervention foci for national governing bodies that are seeking to protect the health and wellbeing of the women coaches within their workforce.
Negative emotions are known risk factors for physical health, psychological distress (e.g. hopelessness and feeling worthless), and mood disorders (e.g. depression and anxiety). Thus, it is important for athletic coaches, one of the most stressful occupations, to understand how to cope with their negative emotions. This study aimed to examine the moderating roles of four different coping strategies (emotion-focused, problem-focused, proactive, and emotive suppression) on the relationship between negative emotions and psychological well-being. Online survey data were collected from 162 athletic head coaches working in NCAA Division I through questionnaires that assessed the proposed variables. The results reported that proactive coping strategy and emotive suppression strategy negatively and significantly moderated the negative emotional–psychological well-being relationship. The findings of this study contribute to understanding the coping strategies that should be avoided in response to negative emotions among coaches. The results also highlight the need to consider adopting existing proactive coping intervention programs for coaches.
The present study investigated the role of quality coach–athlete relationships and coaching efficacy on coaches’ well-being and performance. We examined whether coaches’ direct and meta-perspectives of the coach–athlete relationship quality predicted dimensions of coaches’ efficacy, hedemonic and eudaimonic well-being, and coach-related performance. A total of 233 male and female Swedish coaches from various team and individual sports completed the Coach–Athlete Relationship Questionnaire, the Coaching Efficacy Scale, Positive and Negative Affect Scale, Subjective Vitality Scale, and a one-single item developed to measure perceived coach performance. Structural equation modelling analyses revealed that quality coach–athlete relationships as defined by closeness, commitment, and complementarity associated with all four dimensions of coach efficacy. While coach–athlete relationship quality was linked with coaches’ positive affect, vitality, and satisfaction with coaching performance, only the motivational dimension of coach efficacy was associated with indicators of coach well-being and coach-related performance. Further analyses showed that the motivational dimension of coach efficacy explained the link between coach–athlete relationship quality, well-being, and coach-related performance. Overall, the findings extended the coach efficacy model by investigating the coach–athlete relationship as a predictor and coach well-being as an outcome. Our findings emphasize the importance of relationships for coaches’ efficacy and well-being.
Being involved in major sporting events, such as the Olympic Games, is a known stressor. A growing body of evidence has found the post-Olympic period to be a particularly difficult time for athletes, leading to depression-like symptoms. The impact of major sporting events on coaches’ and support staffs’ wellbeing is relatively unknown. The purpose of this study was to examine the experience of wellbeing for coaches and support staff post-Olympic Games. This included pre-Olympic Games and during-Olympic Games experiences that may contribute to post-Olympic challenges. Eight coaches and support staff who attended the Olympic Games completed semi-structured interviews and visual timelines to describe their wellbeing throughout the Olympic Games. Using interpretative phenomenological analysis, themes and timelines were generated that reflect the participants’ wellbeing experience. Participants described the Olympic experience as a “rollercoaster ride” of emotions, including feelings of excitement, exhaustion and low mood. The post-Olympic period was a time of particular difficulty. Suggestions to improve the wellbeing for individuals who attend the Olympic Games were identified.
While there are several studies showing the importance of social sustainability in different settings (e.g., Democracy and Governance: the Role of Sport Governing Bodies, urban planning, architecture) there is a lack of studies investigating social sustainability in the sports coaching profession, and even less research has specifically addressed women coaches. Using Barron and Gauntlett’s model of social sustainability (2002), the purpose of this study was to analyze the women coaches’ experiences of their profession and the extent to which it is a sustainable livelihood for women coaches. Semi-structured interviews with 20 women coaches were conducted from a variety of sports and performance levels. From a social sustainability perspective, the women coaches’ experiences were analyzed using Barron and Gauntlett’s principles of equity, diversity, interconnectedness, and democracy and governance to ascertain their quality of life. Our findings reveal that women coaches face multiple barriers and difficult working conditions in their profession, yet they continue to be committed to coaching largely because of the strong positive interpersonal relationships and social interactions they have with their sporting community. This study shines a light on the extent to which coaching is a livable and sustainable profession for women coaches today and highlights the importance of considering social sustainability principles to improve the experiences of women in the sports coaching profession.
