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Two-Factor Model of Personality
Abstract and Figures
The Two-Factor Model (TFM) of personality is a model of personality traits structure that was discovered through factor analysis of traits, with two broad factors (also known as metatraits) emerging at the highest level (Digman, 1997; Saucier et al., 2014). These factors/metatraits have been found to possess a theoretical meaning that corresponds to many psychological constructs developed and used in personality research (Digman, 1997) and to have the potential to integrate the various concepts (Saucier et al., 2014; Strus & Cieciuch, 2017). The TFM was developed in the course of research on the Big Five traits (Goldberg, 1990; McCrae & Costa, 2003) and can be treated either: (1) as its continuation and extension (DeYoung, 2015) or (2) as a step beyond this tradition, opening new possibilities for personality structure description (Strus & Cieciuch, 2017).
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... The IPC mostly emphasises motivations and behaviours, unlike emotions and cognitions, and grasps the aspects of Extraversion and Agreeableness to the greatest degree while simultaneously undervaluing the role of Neuroticism in interpersonal relations, which is crucial especially in the context of shyness. A much more extensive model on which we decided to lean when considering social inhibition is the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits (CPM; Strus, Cieciuch, & Rowiński, 2014;Strus & Cieciuch, 2017). Although the CPM is a theoretical model based on a trait-structural approach to personality, it possessed a specific synthetizing potential that makes it possible to integrate many personality, temperamental, emotional, motivational and mental health constructs and models (Strus et al., 2014). ...
... Although the CPM is a theoretical model based on a trait-structural approach to personality, it possessed a specific synthetizing potential that makes it possible to integrate many personality, temperamental, emotional, motivational and mental health constructs and models (Strus et al., 2014). And indeed, to date, empirical findings have supported such a potential of the CPM model (Strus & Cieciuch, 2017), additionally proving its value in understanding the relations among personality disorder categories, Dark Triad traits, various forms of narcissism, and other maladaptive or antisocial tendencies (Brud, Rogoza, & Cieciuch, 2020;Rogoza, Cieciuch, Strus, & Baran, 2019;Rogoza, Kowalski, & Schermer, 2019;Zawadzki, 2018 ...
... The CPM model (Strus et al., 2014;Strus & Cieciuch, 2017) is an outcome of searching for a complex, theoretically and empirically (i.e., both deductively and inductively; Cieciuch & Strus, 2017) justified framework that would allow for the comprehensive integration of narrower or more specific psychological constructs that capture personality and human functioning across various areas (emotional, motivational, interpersonal, etc.). Currently, such a prevailing taxonomy is the Big Five/FFM (McCrae & Costa, 2003) which is based on the assumption that human personality can be described and organised within five universal, broad, and orthogonal dimensions, i.e., Neuroticism (vs. ...
The purpose of this paper is to present a new model of social inhibition conceptualised as a dual structured construct including shyness and modesty. The complexity and diversity of these two social inhibition forms are shown across various domains of psychosocial functioning (i.e., self-image, cognitive, emotional, and behavioural). Locating shyness and modesty within the space of the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits enabled us to identify conceptually adjacent constructs to social inhibition (i.e., humiliation and humility) and put the latter into a broad personality context. Through supplementary meta-analyses of the relationships of shyness and modesty with the Big Five personality traits, we confront our theoretical proposition with existing empirical findings. Our paper indicates that social inhibition can be treated as a psychoso-cial disposition with two related and sharing core elements, but distinct and differentially targeted forms-more neurotic and dysfunctional shyness and more agreeable and adaptive modesty.
... Quite the contrary -we suggest an alternative view. Its essence is: (1) adoption of the framework of the Two Factor Model of personality (TFM; review in Cieciuch and Strus, 2017), extended to the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits (CPM; -as the basis for understanding and classification of SES in place of the previously adopted Big Five framework, and (2) introduction of the concept of personality competence, distinguished from SES and being a basis for organizing and developing many specific skills. ...
... The issue of the nonorthogonality of the Big Five discussed above led to the development of the Two Factor Model of personality (review in Cieciuch and Strus, 2017). Its essence, however, is not just the reduction in dimensions, but rather the identification of the basic mechanisms underlying personality dynamics (see Digman, 1997;DeYoung, 2006DeYoung, , 2015. ...
... As Cieciuch and Strus (2017) show, the TFM of personality integrates three quite different lines of psychological research. The first is the psycholexical research that originally led to the discovery of the Big Five in the English language (Goldberg, 1990), but replications in non-Germanic languages conducted since the 1990s have shown increasing problems with Big Five replicability. ...
In recent years, there has been a growing interest in social and emotional skills (SES) both in the scientific literature and in social practice. The paper presents an overview of the ways of understanding what SES are and the catalogs thereof. There are some attempts in the literature to organize these catalogs within the Big Five traits that for a long time was claimed to be the most sound model of basic orthogonal dimensions of personality. However, further research on personality structure revealed that two metatraits can be found above the Big Five traits. These two metatraits form the basis of the Two Factor Model of personality, which was later developed into the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits. It turned out that in certain aspects models based on metatraits have a greater theoretical potential than those based on the Big Five traits. The paper presents a proposal for describing SES from the perspective of the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits rather than the Big Five. In this framework, we distinguish the concept of personality competences that underlie and organize many specific SES and identify the core personality competencies on the basis of the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits model.
... The Big Five/FFM has recently been criticized for claims that the five personality dimensions are the very basic ones. There are two main lines of the critique: The first one challenges the number and proposes a sixth dimension [Honesty-Humility in HEXACO or Big Six model; (33)] while the second one challenges the orthogonality of basic dimensions and proposes two basic higher-order factors above the Big Five (34)(35)(36). Ashton and Lee (33) made a strong case for the Big Six/HEXACO model, demonstrating some advantages over the Big Five/FFM, and a better theoretical interpretation of personality variation (37)(38)(39). However, the pathological trait dimensions of the ICD-11 and DSM-5 are less congruent with the personality space of the Big Six/HEXACO than the Big Five/FFM. ...
