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A theory of participation: What makes stakeholder and public engagement in environmental management work?

August 2017
Restoration Ecology 26(S1)

DOI:10.1111/rec.12541

Authors:

Mark S. Reed

Scotland's Rural College

Steven Vella

Birmingham City University

Edward Challies

University of Canterbury

Joris de Vente

Spanish National Research Council

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This article differentiates between descriptive and explanatory factors to develop a typology and a theory of stakeholder and public engagement. The typology describes different types of public and stakeholder engagement, and the theory comprises four factors that explain much of the variation in outcomes (for the natural environment and/or for participants) between different types of engagement. First, we use a narrative literature search to develop a new typology of stakeholder and public engagement based on agency (who initiates and leads engagement) and mode of engagement (from communication to coproduction). We then propose a theory to explain the variation in outcomes from different types of engagement: (1) a number of socioeconomic, cultural, and institutional contextual factors influence the outcomes of engagement; (2) there are a number of process design factors that can increase the likelihood that engagement leads to desired outcomes, across a wide range of sociocultural, political, economic, and biophysical contexts; (3) the effectiveness of engagement is significantly influenced by power dynamics, the values of participants, and their epistemologies, that is, the way they construct knowledge and which types of knowledge they consider valid; and (4) engagement processes work differently and can lead to different outcomes when they operate over different spatial and temporal scales. We use the theoretical framework to provide practical guidance for those designing engagement processes, arguing that a theoretically informed approach to stakeholder and public engagement has the potential to markedly improve the outcomes of environmental decision-making processes.

The wheel of participation is a typology that defines different types of stakeholder and public engagement. It combines four modes of engagement with either top-down or bottom-up agency. It consists of an inner and outer wheel that can be spun in different directions to create different combinations of agency (who initiates and leads the process) and mode of participation (from one-way communication to coproduction). This identifies four types of engagement: top-down one-way communication and/or consultation; top-down deliberation and/or co-production; bottom-up one-way communication and/or consultation; and bottom-up deliberation and/or co-production. Rather than always aiming for bottom-up and co-productive types of engagement, the wheel of participation can be used to match the appropriate type of engagement to the purpose and context in which engagement is needed.

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Challenging

Context

Conducive

In terms of existing participation culture, former experiences of engagement and available resources

Hierarchical, closed/limited or ad

hoc representation

Design

Systematic representation and

transparent, structured

opportunities to engage

Un-managed power dynamics and

(some) participants unable to

contribute knowledge or influence

outcomes

Power

Power dynamics effectively

managed to give all participants

equal opportunities to contribute

knowledge and influence

outcomes

Late and poorly matched

Scalar Fit

Early and well matched to

temporal and spatial scale

Likelihood of delivering beneficial outcomes

14"

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Conclusion!

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Acknowledgements!and!conflict!of!interest!

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References!!

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X?"<,'61+-$,"O"ZA\>L["=-,%.-%r*&4,-("*'&-%33%3")&'"#'+.37&6.5+'("0+#%'"8&9%'.+.-%^"!17,&"FF/DLDJDMM"

!'.3#%,."!"Z>dMd["!"4+55%'"&)"-,#,h%.3$,*"*+'#,-,*+#,&.^"E&6'.+4"&)"#$%"!1%',-+."V.3#,#6#%"&)"j4+..%'3"AM/A>Mr

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Factors Affecting Community Participation In The Doyo Lama And Tobati Tourism Villages

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2024

Fostering Inclusive Urban Design and Planning: Enhanced Trust and Reliability through Descriptive Instructions for Digital Citizen Participation