Coaches are among the most important agents for young football talents’ development. Their coaching style may impact not only players’ skill acquisition but also their motivation to meet their full potential. This study begins by presenting an intervention promoting need-supportive coaching to facilitate holistic talent development within the German Football Association (Deutscher Fußball-Bund [DFB]). The intervention was grounded in Deci and Ryan’s self-determination theory and designed as a hybrid model of coach education (i.e., online and in-present elements). In addition, DFB competence center coordinators were utilized as multipliers to reach a large population of approximately 1,300 coaches across Germany. The specific aim of this paper is to examine how these coordinators experienced the development and implementation process of the intervention. Utilizing a mixed-methods approach, coordinators’ satisfaction and experiences with the intervention were evaluated via a quantitative online survey ( n = 23) and qualitative follow-up interviews ( n = 8). Overall, the findings suggest that the presented approach may be suitable to address potential barriers in coach education, such as gaining coaches’ buy-in, transferring scientific knowledge into practice, and supporting long-term behavioral modifications in coaches. Specific recommendations (e.g., knowledge translation, gaining buy-in) for designing future interventions are highlighted.
Although previous studies have uncovered various factors to understand sport coaches’ life, the role of positive emotions toward coaching experience and their impacts on behavioral and psychological outcomes remain unknown. As such, the purpose of this study was to examine the influence of sport coaches’ positive emotions on their work satisfaction and task performance and further measure the factors that would facilitate the understanding of sport coaches’ well-being. A total of 519 responses were collected from sport coaches in Singapore. Results showed that all the hypothesized relationships were significant, highlighting work satisfaction to play a mediating role in the relationship between positive emotions and task performance and between positive emotions and well-being. The findings of this study contribute to the advancement of the theoretical knowledge on the role of positive emotions in the context of sport management and provide valuable practical implications for sport organizations.
Sport coaching is a profession that is often demanding and one in which psychological burnout is problematic. Recovery from work demands is known to be important in preventing burnout, but research has paid little attention to short-term recovery for coaches. The present study therefore focused on day-to-day recovery. Specifically, the authors investigated the role of mindfulness in recovery, given previously established empirical relationships between mindfulness and recovery processes. The authors used an intensive diary study design to gather daily data from a sample of 46 sport coaches, over a period of 28 consecutive days. Multilevel modeling allowed data analysis at the intraindividual level, providing insights into daily recovery processes for individual coaches. The results showed that increases in daily mindfulness, relative to coaches’ individual mean levels, were predictive of higher levels of recovery-related variables (energy and mood) through mechanisms of reduced rumination and improved sleep. The present study highlights mindfulness as a potential path to daily recovery and the prevention of burnout among coaches. The study lays groundwork for the investigation of mindfulness training as a recovery-promoting intervention for coaches, potentially through easily accessible means, such as app-based training delivery and the incorporation of informal mindfulness practice into daily activities.
The growing privatization and professionalization of youth sport have undeniably resulted in an increase in the demands for coaches who work with children and adolescents. Researchers have suggested that mental toughness (MT) is a psychological resource that helps individuals cope with challenging circumstances. Although MT has been investigated extensively in athletes and other performers, there is a gap with respect to the construct as it relates to coaching. Accordingly, the purpose of the current study was to explore youth sport coaches’ experiences of MT. Fourteen youth sport coaches (nine male, five female; Mage = 37.7 years) from a variety of sports participated in phenomenological interviews. Using a hermeneutic process, five themes were developed: (a) mentally tough youth sport coaches overcome adversity, (b) mentally tough youth sport coaches control their emotions, (c) mentally tough youth sport coaches communicate effectively with athletes, (d) mentally tough youth sport coaches maintain high standards for themselves and the athletes with whom they work, and (e) mentally tough youth sport coaches develop athletes beyond the sport setting regardless of existing performance pressure. While there appears to be some consistency with previous conceptualizations of MT, the current results also highlight unique aspects of the construct (e.g., intrapersonal elements, focus on holistic development) as it pertains to coaches.