... In contrast, the second line of the criticism against the Big Five/FFM seems to be much more promising for the conceptualization of the pathological traitdomains. Digman (34) as well as DeYoung et al. (35) describe the highest level of personality structure as being a compound of two very broad superfactors (called metatraits) located above the Big Five: Alpha/Stability (constituted by Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Emotional Stability) and Beta/Plasticity [comprised of Extraversion and Intellect/Openness; see (36)]. This Two-Factor Model of personality corresponds reversely to two broad classes (or factors) of psychopathology, namely externalizing and internalizing problems (40,41). ...
... This Two-Factor Model of personality corresponds reversely to two broad classes (or factors) of psychopathology, namely externalizing and internalizing problems (40,41). In turn, on the basis of this model, Strus et al. (42) have developed the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits (CPM), which has already manifested a strong integrative potential (9,36,43) and seems to be worth trying to use in the conceptualization of the pathological traits. ...
Both the ICD-11 and the DSM-5 (Section III) classification systems introduced dimensional models of personality disorders, with five broad domains called the Pathological Big Five. Nevertheless, despite large congruence between the two models, there are also substantial differences between them, with the most evident being the conceptualization of the fifth dimension: Anankastia in the ICD-11 vs. Psychoticism in the DSM-5. The current paper seeks an answer to the question of which domain is structurally better justified as the fifth trait in the dimensional model of personality disorders. For this purpose, we provided both a conceptual and empirical comparison of the ICD-11 and the DSM-5 models, adopting the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits—a comprehensive model of personality structure built on the basis of the higher-order factors of the Big Five—as a reference framework. Two studies were conducted: the first on a sample of 242 adults (52.9% female; Mage = 30.63, SDage = 11.82 years), and the second on a sample of 355 adults (50.1% female; Mage = 29.97, SDage = 12.26 years) from the non-clinical population. The Personality Inventory for ICD-11 (PiCD), the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5), and the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits Questionnaire–Short Form (CPM-Q-SF) were administered in both studies, together with the PID-5BF+M algorithm for measuring a common (ICD-11 + DSM-5) six-domain model. Obtained empirical findings generally support our conceptual considerations that the ICD-11 model more comprehensively covered the area of personality pathology than the DSM-5 model, with Anankastia revealed as a more specific domain of personality disorders as well as more cohesively located within the overall personality structure, in comparison to Psychoticism. Moreover, the results corroborated the bipolar relations of Anankastia vs. Disinhibition domains. These results also correspond with the pattern of relationships found in reference to the Big Five domains of normal personality, which were also included in the current research. All our findings were discussed in the context of suggestions for the content and conceptualization of pathological personality traits that flow from the CPM as a comprehensive model of personality structure including both pathological and normal poles of personality dimensions.
... Personality metatraits are combinations of shared variance of more basic personality scales, such as the Big Five or HEXACO (Anglim et al., 2020;Van der Linden et al., 2012). Research has revealed that the GFP is associated with the most optimal configuration of all functional aspects of personality, and as a result, the GFP is expected to reflect the socially desirable qualities facilitating functioning in a wide range of life situations, namely ego-resiliency, selfesteem, and self-assessed intelligence (Cieciuch & Strus, 2017;Musek, 2007;Zajenkowski et al., 2022). Research also indicated that the GFP is associated with well-being (Musek, 2007), a finding that might be unsurprising considering (1) the optimal configuration of the GFP and (2) that the basic personality traits are recognized as good predictors of psychological and subjective well-being (Anglim et al., 2020). ...
... However, the extent to which the GFP relates to psychological and social well-being has been underexplored. A substantive theoretical body of evidence suggests that the GFP is related to diverse socially desirable qualities (Cieciuch & Strus, 2017;Musek, 2007;Rushton & Irving, 2011;Zajenkowki et al., 2022). Therefore, we hypothesized that the GFP would be related either to the general factor of well-being or to its specific indicators. ...
Background
The general factor of personality is defined as a blend of socially desirable attributes of basic personality traits. It is related to a variety of socially desirable qualities, including emotional well-being. However, its relationship with psychological and social well-being has been underexplored.
Participants and procedure
Across three studies (N = 556, N = 448, N = 3,294) from three different countries (Poland, Spain, and USA), we show that the general factor of personality is highly related to a general factor of well-being and to its specific dimensions.
Results
Results from Study 1 confirmed this association using a basic measure of well-being (i.e., the Mental Health Continuum), results from Study 2 confirmed this association using six specific measures of well-being, while results from Study 3 repro-duced a congruent result using a large-scale community sample.
Conclusions
Our findings align with the existing literature stressing the positive link between the general factor of personality and as-pects of well-being.
... This process of construct development should be confronted with the current knowledge about personality structure. In personality psychology, there are many different models, whichas has been proposed for some time in the literature -can be integrated in the two-factor model of personality (DeYoung, 2015;Cieciuch and Strus, 2017), whose extension is the CPM (Strus et al., 2014;Strus and Cieciuch, 2017). This model offers a theoretical matrix that enables the synthesis and organization of various kinds of constructs, frequently also making it possible to conceptualize them more precisely. ...
... The CPM model is an extension of the two-factor model of personality (Digman, 1997;DeYoung et al., 2002;Cieciuch and Strus, 2017), depicting the structure of personality at the level of two higher-order factors (metatraits): Alpha (Stability) and Beta (Plasticity). Dimensions of Alpha and Beta constitute a system of orthogonal coordinates, in which Strus et al. (2014) additionally distinguished the dimensions of Gamma (being a reinterpretation of the general factor of personality; Musek, 2007) and Delta (being a discovery that the logic of this model led to). ...
In this paper, we have presented our proposal for reconceptualization and operationalization of Type C (cancer-prone) personality. Based on theoretical analyses, taking into account both the literature on Type C and models of personality structure, we have proposed a two-facet structure of Type C, comprising Submissiveness (the interpersonal aspect) and Restricted Affectivity (the intrapersonal aspect). The study devoted to the validation of the measure of Type C involved 232 participants aged 18-70 (M = 29.35, SD = 8.93; 54% male). We used (a) our proposed measure of Type C personality and (b) the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits Questionnaire (CPM-Q-SF; Strus and Cieciuch, 2017), assessing personality metatraits. The measure of Type C proved to have acceptable internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha was 0.85 for Submissiveness and 0.78 for Restricted Affectivity). The measurement model in confirmatory factor analysis with two latent variables proved to be well-fitted to the data. We have also confirmed the hypothesis concerning the location of the two facets of Type C personality close to each other in the theoretically predicted area between the Delta-Plus/Self-Restraint and Beta-Minus/Passiveness metatraits (in the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits). The clinical value of the theoretically refined Type C can be tested in the next step in research on patients with cancer.