Article

Nov 2024
J URBAN TECHNOL

Digital citizen participation tools revolutionize how residents engage with urban issues, enabling unprecedented levels of collective discourse and large-scale involvement. These tools are essential for advancing urban design and planning through individual and asynchronous contributions. However, their inherent complexity often poses significant challenges for users. To mitigate this, developers and practitioners equip these platforms with user instructions aimed at simplifying navigation. Despite these efforts, the strategies for communicating the functionality and objectives of these tools, as well as their impact on participation processes, are not well understood. Accordingly, this study investigates the influence of different types of user instructions—descriptive versus non-descriptive—on users’ perceived reliability of digital participation platforms. Conducted in three phases—pre-participation, participation, and post-participation—the research involved modifying a digital tool and testing it with 47 university students engaged in a campus transformation project in Singapore using the Consul Project digital platform. The evaluation, carried out through surveys and semi-structured interviews in the post-participation phase, reveals that well-crafted descriptive instructions, which contain clear objectives, step-by-step guidance, and contextual information, significantly boost participants’ trust and engagement levels. Consequently, our findings underscore the importance of carefully designed user instructions in enhancing the effectiveness of digital citizen participation in urban design and planning.

A model-based policy analysis framework for social-ecological systems: Integrating uncertainty and participation in system dynamics modelling

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2024
ECOL MODEL

Problems manifested within social-ecological systems (SES) exhibit dynamic complexity and hold implications for current and future human well-being and environmental sustainability. The complexity of these issues, the ever-present uncertainty inherent to SES, and the multi-stakeholder settings in which they are discussed call for participatory modelling to support decision-making on socio-environmental issues. Yet, this challenging endeavour requires a structured approach-a modelling cycle-to facilitate engagement with the implications of participation and uncertainty as focal points for Good Modelling Practice (GMP). Here we propose an integrated policy analysis framework for SES modelling using System Dynamics (SD). This framework stems from integrating two existing modelling cycles that individually consider participation and uncertainty in SD modelling. Three global modelling phases and a set of tools to address the participation and uncertainty features in SES modelling are distinguished. The framework contributes to mainstreaming GMP, offering a structured model-based approach to enhance the robustness and social acceptance of policies on critical socio-environmental issues.

Legitimacy in polycentric groundwater governance: Framework conditions identified in Nebraska's Natural Resource Districts

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2024

This study considers how and why agricultural groundwater users would limit their own water consumption. We find that voluntary governance arrangements are based on a form of legitimacy that stems from informal social processes. Agricultural irrigation reform in Nebraska, U.S. took place after decades of collaboration in informal social settings; this background of decentralized rulemaking contributed to legitimizing extraction limits in times of water stress. The dimensions of social legitimacy are assessed through triangulation of interview data, integrated management plans, workshop facilitation, and recordings of legal proceedings related to the Natural Resources Districts in the state of Nebraska. These districts initially placed voluntary limits on extraction but evolved to sanction violators for over-consumption. Groundwater rules are accepted because they are set by publicly elected boards, leaders participate in a state-wide leadership training network, and the districts are granted rule-making authority by the state. Our results show that voluntary self-limiting behavior can form the basis for binding legal requirements. The legitimacy of polycentric governance stems from social acceptance, inclusive membership, a prior history of collaboration, and an understanding of rules. The rules themselves are context-specific and self-made. We summarize these elements in an evaluation framework to test whether and how authority in other polycentric groundwater governance arrangements is justified and accepted.

S’adapter au changement climatique sur le littoral : retours empiriques sur une démarche participative chercheurs-habitants (Côte d’Opale, France)

Article

Jan 2024

Cet article propose une présentation et un retour d’expérience empirique à propos d’une démarche d’action participative de co-construction, entre chercheurs et résidents de deux communes côtières de la région Hauts-de-France (Oye-Plage et Wissant), de stratégies d’adaptation au changement climatique. L’article est structuré en deux parties. La première partie présente les protocoles méthodologiques utilisés avec la description des dispositifs participatifs (réunions publiques, ateliers participatifs, suivis collaboratifs), les outils mobilisés par les chercheurs. La seconde partie propose un retour d’expérience sur ces dispositifs en mettant en avant trois principaux résultats suite à l’analyse de cette démarche participative et en soulignant les avancées et les limites de celle-ci.