Lay Summary: Mental toughness (MT) is a psychological resource that helps people manage challenging circumstances. This study was designed to address a gap in the literature by exploring youth sport coaches' MT. While the findings indicate similarities in the MT of coaches and other performers, they also highlight aspects specific to coaching.
• Implications for Practice:
• It appears that MT cannot only increase the likelihood that youth sport coaches function at an optimal level (e.g., serve as a coping resource to manage the demands of the role and, thus, experience more well-being) but, in turn, also allows them to effectively support athletes’ development.
• The current findings indicate value in developing youth sport coaches’ emotional intelligence, which can help them demonstrate empathy and set a positive emotional tone for the athletes with whom they work.
• Youth sport coaches in this study perceived that being open to input and emphasizing holistic development necessitated MT. It seems important for sport psychology professionals and coach educators to facilitate environments in which youth sport coaches feel more comfortable to go against the trend of focusing primarily on performance and, instead, develop athletes holistically.
This chapter introduces the leadership efficacy model applied to sports coaching. It is proposed in the model that leadership efficacy depends on the congruence between the conceptual cycle of leadership and the practical cycle of leadership and also by considering the leadership styles assumed by coaches and the moderating influence of the antecedent factors of leadership. This chapter discusses how these three elements of the model (leadership cycles, leadership styles, and the antecedent factors of leadership) apply to sports coaches and concur to explain their efficacy in leading athletes and teams. The model includes four hypotheses (congruence of leadership cycles, optimal leadership profile, favourability of conditions for leadership, and optimized congruence hypothesis of leadership) that will be presented according empirical finding about leadership and sports coaching. The final part of the chapter presents some practical implications of the model to the work of coaches.
This chapter will explore stress and burnout in the context of sports coaching. First, an effort will be made to provide some conceptual clarity in defining the stress, burnout, and related terms, and in exploring the multiple and often overlapping, theoretical perspectives underpinning coach stress and burnout research. The coach stress literature that has examined stressors, coping methods, and the impacts of coach stress will be critically discussed, and relationships between stress, burnout, and coach well-being/ill-being will also be highlighted. Avenues for future coaching research related to stress, burnout, and well-being will be outlined, and practical implications for coaches, coach educators, and other key stakeholders are also provided. More specifically, existing research reveals a real need to place coach well-being at the forefront of the coaching agenda by coach educators and developers, and this chapter will conclude by suggesting potential strategies for promoting coach well-being in various high-performance and developmental contexts.
Sports’ coaching has evolved into a recognizable occupation that requires multiple roles and responsibilities. The Australian Football League is considered one of the highest profile sports in Australia, and as a result, Australian Football League coaches are perceived to operate in a complex and stressful environment; yet, there is no evidence to support this notion. The purpose of this research was, therefore, to examine the experiences of occupational stress and social support of Australian Football League senior coaches. A total of 12 senior Australian Football League coaches were involved in one semi-structured interview. Five themes emerged from the findings. These included: (i) pressurized workplace environments; (ii) development and improvement of others and self; (iii) accountabilities and responsibilities to others; (iv) advice, support and comfort from others and (v) stress and adversity—the ramifications. This research has contributed to the Australian sports coaching industry and is a critical step in gaining a richer and broader understanding of stress and social support among elite coaches globally.