... Model of personality (TFM; Cieciuch & Strus, 2017), which comprises two personality metatraits -the broadest dimensions of personality structure known as (1) stability (constellation of emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness), which refers to stability across the emotional, motivational, and social domains; and (2) plasticity (constellation of extraversion and openness to experience), which refers to behavioural and cognitive exploration and engagement (DeYoung, 2015;DeYoung, Peterson, & Higgins, 2002). They are characterized by a greater explanatory potential since they are biologically conditioned, so they enable an understanding of the mechanisms explaining human functioning, and have the potential to organize or integrate many other psychological constructs (Cieciuch & Strus, 2017;DeYoung, 2015;DeYoung et al., 2002). ...
... Model of personality (TFM; Cieciuch & Strus, 2017), which comprises two personality metatraits -the broadest dimensions of personality structure known as (1) stability (constellation of emotional stability, agreeableness, and conscientiousness), which refers to stability across the emotional, motivational, and social domains; and (2) plasticity (constellation of extraversion and openness to experience), which refers to behavioural and cognitive exploration and engagement (DeYoung, 2015;DeYoung, Peterson, & Higgins, 2002). They are characterized by a greater explanatory potential since they are biologically conditioned, so they enable an understanding of the mechanisms explaining human functioning, and have the potential to organize or integrate many other psychological constructs (Cieciuch & Strus, 2017;DeYoung, 2015;DeYoung et al., 2002). ...
Shyness and modesty are similar constructs, but to date no study has investigated their relationship empirically, hence the goal of this study was to examine this relationship and how shyness and modesty are related to the Big Five model of personality. We administered a set of self-report measures of shyness, modesty and Big Five personality traits to 727 adults in Poland. The results conformed our expectations, revealing that shyness and modesty are positively correlated traits. Moreover, in regard to Big Five personality traits, both of them were negatively related to extraversion and positively to neuroticism, but only modesty was positively related to agreeableness. Our findings are discussed in light of previous research and theory.
... Bardi, Schwartz, 2003;Grucza, Goldberg, 2007) uwzględniały pomiar zachowań pogrupowanych w wąskie znaczeniowo kategorie -odpowiadające cechom i wartościom podstawowym lub cechom niższego rzędu. Odkrycie czynników wyższego rzędu zarówno w strukturze cech osobowości (Cieciuch, Strus, 2017;Digman, 1997;Strus, Cieciuch, Rowiński, 2014), jak i w strukturze wartości osobistych (Cieciuch, Davidov, Vecchione, Schwartz, 2014) stwarza podstawy do przypuszczeń, że można je odnaleźć również w strukturze zachowań. Czynniki te mogłyby stanowić bardziej adekwatne kryterium dla czynników wyższego rzędu osobowości i wartości niż szczegółowe pomiary zachowania. ...
... Pewne propozycje interpretacyjne nasuwają się łatwiej w stosunku do rozwiązania dwuczynnikowego niż czteroczynnikowego. Jedną z możliwych interpretacji jest powiązanie tych dwóch szerokich klas zachowań z dwiema metacechami osobowości, odkrytymi jako czynniki wyższego rzędu Wielkiej Piątki cech osobowości (Cieciuch, Strus, 2017;Digman, 1997;DeYoung, Peterson, Higgins, 2002;zob. Strus, Cieciuch, 2014). ...
Self-reported purposive behaviors - measurement and structure
Abstract: The paper presents finding from analyses conducted in order to (a) prepare a pool of items measuring a wide range of purposive avocational behaviors and (b) empirically categorize these behaviors. The analyses were conducted on a pool of 209 statements describing behavioral acts and using a frequency response scale. The statements were taken from Oregon Avocational Interest Scales (ORAIS) by Goldberg (2010). The group of participants consisted of 801 people aged 16-72 (M = 29.71, SD = 12.69). A series of exploratory analyses was conducted on a reduced pool of items (by removing these poorly differentiating). As a result, 135 behavioral acts were grouped into 17 categories. Further analyses showed that these 17 categories can be grouped into 4 or 2 interpretable higher-order factors, which meaning is similar to personality metatraits.
... Over the past quarter-century, personality psychology has been dominated by theories of traits. There are several established and at the same time competing models of personality trait structure, such as the so-called Giant Three model by Eysenck [69], six-factor HEXACO model [70], or Two-Factor Model of higher-order personality factors [71,72]. However, the Five-Factor Model, which is also known as the Big Five [11,62,73], is the prevailing conceptualization of personality structure and its basic dimensions. ...
The aim of this paper is to investigate the influence of personality traits, characterized by the BFI (Big Five Inventory) and its significant revision called BFI-2, on music recommendation error. The BFI-2 describes the lower-order facets of the Big Five personality traits. We performed experiments with 279 participants, using an application (called Music Master) we developed for music listening and ranking, and for collecting personality profiles of the users. Additionally, 29-dimensional vectors of audio features were extracted to describe the music files. The data obtained from our experiments were used to test several hypotheses about the influence of personality traits and the audio features on music recommendation error. The performed analyses take into account three types of ratings that refer to the cognitive-emotional, motivational, and social components of the attitude towards the song. The experiments showed that every combination of Big Five personality traits produces worse results than using lower-order personality facets. Additionally, we found a small subset of personality facets that yielded the lowest recommendation error. This finding can condense the personality questionnaire to only the most essential questions. The collected data set is publicly available and ready to be used by other researchers.
... However, it is interesting to see the same relationship between neuroticism and conscientiousness when only the voice module is active. Several studies have identified two meta-traits above the five OCEAN dimensions through subsequent factor analysis [Cieciuch and Strus 2017;DeYoung et al. 2002]. The two meta-traits group extraversion with openness, and conscientiousness with agreeableness and neuroticism. ...