A Citizen-Centric Data Lifecycle: Acknowledging Relationships, 2 Roles and Responsibilities of Data Citizens in Digital Innovation in the Agri-food Sector

Preprint

Apr 2024

There is a lack of embedded, ethical frameworks for data governance that limit the socio-ethical dimensions of the use of data. This constraint is significant in increasingly complex digital innovation initiatives and contributes to the slow uptake of digital technologies in many contexts, highlighting the ongoing need for inclusive and responsible innovation in agri-food systems. We used an abductive reasoning approach to develop a citizen-centric data lifecycle which acknowledges that effective relationships are essential to make space for all data citizens to be equitably and ethically involved in governance and decision-making. This is supported by summary of the literature to depict the roles, responsibilities and challenges of data-citizens within data ecosystems. Use of the citizen-centric data lifecycle could accelerate digitalization efforts in the agri-food sector and position research organisations to support the primary sector through the ongoing digital transformation. It will also have value for agencies and organisations grappling with how to operationalise ethical data management practices to meet policy requirements and stakeholder expectations.

TRANSITION PATHWAYS TOWARDS INCLUSIVE CLIMATE-COMPATIBLE GROWTH: MODELLING, FUTURES, AND DECISION-MAKING IN ZAMBIA - TRAP-ZM

Article

Full-text available

Nov 2024

This report presents the “Transition pathways towards inclusive climate-compatible growth: modelling, futures and decision-making in Zambia” (TRAP-ZM) research project. TRAP-ZM was carried out between 2022 and 2024 as a sub-project of the Climate Compatible Growth (CCG) programme, which is funded by the UK’s Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office. TRAP-ZM was a collaboration between the Zambia Institute for Policy Analysis and Research (ZIPAR), Tec Analytics, the Centre for Energy, Environment and Engineering Zambia (CEEEZ), Imperial College London (ICL), and University College London (UCL), with support from the University of Zambia (UNZA).

Envisioning sustainable urban mobility in Dublin: Stakeholder perspectives and system dynamics

Article

Nov 2024

Involving People in Conservation: Perceptions from Maine, USA

Article

Nov 2024

Environmental conservation groups involve people in diverse ways. These include participatory spaces where people can participate in decision-making and action and engagement processes, where groups communicate, educate, and conduct outreach to build environmental understanding and involve audiences in conservation activities. We explored the perceptions and experiences of conservation practitioners in Maine, USA, to understand their views of participation and engagement. We interviewed 21 practitioners and analysed the qualitative data using an interpretative phenomenological approach grounded in interviewees’ words and experiences. All interviewees recognised the interconnections between people, places, and the non-human world; however, individuals and the groups they work within thought about the role of people in conservation in diverse ways. Views of public stakeholders and rights holders, individual values, Indigenous knowledge, commitments to place and community, and personal experiences all influence who is involved, how people are involved, why people are involved, and what comes of people’s involvement. We conclude by discussing the implications for equitable conservation that seeks to incorporate diverse voices.

Sustainable restoration: addressing critical challenges through university‐led projects

Article

Nov 2024

The urgency to restore ecosystems amid climate change and biodiversity loss has led to widespread engagement in habitat restoration projects. However, many projects fall short of their goals, highlighting the need for innovation. We use a case study at our university to explore how the integration of habitat restoration into university curricula might address some of the major challenges to long‐term restoration success. We demonstrate how integration with university activities could help address three key challenges in restoration: insufficient planning and monitoring, limited community engagement, and lack of long‐term funding. Our approach demonstrates how involving students and faculty in restoration projects can enhance adaptive management by including these efforts in science curricula, foster community participation through volunteer engagement, and reduce costs through volunteer efforts and collaboration with campus entities. These findings suggest that universities can play a vital role in advancing ecological restoration, benefiting both society and the environment.