Little or no empirical research has examined the pre- and postcompetition routines of coaches. The purpose of this study was to address this oversight by conducting in-depth open-ended interviews with 21 expert coaches from four team sports. The interviews were transcribed verbatim and inductively analyzed following the procedures outlined by Côté and colleagues (1993, 1995). The results indicated that coaches had set routines for themselves and their players before and after a competition. Prior to the competition, coaches prepared and mentally rehearsed their game plan, engaged in physical activity to maintain a positive focus, held a team meeting, and occupied themselves during the warm-up. Their words immediately before the game were used to stress key points. After the competition, coaches emphasized the importance of controlling their emotions and adopted different behaviors to appropriately deal with the team's performance and outcome. A brief meeting was held to recapitulate the essential elements of the game and a detailed analysis was not presented until the next practice or meeting.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine a model of personal/situational factors, stress and burnout in high level male basketball coaches. One hundred and seventy (170) male high level head basketball coaches, responded to the following questionnaires: (a) Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1986), (b) Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 1983), (c) Coaching Issues Survey (Kelley & Gill, 1990), and (d) Social Support Questionnaire (Sarason, Levine, Basjam, & Sarason, 1983). The results showed that the conceptual model of the independent variables "coaching level", "coaching issues", and "social support", moderate variable "stress perception" and dependent variables, the three dimensions of burnout supported its basic construct and function, in this specific group of coaches (p<.001). The results suggested that the variables of this model can predict the burnout syndrome.
The current study examined whether, where, when, and for what purposes coaches use psychological skills. A total of 13 elite-level coaches completed a structured interview using open-ended questions to examine their use of self-talk, imagery, relaxation, and goal-setting skills. Data were analyzed via deductive content analysis and indicated self-talk and imagery to be cited more frequently than relaxation and goal setting throughout the interviews. In addition, some purposes for using each skill were specific to training or competition across each time frame (before, during, and after), whereas there were several purposes consistent across each environment. Although the findings suggest that coaches employ psychological skills, it is imperative that they become aware of what skills they require and what skills they possess if they are to maximize their use across their wide-ranging coaching roles.
Involvement in sports is an experience that often leads to adaptive (e.g enjoyment) or maladaptive (e.g burnout) feelings. Burnout is a popular syndrome recognized in sport settings since mid 80's and it can be proved a highly dangerous state for many professionals. Rresearch has shown evidence that sport burnout recognizes a variety of symptoms similar to the general burnout concept, like, exhaustion, change of moods, lack of interest and more. The purpose of this study was to examine a conceptual model of personal/situational variables, perceived stress and burnout in Greek track and field coaches in order to propose their relationship. 164 track and field male coaches responded to the following questionnaires: Maslach Burnout Inventory, Perceived Stress Scale, Sport Competition Anxiety Test, Coaching Issues Survey, Social Support Questionnaire, Cognitive Hardiness Scale, Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire. The results showed that the conceptual model of the independent variables "hardiness", "competitive trait anxiety", and "satisfaction", moderate variable "stress perception" and dependent variables, the three dimensions of burnout supported its basic construct and function, in this specific group of coaches (p<0.05). The results suggested that the variables of this model can predict the burnout syndrome.
While business and psychology researchers have strived to identify effective strategies to reduce occupational stress, public administration scholars have paid insufficient attention to this issue. This article examines the role of motivational bases in the stressor–wellbeing relationship, a nascent research area in business and psychology, focusing on a particular type of motivation that is salient in public organizations: public service motivation (PSM). Based on a survey of 412 police officers from a large metropolitan city in eastern China, this study finds that PSM moderates the relationship between work stressors and individual wellbeing. Respondents with higher levels of PSM can better handle the increase of stressors so that their physical and mental wellbeing will decrease more slowly. Overall, respondents with higher levels of PSM tend to experience higher mental wellbeing but lower physical wellbeing than their low-PSM colleagues.
Stress research increasingly emphasizes the role of appraisal in determining which events are perceived as stressful. The Classroom Appraisal of Resources and Demands (CARD) was developed to measure teachers’ appraisals of their classroom demands and resources in order to assess their risk for experiencing occupational stress. The present purposes are to review the literature identifying appraisals as a key determinant of stress, to describe the development of the CARD, and to provide meta-analytic results from 18 studies comparing CARD scores to the following variables: teacher’s job satisfaction and occupational commitment, burnout symptoms, stress prevention resources, and challenging student demands. Results suggest moderate effects for associations between the CARD and these constructs, and implications for educational policy aimed at reducing turnover and increasing teacher and student welfare are discussed.