Consistently exhibited personalities are crucial elements of realistic, engaging, and behavior-rich conversational virtual agents. Both nonverbal and verbal cues help convey these agents’ unseen psychological states, contributing to our effective communication with them. We introduce a comprehensive framework to design conversational agents that express personality through non-verbal behaviors like body movement and facial expressions, as well as verbal behaviors like dialogue selection and voice transformation. We use the OCEAN personality model, which defines personality as a combination of five orthogonal factors of openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism. The framework combines existing personality expression methods with novel ones such as new algorithms to convey Laban Shape and Effort qualities. We perform Amazon Mechanical Turk studies to analyze how different communication modalities influence our perception of virtual agent personalities and compare their individual and combined effects on each personality dimension. The results indicate that our personality-based modifications are perceived as natural, and each additional modality improves perception accuracy, with the best performance achieved when all the modalities are present. We also report some correlations for the perception of conscientiousness with neuroticism and openness with extraversion.
... Personal values are guidance affecting the people's goals and actions (Schwartz, 1992). Personal values also are closely related to the individual's motivations and help explain innovative behavior (Cieciuch, 2017). Ahmed (1998) developed a list of personal traits that are related directly or indirectly to innovation, which shows the diversity, and complexity of the innovation on the individual level. ...
This study aims to investigate the impact of Innovation Climate on Innovative Work Behaviour (IWB) in Public Sector Laboratories in Bahrain. Literature review and pilot interviews with 10 public lab officials conducted that led to determining five organizational factors and two individual factors that may have an impact on IWB. The organizational factors were work characteristics, management support, co-worker support, resources, and rewards & appreciation. The individual factors include personal traits and work passion. Personal traits of “The Big five” model adopted to evaluate personal traits as individual factors. Therefore, an online survey has been developed and distributed to employees of the public sector laboratories and 104 valid responses were collected. The results revealed that there is a significant impact of extraversion and agreeableness on IWB. In addition, work passion has a significant relationship with IWB. Moreover, Co-worker support and work characteristics have a significant impact on IWB. Overall, both organizational climate and individual climate have a significant impact on innovative work behavior in the public sector. This study offers policymakers and decision makers generally, and laboratory managers specifically a road map for how to develop and maintain employee's innovative behavior before and after the recruitment process. It allows managers to prioritize their effort on developing employee's personality traits that fit IWB and being selective of organizational factors that are highly related to IWB. This study fills the knowledge gap in understanding innovation climate and innovative work behavior in Bahrain public sector. It brings new insights by combining both individual and organizational factors of innovation climate, which were missing in the extant literature.
... In fact, these systematic correlations between basic traits already gave rise to the postulation of, for example, a two-factor model of personality assuming the existence of the broader personality factors located above FFM or HEXACO dimensions (cf. Cieciuch & Strus, 2017;DeYoung, Peterson, & Higgins, 2002;Digman, 1990). One higher order factor was found to reflect the shared variance of Neuroticism, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness, and the other one the shared variance of Extraversion and Openness. ...
We provide evidence on the convergence of language-based questionnaire and biological perspectives on personality traits. The first study, conducted on Serbian students, provided evidence on the position of Panksepp’s Affective Neuroscience Personality Scales (ANPS) in the personality space defined by HEXACO facets. The second, replicatory study was conducted on a sample of German young adults. Results show that the instruments based on these 2 approaches target highly similar personality phenomena, which is revealed in the high canonical correlations between them (the first 3 being above .70 in both samples). Despite the overlap, the scales measuring emotional systems do not map onto HEXACO factors one-to-one, and mostly have substantial loading on more than 1 HEXACO factor. The pattern of correlations between HEXACO and ANPS scales was highly similar in the 2 samples. The importance of the findings for the personality taxonomy and theory is discussed.
... Although the relationship with neuroticism is not obvious, as the meta-analysis of Muris et al. (2017) provides support that the Dark Triad traits are uncorrelated with neuroticism, the study of DeShong et al. (2017) provided evidence that each of the Dark Triad traits are related to the angry hostility facet of neuroticism. Because personality traits have hierarchical structure, the relations were analyzed at a different level of the structure, including the level below the basic traits or values (McCrae and Costa 1997) and above the basic traits, the so called higher-order traits (Cieciuch and Strus 2017) or higher-order values (Schwartz et al. 2012). Also, it is worth noting that the Dark Triad traits, similarly to the basic personality traits can also adapt hierarchical structure, which makes such comparisons more meaningful; however, so far the empirical verification of the hierarchical structure was limited to narcissism as measured by the NPI (Ackerman et al. 2015). ...
In the present research we investigated the structure of the Dark Triad of personality. On the basis of analyses performed on a broad spectrum of different items from different measures of traits usually included into the Dark Triad we provided support for the ideas that: (1) narcissism and the Dark Dyad are independent constructs; (2) it is possible to differentiate twelve meaningful dark facets in the pool of dark items from various measure of psychopathy, Machiavellianism and narcissism; (3) these facets could be organized within a hierarchical structure, which suggests that Machiavellianism as it is currently measured is an aspect of psychopathy in a similar manner as exhibitionism is an aspect of narcissism; (4) distinguished facets are organized in a theoretically predictable pattern of relations with basic personality traits and values, just as narcissism and the Dark Dyad are related to personality metatraits and higher order values.
... Metatraits were identified by Digman (1997) but were also later described by DeYoung (2006DeYoung ( , 2010. They are higher-order factors built upon the five basic personality traits (neuroticism, extraversion, openness, conscientiousness, and agreeableness) and are responsible for the intercorrelations between these traits (Digman, 1997;Strus et al., 2014;Cieciuch and Strus, 2017;cf. Strus and Cieciuch, 2017). ...
This article examines the structure of character strengths (Peterson and Seligman, 2004) following both variable-centered and person-centered approaches. We used the International Personality Item Pool-Values in Action (IPIP-VIA) questionnaire. The IPIP-VIA measures 24 character strengths and consists of 213 direct and reversed items. The present study was conducted in a heterogeneous group of N = 908 Poles (aged 18–78, M = 28.58). It was part of a validation project of a Polish version of the IPIP-VIA questionnaire. The variable-centered approach was used to examine the structure of character strengths on both the scale and item levels. The scale-level results indicated a four-factor structure that can be interpreted based on four of the five personality traits from the Big Five theory (excluding neuroticism). The item-level analysis suggested a slightly different and limited set of character strengths (17 not 24). After conducting a second-order analysis, a four-factor structure emerged, and three of the factors could be interpreted as being consistent with the scale-level factors. Three character strength profiles were found using the person-centered approach. Two of them were consistent with alpha and beta personality metatraits. The structure of character strengths can be described by using categories from the Five Factor Model of personality and metatraits. They form factors similar to some personality traits and occur in similar constellations as metatraits. The main contributions of this paper are: (1) the validation of IPIP-VIA conducted in variable-centered approach in a new research group (Poles) using a different measurement instrument; (2) introducing the person-centered approach to the study of the structure of character strengths.