What We’re Talking About When We Talk About the “Civic Field” (And why we should clarify what we mean)

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2014

Matt Leighninger

The field of public engagement is experiencing a harmful identity crisis. While advocates of public participation may all agree that our work relates somehow to democracy, we have not established or articulated a common vision of what that really means. This lack of clarity has dire consequences, producing rifts between academics and practitioners, community organizers and deliberative democrats, civic technologists and dialogue practitioners, policy advocates and consensus-builders. Worst of all, the lack of clarity about democracy provides no help to people who are trying to create sustainable, participatory political systems in Egypt, Thailand, Ukraine, and many other countries. None of the participatory tactics and assets we have developed will reach their full potential if we don’t admit, to ourselves and the world, their true significance: these aren’t just props for conventional processes, but building blocks for new political systems.

“Why corruption matters: understanding causes, effects, and how to address them”, DFID Evidence Paper. London: DFID (February 2015)

Technical Report

Full-text available

Feb 2015

Alina Rocha Menocal

This study was commissioned by the Department for International Development (DFID) to assess the existing body of evidence on corruption. The resulting Evidence Paper aims to be an authoritative assessment of the literature on corruption. The study acts as a key source of synthesised knowledge for staff, helping inform policy narratives and programme design.

The ripple effect: Institutionalising pro-environmental values to shift societal norms and behaviours

Article

Full-text available

Oct 2016

Contemporary markets and societal norms externalise many ecosystem services important for a sustainable future. A range of external legal, market, social protocol and other mechanisms, referred to as ‘societal levers’, constrain or otherwise influence the behaviour of resource managers, and the expectations and assumptions of the society within which they operate. These ‘societal levers’ have progressively institutionalised evolving societal values, influencing markets and other choices. We use the STEEP (social, technological, economic, environmental and political) framework to explore case studies of societal transitions, analysing how emergent concerns become shared and ultimately transformed into ‘levers’, shifting societal norms. Emerging concerns become influential only when they are shared across societal sectors, and when broader implications are realised across multiple dimensions of the STEEP framework. We propose and advocate use of a ‘ripple effect’ of values as a means to direct and accelerate the pace at which environmental concerns shape mainstream societal norms and structures, and become institutionalised in the form of ‘societal levers’.

Grassroots Environmental Action: People's Participation in Sustainable Development

Book

Jan 2014

Mediation—its Forms and Functions

Chapter

May 2018

Lon L. Fuller

Land Degradation, Desertification and Climate Change: Anticipating, assessing and adapting to future change

Book

Apr 2016

Le public et ses problèmes

Chapter

Jan 2009

John Dewey

Assessing the evidence for stakeholder engagement in biodiversity conservation

Article

May 2017
BIOL CONSERV

Engaging local stakeholders is a central feature of many biodiversity conservation and natural resource management projects globally. Current literature on engagement predominantly focuses on individual case studies or specific geographical contexts, making general conclusions regarding the effect of these efforts on conservation outcomes difficult. We reviewed evidence from the peer-reviewed and grey literatures related to the role of stakeholder engagement (both externally-driven and self-organized engagement) in biodiversity conservation at the local scale using both quantitative and qualitative approaches. We critically appraised and extracted data using mixed methods for case studies (n = 82) and meta-analyses (n = 31) published from 2011 to 2015. We conducted an inductive thematic analysis on background literature references published from 2000 to 2016 (n = 283). The quantitative analysis assessed multiple variables, and yielded no significant results, but suggested a possible relationship between success in producing attitudinal change towards conservation and four engagement factors. Our qualitative analysis identified six dimensions of engagement processes that are critical for successful outcomes when a project is externally-driven, and suggests that understanding of governance and social-cultural context plays an important role in all types of stakeholder engagement efforts. Finally, we reflect on the effectiveness of relying primarily on evidence available from published literature to understand links between conservation and stakeholder engagement, in particular with regard to self-organized engagement.

A ladder of citizen participation

Article