The present study longitudinally explored sports coaches' psychological well-being (positive affect and integration of coaching with one's sense of self) and ill-being (negative affect and devaluation of coaching) as predictors of their perceived autonomy supportive and controlling interpersonal styles towards individuals under their instruction. Participants were 195 sport coaches who completed questionnaire measures at three time points across an eleven-month period. Controlling for social desirability, multilevel analyses revealed that within-person increases and individual differences in positive affect and integration were positively associated with autonomy support. Conversely, within-person increases and individual differences in negative affect, but not devaluation, were associated with increased use of interpersonal control. The indicators of well-being did not predict interpersonal control and the indicators of ill-being did not predict autonomy support. In their entirety, the present findings suggest that autonomy supportive and controlling interpersonal styles have unique correlates, and affective determinants may play a particularly central role in controlling interpersonal styles. Supporting the psychological health of coaches may lead them to create an adaptive interpersonal environment for their athletes.
A 4-stage motivational sequence was investigated, in line with self-determination theory (perceived autonomy support from the coach → need satisfaction → motivation → psychological well-being). More specifically, we examined level–change associations and relations between intraindividual changes in these variables over the course of an athletic season. Young elite skiers (109 females, 138 males) enrolled at sport high schools in Sweden responded to questionnaires assessing perceived autonomy support from the coach, need satisfaction, motivation, and psychological well-being at 2 time points separated by approximately 5 months. A latent difference score model were used to analyze the data. Initial level of need satisfaction at Time 1 negatively predicted change in perceived autonomy support, motivation, and well-being, and initial level of motivation at Time 1 positively predicted change in perceived autonomy support and change in well-being. Correlations between intraindividual changes in the study variables were estimated and the variables were all positively correlated. These results indicate that the relations between these variables are complex, dynamic, and that more attention should be given to potential reciprocal effects between the variables in this motivational sequence.
Long-term care nursing staff are subject to considerable occupational stress and report high levels of burnout, yet little is known about how stress and social support are associated with burnout in this population. The present study utilized the job demands-resources model of burnout to examine relations between job demands (occupational and personal stress), job resources (sources and functions of social support), and burnout in a sample of nursing staff at a long-term care facility (N = 250). Hierarchical linear regression analyses revealed that job demands (greater occupational stress) were associated with more emotional exhaustion, more depersonalization, and less personal accomplishment. Job resources (support from supervisors and friends or family members, reassurance of worth, opportunity for nurturing) were associated with less emotional exhaustion and higher levels of personal accomplishment. Interventions to reduce burnout that include a focus on stress and social support outside of work may be particularly beneficial for long-term care staff.
This study investigated the influence of stress appraisal and coping on work engagement levels (Absorption, Vigour, and Dedication) of police recruits. Participants were 387 men, ages 20 to 33 yr. (M = 24.1, SD = 2.4), in their last month of academy training before becoming police officers. Partially in support of predictions, work engagement was associated with Stressor control perceived, but not Stress intensity experienced over a self-selected stressor. Although the three dimensions of work engagement were explained by Stressor control and coping, Absorption was the dimension better explained by these variables. Police recruits reporting higher Absorption, Vigour, and Dedication reported using more Active coping and less Behavioural disengagement. Results showed that stress appraisal and coping are important variables influencing work engagement among police recruits. Findings suggested that future applied interventions fostering work engagement among police recruits should reinforce perceptions of control over a stressor as well as Active coping strategies.
The Coaching Issues Survey (CIS) was developed to measure sport/coaching-specific
issues that may produce stress within the coaching role and situation. Exploratory and
confirmatory factor analysis revealed a four-factor structure with a sample of collegiate
basketball coaches. The four separate, but related subscales of Win-Loss, Time-
Role, Program-Success, and Athlete-Concerns demonstrated high internal consistency
and good stability over time. The CIS was sensitive to gender differences and
paralleled differences noted with stress and burnout measures. The CIS was quite
predictive of stress appraisal and slightly predictive of burnout, providing evidence
for construct validity as a personal/situational variable within the current theoretical
conceptualizations of the stress and burnout process. The initial reliability and validity
evidence suggests that the CIS can be a valuable measure of potentially problematic
issues for coaches, facilitating the investigation of stress and burnout in coaching.