This study examined the predictors of two higher factors of personality (Alpha and Beta) using a large nationally representative sample. In total, we had 5,476 participants data on family social status measured at birth, childhood intelligence ability assessed at age 11 years, behavioral problems and leisure activities (sports and parties) at age 16 years, psychological distress at age 23 years, optimism and educational qualifications at age 33 years, occupational prestige at age 42 years, and Big Five personality measured at age 50 years. We combined Big Five scores into Alpha and Beta factors. Correlational analysis showed that childhood intelligence, teenager behavioral problems and leisure activities, psychological distress, optimism, educational qualifications, and occupational prestige were all significant correlates of the Alpha and Beta factors. Structural equation modeling (SEM) showed that childhood intelligence, teenage behavioral problems, education and occupation as well as optimism were the direct predictors of the latent Alpha factor; and that childhood intelligence, education and occupation, psychological distress, and optimism were the direct predictors of the latent Beta factor. Gender was significantly associated with both Alpha and Beta factors. Implications and limitations are acknowledged.
We propose a model of basic self‐regulatory mechanisms that integrates descriptive‐structural and dynamic‐explanatory approaches to personality. Using a structural way of thinking and based on a structural model of personality (the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits) we deduced two orthogonal (distinct) but interactive mechanisms: (a) Impulse Control responsible for controlling automatically activated impulses, urges, and affective reactions and (b) Self‐Motivation responsible for regulating intentions in goal‐oriented behaviors. Their operation depends on both situational and dispositional factors and optimal functioning of both mechanisms is needed for effective regulation of behavior. People can also be characterized by relatively stable levels of Impulse Control and Self‐Motivation as dispositions, which depend on temperamental predispositions but can develop incoherently with them due to the impact of environmental factors. Combinations of Impulse Control and Self‐Motivation as dispositions result in personality types, which differ in their adaptiveness. Importantly, Impulse Control and Self‐Motivation mechanisms reveal substantial similarities to other self‐regulatory constructs described in the literature, particularly those included in Block and Block’s, as well as Kuhl’s theories. The contribution of our paper may serve as an example of how to apply the descriptive‐structural approach to develop a dynamic‐explanatory model of personality.
The paper explores the hierarchical structure of temperament with the inclusion of a wide catalog of temperamental constructs derived from eight different theoretical models. Analyses were conducted on a group of 412 participants aged from 16 to 79 (Mage = 28.49, SDage = 11.64), administrating nine well-established measures of temperament, with a representation of 34 different constructs. An eight-level hierarchical structure of temperament was obtained using a top-down procedure. The results are discussed twofold: (1) relating the subsequent levels of the obtained structure to the existing theories and models of temperament, and (2) regarding possible identification of the most general dimensions of temperament, that percolate the abundant catalogs of its specific constructs. The latter—considering both an empirical and theoretical perspectives—resulted in the emergence of the Big Two broad factors, being recognized as two fundamental dimensions of temperament. The first factor (Neuroticism/Emotionality) refers to general (negative) emotionality and susceptibility to react with negative affect, whereas the second (Extraversion/Sensation Seeking) is expressed in broadly understood activity and its diversity, as well as high stimuli value of functioning.
CelCelem artykułu była analiza problemów z wdrożeniami w psychologii, refleksja nad proweniencją tych problemów oraz poszukiwanie sposobów ich przezwyciężania. Prezentowane tezy zostały zilustrowane przykładem wdrożenia, jakim było wykorzystania Kołowego Modelu Metacech Osobowości do kompleksowej diagnozy osobowości oraz funkcjonowania emocjonalno-społecznego dzieci i młodzieży. W ramach wdrożenia powstał rozbudowany model teoretyczny oraz narzędzia do badania łącznie 36 zmiennych w różnych okresach rozwojowych, obejmujących zakres od 1 do 25 roku życia, wraz z materiałami postdiagnostycznymi do interwencji sprofilowanej według uzyskanych wyników diagnostycznych. Tezy– Teza nr 1: Negatywny stosunek do wdrożeń żywi się toposem uczonego jako obserwatora i poszukiwacza prawdy (czyli dziedzictwo Pitagorasa). – Teza nr 2: Pozytywny stosunek do wdrożeń jest immanentnie obecny w nauce od początku (czyli dziedzictwo m.in. Platona i Arystotelesa). – Teza nr 3: Współczesny problem z horyzontem wdrożeniowym nauki jest konsekwencją daleko idącej specjalizacji naukowej (czyli Pitagorejskie usprawiedliwienie). – Teza nr 4: Wdrożeniowe kryterium doboru problemów badawczych jest obarczone ryzykiem fragmentaryzacji uzyskiwanych odpowiedzi (czyli umysł naukowca jako pandemonium Miltona/Selfridge’a). – Teza nr 5: Aby zmaksymalizować wykorzystanie potencjału naukowców w celach wdrożeniowych, potrzebna jest nowa funkcja: agenta-menadżera (podobnie jak jest to w przypadku artystów). KonkluzjeNauka i wdrożenie zsynchronizowane w duchu raczej Arystotelesowskim niż Pitagorejskim – mogą przynieść duże korzyści zarówno naukowe, jak i praktyczne. O możliwości takiej synchronizacji świadczą przypadki udanych wdrożeń, ale aby stały się one raczej regułą niż wyjątkiem – potrzebne są również zmiany systemowe.