This study explored coaches’ responses to stress, the perceived effects of stress, and the coping
strategies coaches employed. Transcribed interviews with 12 world class coaches, based in
the UK, were inductively content analyzed. A range of themes emerged describing coaches’
responses to stressors and the effects of stress. Specifically, coaches discussed psychological
reactions, and suggested that their negative responses to stress could be projected onto their
athletes.While structuring and planning was reported as a coping strategy, coaches described a
limited use of psychological skills and tended to avoid stressors that provoked strain responses
in efforts to manage stress. Results suggest that coaches should be aware of how they respond
to stressors and the influence their responses might have on their athletes. Sport psychologists
should help coaches to identify and develop the psychological skills and strategies required to
cope with the demands of world class coaching.
This paper presents the first in a series of studies exploring coaches’ experiences of stress within the unique culture of world class sport. The purpose of this study was to gain an in-depth account of the stressors encountered by elite coaches in the United Kingdom. Six male and six female coaches with international experience were interviewed. Transcribed interviews were inductively content analyzed by three independent researchers. Ten higher-order themes emerged, demonstrating that coaches experienced a wide range of stressors (e.g., conflict, pressure and expectation, athlete concerns, competition preparation, isolation). Conflict within the organization emerged as a key theme, indicating that communication skills might be important in helping coaches function effectively as part of a wider organizational team. Findings also highlight the importance of psychological skills training for coaches to help them cope with the diverse demands of world class coaching.
In order to explore the stressors that tennis coaches' associate with parents and examine how such stressors may differ depending upon a player's developmental stage of participation, seventeen focus group interviews were conducted with a total of 70 coaches; 28 coaches of sampling stage players, 24 coaches of specializing stage players, and 18 coaches of investment stage players. Content analysis of the focus group data revealed three general dimensions of stressors: direct coaching stressors, player-related stressors, and external and system-based stressors. Sampling-stage coaches reported many stressors relating to parents' understanding of tennis and development. Specializing-stage coaches highlighted multiple stressors concerning parental pressure and involvement. Investment-stage coaches replicated many of the specializing stage stressors, but also highlighted various methods to reduce parent-related stressors. Results are discussed in relation to previous research. Practical implications to reduce the stressors British tennis coaches encounter are provided.
Gender differences in coping in sport have received increased attention, but cross-sectional and retrospective designs of studies have provided equivocal results and limited conclusions in the area. To address this gap, two studies were conducted investigating stress, appraisal and coping in males and females when executing a golf-putting task. The two studies were conducted under controlled laboratory settings, including a control and an experimental condition. Participants performed the same golf-putting task in both conditions. In the experimental condition, stress was induced using a combination of evaluation apprehension, funny putter, monetary inducement (Study 1), and ego-threatening feedback (Study 2). Stress appraisal (type of stressor and its frequency) and coping (strategies used and their frequency) were assessed online using the think aloud protocol. Stress responses were assessed using self-report, physiological, and behavioral measures. Both studies found similar stress responses for males and females (e.g. increased heart rate, task completion time, and cognitive state anxiety) in the experimental condition. However, significant gender differences were found in relation to the frequency of stressors cited and coping strategies used for these particular stressors. Across both studies, females reported being more often concerned with task execution and males with the outcome. Differences in coping strategies observed between the genders were likely to be a consequence of different stress appraisals, in particular the frequency of particular stressors appraised. Findings provide tentative support for the situational hypothesis as males and females have a tendency to use similar coping strategies if they appraise the same stressors within the same situation.
Coaching has been recognised as a demanding occupation, associated with a range of stressors. The extent to which coaches perceive stress is likely to be influenced by various personal and situational factors. The purpose of this study was to identify coaches' levels of perceived stress and examine the personal and situational factors that may influence coaches' perceptions of stress. In total, 502 coaches working with university, college, Canada Games, and/or nationally identified athletes completed this study. Coaches completed an online survey, which included questions regarding demographics, work/job-related considerations, and aspects relating to their contract. Coaches also completed the Perceived Stress Scale (Cohen, Kamarck, & Mermelstein, 19834.
Cohen , S. ,
Kamarck , T. and
Mermelstein , R. 1983. A global measure of perceived stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 24: 385–396. [CrossRef], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®], [CSA]View all references). Overall coaches indicated slightly below average levels of perceived stress (M = 15.13 out of 40) compared with norm-values (Cohen & Janicki-Deverts, 20123.
Cohen , S. and
Janicki-Deverts , D. 2012. Who's stressed? Distributions of psychological stress in the United States in probability samples from 1983, 2006, and 2009. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42: 1320–1334. [CrossRef], [Web of Science ®]View all references). Demographic factors, job-related characteristics, and certain aspects of their contract were associated with coaches' perceptions of stress. In particular, unclear expectations, long-working hours (>40), lack of agreed evaluation criteria, higher salaries, and a lack of social support were related to higher perceptions of stress. As such, the findings of the current study indicate that a reduction in perceived stress is likely to be achieved through a multifaceted approach that addresses multiple factors associated with coaching.
Wellbeing is a growing area of research, yet the question of how it should be defined remains unanswered. This multi-disciplinary review explores past attempts to define wellbeing and provides an overview of the main theoretical perspectives, from the work of Aristotle to the present day. The article argues that many attempts at expressing its nature have focused purely on dimensions of wellbeing, rather than on definition. Among these theoretical perspectives, we highlight the pertinence of dynamic equilibrium theory of wellbeing (Headey & Wearing, 1989), the effect of life challenges on homeostasis (Cummins, 2010) and the lifespan model of development (Hendry & Kloep, 2002). Consequently, we conclude that it would be appropriate for a new definition of wellbeing to centre on a state of equilibrium or balance that can be affected by life events or challenges. The article closes by proposing this new definition, which we believe to be simple, universal in application, optimistic and a basis for measurement. This definition conveys the multi-faceted nature of wellbeing and can help individuals and policy makers move forward in their understanding of this popular term.
This paper summarizes the topic of well-being as it applies to competitive athletes, with a particular focus on definitional and conceptual issues. Established definitions within research on human happiness and flourishing based on the hedonic and eudaimonic perspectives are contrasted against definitions applied within sport psychology. The majority of the reviewed sport psychology studies either failed to define well-being or used a variety of labels to describe the construct (e.g., subjective well-being, psychological well-being, mental well-being). A large number of assessments have been used to assess well-being among athletes, but most were applied with only a weak theoretical rationale and did not distinguish between well-being at the global and sport levels. It is concluded that well-being studies within sport psychology have been hampered by conceptual ambiguity, which makes it difficult to compare results across studies and generalize findings in order to develop a sound theoretical base of knowledge. Future research needs to more explicitly define the conceptual framework of well-being and the level (global or context-specific) on which the construct is investigated. Toward this goal, an integrated model is presented to provide a conceptual well-being structure in sport studies, and future directions for research are discussed.
The aim of the present study was to supplement previous work that identified the stressors experienced by coaches and examine the coping strategies that elite-level coaches employ to overcome stressors. Three elite coaches were interviewed and were required to identify three prominent stressors that they had experienced before discussing how they attempted to cope with them. The selected stressors included both performance and organizational types, and the associated coping attempts included strategies conforming to problem-, emotion-, avoidance-, appraisal-, and approach-focused dimensions. While specific forms of coping were identified, findings also highlighted that coping strategies were employed across performance and organizational stressors, rather than being employed for one or the other. Implications for future research opportunities within the area are presented.