The paper presents a new model of temperament structure that: (1) is built on the crucial assumptions of the Regulative Theory of Temperament, (2) incorporates the so called temperamental Big Two, (3) and uses the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits to precisely conceptualize the basic temperamental dimensions of Reactivity and Activity. As a result, the new model balancedly differentiates between energetic and temporal aspects of temperamental characteristics both at the conceptual and measurement level. In order to empirically verify the model, a new questionnaire measuring all assumed variables was developed and used together with a set of 10 well-established measures of temperament (including Formal Characteristic of Behavior – Temperament Inventory – Revised) in a sample of 412 participants (55.5% females; Mage = 28.49, SDage = 11.64). The obtained results support the validity of the new temperament measure, synthesizing potential of the new model, as well as the claim that Reactivity and Activity (in our conceptualization and operationalization) can indeed be treated as fundamental dimensions of temperament, as they turned out to be highly correlated (≈ .80) with two factors extracted from all other temperamental measures used in the study. Theoretical implications and possibilities of the new model are discussed.
Personality types are currently understood as basic configurations of personality traits from the Big Five model. However, to date, research has provided inconsistent results as to the number and content of personality types. The broadest support was found for the three-type RUO (Resilient-Undercontrolled-Overcontrolled) typology, but many studies indicate the existence of four or five basic personality types. The prevalence of an exploratory orientation in research on personality types was identified as the main cause of these inconsistencies, and the need for a well-justified theoretical basis for the personality typology was observed. The current study examines the predictions resulting from the four-type RUNO (Resilient-Undercontrolled-Nonresilient-Overcontrolled) typology-a proposal built on the Two Factor Model of personality and its extension: the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits. We used various measurement instruments (11 questionnaires to measure Big Five traits), samples (five samples with a total of 4430 respondents) and statistical procedures (cluster analyses on row and standardized data) testing the three-type, four-type and five-type solutions. We expected that although the robustness of the empirically derived type-solutions across different research conditions will be limited (in accordance with the previous studies), the configurations of each type found in the Big Five data will be in a concordance with the RUNO typology. Obtained results roughly confirmed our expectations. We conclude that a renewed focus on the theoretical basis of personality typology seems to be necessary to further advance this field of research and the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits enables the essential turn from an exploratory approach (usually used in the previous studies) to a theoretically driven approach (proposed by us in the current study) to personality typology.
The current literature on personality types-understood as basic configurations of the Big Five's personality traits-provides inconsistent results. The most commonly reported, three-type RUO (Resilient-Undercontrolled-Overcontrolled) solution is not definitive, as other solutions are also" often obtained. The current paper starts from reviewing and discussing the inconsistencies found in the previous results as well as in the RUO typology itself. The prevalence of an exploratory orientation in research on personality type was interpreted as the main cause of these problems. Then, we proposed a solution by using the Two Factor Model of personality and its extension-the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits-as the theoretical foundation for a four-type RUNO typology (Resilient-Undercontrolled-Nonresilient-Overcontrolled). The paper presents the RUNO personality typology and its theoretical consequences-in particular, we argue that the RUNO (a) is the most theoretically justified, and therefore, empirically expected solution, (b) allows us to explain why the three-type RUO solution is so commonly obtained, and (c) helps to solve some other problems that have arisen in the literature (e.g., with "typeness").
A theoretical model of the vulnerable half of the Narcissism Spectrum Model (NSM) – the Vulnerable Isolation and Enmity Concept (VIEC) is presented in this paper. In five studies (total N = 2,383), we show the personality underpinnings of the VIEC in terms of normal and pathological personality and explore the social relations of liking others and being liked. Isolation explains the role of avoidance and social withdrawal, whereas Enmity explains the role of reactive antagonism in vulnerable narcissism. We suggest that vulnerable narcissism is related to internalizing and grandiose narcissism to externalizing pathology. Through the prism of the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits, we argue that the VIEC together with the narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry concept (NARC) covers the whole NSM.
Previous research has attempted to derive arguments for the categorization of traits as 'dark' without theoretical justification or rationalizations. We begin with a description of current conceptualizations of the darkness of traits followed by a new perspective on the catalogue of dark personality traits and the theoretical boundaries of different shades of darkness within the broader personality structure. Finally, we address the redundancy problem observed within the field on dark personality traits. Our analyses are offered as a guide to future research towards a more parsimonious and useful set of criteria (a "compass" of sorts) for inclusion within the "dark" cluster. Despite the interest and active research focused on the Dark Triad (Paulhus & Williams, 2002), a number of crucial questions remain unanswered. In particular, what does 'dark' mean in the context of personality traits. How do we know what traits belong in this 'dark' category? How can we make consistent and objective decisions on which trait to include in this category? This article seeks to address these questions using the Circumplex Model of Personality Metatraits (CPM; Strus et al., 2014) as a framework for dark traits. In this paper, we will integrate current theoretical and empirical findings in the dark personality and CPM literatures to propose a possible resolution to another salient controversy: the issue of redundancy of the Dark Triad traits.
Circumplex of Identity Formation Modes: Theoretical Assumptions and Empirical Verification The article presents theoretical assumptions and summarizes the results of research on the Circumplex of Identity Formation Modes. The model was created as an attempt to synthesize knowledge on identity formation gathered in the stream of research initiated by James E. Marcia (1966), based on the Erik H. Erikson’s (1959) theory of psychosocial development. In the model: (1) the key concept is the identity formation mode, (2) traditional categories of exploration and commitment have been redefined and used as basic axes to distinguish eight identity formation modes, between which relationships are precisely defined in accordance with the rules of the circumplex model, (3) due to redefinition of exploration and commitment, the model can be used in research on personal identity in various developmental periods, and (4) the place of identity variables in the personality structure has been precisely defined. Circumplex of Identity Formation Modes was introduced to international literature and research on its verification and usefulness was conducted (Cieciuch, Topolewska, 2017; Topolewska, Cieciuch, 2017; Topolewska-Siedzik, Cieciuch, 2018, 2019; Topolewska-Siedzik, Cieciuch, Strus, 2019).
Objective
There is a considerable body of evidence from the last 20 years indicating the need of reconceptualization of the highest level of personality structure that the Big Five/Five Factor Model (FFM; McCrae & Costa, 2003) was assumed to occupy. The main goal of the presented study was to test the relationships between two models that have been developed in this respect: The Circumplex of Personality Metatraits (CPM; Strus & Cieciuch, 2017), based on the higher‐order factors of the Big Five, and the HEXACO model (Ashton & Lee, 2007) including a sixth basic personality dimension (Honesty‐Humility).
Method
The sample consisted of 500 respondents (56.8% females; Mage 31.9, SDage = 14.0), all of whom completed the CPM, HEXACO, and FFM measures.
Results
The results corroborated the expectation that the HEXACO model can be coherently located within the CPM model, despite the latter is rooted in the FFM research tradition. However, this substantial integration has been made possible by a relatively slight but crucial modification of the CPM, already suggested by previous research (Strus & Cieciuch, 2017).
Conclusion
After the modification, which concerned the location of the Neuroticism/Emotional stability trait, the CPM enables a comprehensive integration of major models of personality structure encompassing the Two Factor Model, FFM, and the HEXACO.
A substantial body of evidence has identified higher-order factors above the five basic dimensions of personality known as the Big Five. Indeed, two higher-order factors, and also one General Factor of Personality (GFP), have been found in many studies in data collected by using instruments intended to measure the Big Five in the Five-Factor Model (FFM) framework. To date, however, there is a lack of studies that apply the methodology for identifying higher-order factors of the Big Five/FFM to the Big Six/HEXACO model, even though the latter is currently deemed a serious alternative to the former. The goal of the presented studies was to fill this gap. Namely, we tested whether similar higher-order factors to those identified above the Big Five/FFM can be found above the Big Six/HEXACO basic personality traits by applying analytical methods elaborated within the Big Five/FFM framework. We conducted two studies: one with 805 participants, and another with 502 respondents, using three different Big Six/HEXACO measures and three Big Five/FFM measures. The obtained results suggest the existence of two higher-order factors in the Big Six/HEXACO, similar to those found in the Big Five/FFM, and indicate no presence of the GFP in the former.
The objective of the current study was to examine the relations between narcissism and Adler’s community feeling. Based on theoretical considerations, we claim that community feeling can be treated as an opposite pole of narcissism and we expected that: (1) both grandiose and vulnerable narcissism would be negatively related to community feeling and that (2) grandiose and vulnerable narcissism would be positively related to anti-community domination and isolation. A sample of 520 university students (Mage = 21.37, SDage = 4.31) completed the Community Feeling Questionnaire (CFQ), the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire (NARQ) and the Hypersensitive Narcissism Scale (HSNS). Structural equation modeling largely confirmed our expectations. These results suggest that narcissism can be understood in terms of a deficit in community feeling. It turned out that community feeling and narcissism are related constructs but they are not reducible to each other.
The Dark Triad of personality is most commonly studied model of dark personality traits. The current study attempts to empirically compare the Dark Triad to other catalog of dark personality traits, namely the seven deadly sins, and locate them within the broader model of personality – the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits model. We examined this problem from two perspectives: self- (N = 280) and other-report (N = 412) using the Short Dark Triad, Vices and Virtues Scales, and the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits Questionnaire. The Dark Triad and the seven deadly sins were substantially interrelated. Moreover, both analyzed models of dark personality traits were strongly associated with Alpha-Minus (both, in self- and other-report), providing evidence about their dark character. The expected locations within the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits were generally supported, nevertheless there were some discrepancies between self- and other report. Results of our study reveals that the Dark Triad of personality does not fully exhaust the possible catalog of the dark personality and future research is needed to fill this gap.
In the current study, we looked for the relations between broad personality dimensions (metatraits of personality and higher‐order values) and everyday behaviours. We asked participants (N = 374; aged 17 to 53, Mage = 23.72) about their current behaviour, followed by questions on situational context (company and perceived autonomy) seven times per day for seven consecutive days, using an experience sampling mobile app. This method allowed us to capture a wide range of descriptions of behavioural acts (n = 13 873), which were then empirically categorized. Personality metatraits distinguished within the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits (i.e. Stability vs. Disinhibition, Plasticity vs. Passiveness, Integration vs. Disharmony, and Self‐Restraint vs. Sensation‐Seeking) and values from the refined model of Schwartz et al. (Openness to Change vs. Conservation and Self‐Transcendence vs. Self‐Enhancement) were measured by self‐descriptive questionnaires. Multilevel logistic regressions with multiple predictors, including traits and values simultaneously, revealed significant effects or tendencies for 20 of the 35 categories of activities, five kinds of company, and perceived autonomy. The best predictors of activities and situational context were the higher‐order values Openness to Change vs. Conservation. © 2020 European Association of Personality Psychology
Circumplex models are widely utilized in the field of personality and individual differences research. Although within the literature one could find many suggestions on how to analyze such models, none of them are comprehensive enough. Within the current paper we propose a three-step procedure, which will systematize and standardize the analysis of circumplex models and the localization of external variables within such circumplex models. First, we propose to verify the underlying circumplex structure through structural equation modeling. Second, we propose to test the possibility to locate external variables in the space of the empirical circumplex model through the investigation of their structural summary profiles. Finally, we propose to test the congruence between empirical locations and theoretical predictions within the circumplex structure through the Procrustes rotation. The three-step procedure is described using the example of narcissism embedded within the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits model. This paper is supplemented by pedagogical tutorials assisting other researchers in applying the three-step procedure to their own data.
The Big Two personality factors were identified independently in questionnaire (Stability and Plasticity) and in psycho-lexical studies (Social Self-Regulation and Dynamism), but despite the close correspondence between them, the existing results are inconclusive as to the degree of their similarity. The presented study involved 692 participants (55.3% females; Mage=31.5, SDage=13.1) who completed a set of instruments measuring the most general personality dimensions to clarify the relationship between the questionnaire and the psycho-lexical Big Twos within the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits (CPM). It was shown that both Big Twos can be deemed slightly different manifestations of the personality metatraits identified within the CPM. Thus, the obtained results suggest a possibility for renewed integration of the questionnaire and the psycho-lexical traditions of research on personality structure.
The current paper presents a proposal for integrating different narcissism constructs (grandiose, vulnerable , communal, and collective) within the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits (CPM), an integrative model of personality structure that could also be used to accommodate the narcissism spectrum model. The study was conducted on a community sample (N = 781 adults). The theoretically predicted locations of the different narcissism constructs within the CPM space were empirically verified using the structural summary method. We found that grandiose, vulnerable , and communal narcissism can be meaningfully located within the CPM, while the status of collective narcis-sism remains unclear. Thus, the CPM can serve as a personality matrix explaining the differences and similarities between the various faces of narcissism.