W. Wilson's (1967) review of the area of subjective well-being (SWB) advanced several conclusions regarding those who report high levels of "happiness." A number of his conclusions have been overturned: youth and modest aspirations no longer are seen as prerequisites of SWB. E. Diener's (1984) review placed greater emphasis on theories that stressed psychological factors. In the current article, the authors review current evidence for Wilson's conclusions and discuss modern theories of SWB that stress dispositional influences, adaptation, goals, and coping strategies. The next steps in the evolution of the field are to comprehend the interaction of psychological factors with life circumstances in producing SWB, to understand the causal pathways leading to happiness, understand the processes underlying adaptation to events, and develop theories that explain why certain variables differentially influence the different components of SWB (life satisfaction, pleasant affect, and unpleasant affect). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Embedded in the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 2000) framework, we obtained self-report data from 418 paid and voluntary coaches from a variety of sports and competitive levels with the aim of exploring potential antecedents of coaches' perceived autonomy supportive and controlling behaviors. Controlling for socially desirable responses, structural equation modeling revealed that greater job security and opportunities for professional development, and lower work-life conflict were associated with psychological need satisfaction, which, in turn, was related to an adaptive process of psychological well-being and perceived autonomy support toward athletes. In contrast, higher work-life conflict and fewer opportunities for development were associated with a distinct maladaptive process of thwarted psychological needs, psychological ill-being, and perceived controlling interpersonal behavior. The results highlight how the coaching context may impact upon coaches' psychological health and their interpersonal behavior toward athletes. Moreover, evidence is provided for the independence of adaptive and maladaptive processes within the self-determination theory paradigm.
Abstract We explored sport performers' cognitive appraisals of organisational stressors. The relevant demands and transactional alternatives that athletes experience in relation to the situational properties were identified. Thirteen national standard swimmers completed semi-structured, interval-contingent daily diaries for a 28-day period. A combination of inductive and deductive content analysis was used to organise and analyse the diary entries with a focus on the following areas: organisational stressors, their underlying situational properties, and the swimmers' transactional alternatives. One hundred and thirty-one of the organisational stressors were appraised as threat, 41 as challenge, and 83 as harm/loss. Support was found for the majority of Lazarus and Folkman's (1984) situational properties with the only exception being temporal uncertainty. Imminence was associated with the greatest number of threat appraisals (47), novelty was associated with the greatest number of challenge appraisals (17), and duration was associated with the greatest number of harm/loss appraisals (22). It is concluded that appraisal plays a pivotal role in sport performers' experiences of their organisational environment. Swimmers' transactional alternatives are influenced by the situational properties of the stressors encountered.
Two studies evaluated the dimensionality of the COPE inventory (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989) and examined its relationships with approach- and avoidance-motives and positive and negative traits. In Study 1, four coping factors emerged, three of which reflected either self-sufficient or socially-supported coping strategies, along with an avoidant-coping factor. Correlations of scales from the self-sufficient and socially-supported coping factors with behavioral activation and positive traits suggested these factors involved approach-oriented coping, while the avoidant-coping scales correlated with behavioral inhibition and negative traits. In Study 2, similar self-sufficient, socially-supported, and avoidant-coping factors emerged; highly similar correlations were found between the scales that defined these factors with approach- and avoidance-motives and positive and negative traits.
The purpose of this review was to systematically identify and evaluate the psychosocial interventions used to manage a component of the stress process in competitive sport performers. Inclusion criteria were devised to select research relevant to the topic area. Studies were assessed for inclusion by examining their title, abstract, and then full text. Based on the outcome of this process, 64 studies were included in the review. These studies encompassed a variety of cognitive (n = 11), multimodal (n = 44), and alternative interventions (n = 9). The results indicate that, in general, a variety of stress management interventions are associated with athletes’ optimized stress experience and enhanced performance. The findings suggest that the effectiveness of stress management is moderated by a number of diverse design features (e.g., treatment adopted, stress component outcome measured). These design features are important to consider when designing interventions for athletes of varying sports, ages, and competitive standards.