Background
The Five-Factor Obsessive-Compulsive Inventory – Short Form (FFOCI-SF) is an instrument used to measure obsessive-compulsive personality disorder, which is one of the most widespread personality disorders. The FFOCI-SF is a shorter version of the FFOCI that was developed on the basis of the Five Factor Model of per-sonality treated as a general framework for identifying different traits useful in describing maladaptive person-ality. This paper presents the psychometric parameters of the Polish adaptation of the FFOCI-SF.
Participants and procedure
Our sample consisted of 328 respondents aged 18-75 (61% women) from Poland. The voluntary and anony-mous procedure consisted of completing inventories in a self-reported, paper-and-pencil way. The respondents received the FFOCI-SF, the Personal Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5) and the Big Five Inventory-2 (BFI-2).
Results
The findings suggest that there is acceptable internal consistency for most of the scales and some problems with the differentiation between some scales in factor analysis. Additionally, we present the hierarchical struc-ture of the facets included in the instrument with two factors analogous to the metatraits of personality (Alpha and Beta). The criterion validity of the inventory was established by correlations on the one hand with Big Five traits (BFI-2) and on the other hand with another measure of the obsessive-compulsive personality disorder traits, namely appropriate scales from the Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5).
Conclusions
This study confirms that the FFOCI-SF is a valid measure for scientific purposes. In order to use it for diagnostic purposes, further research is suggested on clinical samples. The findings also suggest that the FFOCI-SF can be useful in exploring new solutions in structure of the obsessive-compulsive personality disorder facets.
The present study attempts to locate the Dark Triad traits within the space of the Circumplex Model of Personality Metatraits. The study was conducted on a sample of 339 adolescents (48.2% females) in Poland, which were administered the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits Questionnaire and two measures of the Dark Triad traits, the Short Dark Triad (Jones & Paulhus, 2014) and the Narcissistic Admiration and Rivalry Questionnaire (Back et al., 2013). We hypothesized that psychopathy and Machiavellianism will be located near Alpha-Minus (Disinhibition), while narcissism will be located near Delta-Minus (Sensation Seeking). Moreover, we expected that the two narcissistic strategies of narcissistic admiration and rivalry will be located near Beta-Plus (Plasticity) and Alpha-Minus respectively. The hypotheses were tested using the Structural Summary Method, of which the results mostly corroborated our expectations. The overlap of Machiavellianism and psychopathy, as well as narcissism’s place in the Dark Triad are discussed.
The present study investigates eight identity formation modes (Socialization, Consolidation, Exploration, Moratorivity, Defiance, Diffusion, Normativity) from the Circumplex of Identity Formation Modes (CIFM; Cieciuch & Topolewska, 2017) in 13 age groups from emerging to late adulthood (N = 3216 adults aged 18–65). The results suggest that CIFM modes associated with cohesive identity development increase with age and that CIFM identity formation modes associated with negative identity and anxiety decrease in subsequent age groups. However, the CIFM mode associated with identity activity, i.e Exploration and its opposite pole — Petrification show a curvilinear trend with age. Finally, the mean-level of the Diffusion mode is the same across all age groups. The study confirms that the CIFM's eight identity formation modes represent qualitatively distinct approaches to identity formation, which differ between age groups in a theoretically consistent manner.
The aims of this study were to compare (a) personality traits vs personal values, (b) Five-Factor Model (FFM) vs HEXACO model of personality traits, and (c) broad vs narrow personality constructs in terms of their relationship with the frequency of everyday behaviors. These relationships were analyzed at three organizational levels of self-reported behavior: (a) single behavioral acts, (b) behavioral components (empirically derived categories of similar behaviors), and (c) two higher-order factors. The study was conducted on a Polish sample (N = 532, age range 16–72). We found that (a) even the frequencies of single behavioral acts were related to various personality constructs instead of one narrow trait or value, (b) personality traits and personal values were comparable as predictors of a wide range of everyday behaviors, (c) HEXACO correlated with the frequency of behaviors slightly higher than FFM, and (d) narrow and broad personality constructs did not differ substantially as predictors of everyday behavior at the levels of acts and components, but at the level of higher-order behavioral factors, broad personality measures were better predictors than narrow ones.
Identity formation is a dynamic process during adolescence. Trajectories of identity formation were assessed longitudinally in early and middle adolescents, taking into account the personality underpinnings of this process. Identity formation was conceptualized according to the circumplex of identity formation modes. The model distinguishes basic modes rooted in Marcia’s categories of exploration and commitment. Plasticity and stability, the two higher order Big Five meta-traits, were used to assess personality underpinnings. This study includes five measurement waves over 1.5 years and involves 1,839 Polish participants; 914 early adolescents (53.9% girls) and 925 middle adolescents (63.8% girls). The results suggest that (1) the four identity formation modes change dynamically, showing linear and curvilinear growth and that (2) identity formation mode trajectories are more dynamic in middle adolescence than in early adolescence. The results also showed that, in the conditional model, (3) the higher-order personality factors and gender affect the growth factors of identity formation modes. Overall, trajectories of identity formation modes are more linear during early adolescence and more curvilinear during middle adolescence. The initial levels in identity trajectories are influenced by the personality metatraits but only plasticity is related to change among early adolescents.
The Big Five model describes the structure of personality as 5 orthogonal and universal dimensions. Although the model has gained significant empirical support both in the psycholexical and questionnaire approaches, it is not free of criticism. The controversies concern the main assumptions regarding the structure of personality, among others the number of basic traits and their orthogonality. It turns out that 2 higher-order factors (also called metatraits) Alpha and Beta, or even 1 General Factor of Personality (GFP) are located above the 5 traits and account for systematical intercorrelations between these basic dimensions. The present article describes the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits (CPM), a proposal based on the knowledge gathered in the Big Five research tradition and solving some problems raised both in psycholexical and psychometric approaches. According to the model, metatraits can be described within a circumplex that is organized by 2 orthogonal dimensions: Alpha and Beta. Furthermore, we also introduce to the model 2 other metatraits: Gamma and Delta. On one hand these correspond to the personality types, and on the other they resolve the controversies related to the GFP. The main advantage of the CPM model is that it provides foundations for wide-ranging theoretical integration: (a) of the trait (disposition) approach to personality with those personality theories that make use of dynamic and explanatory theoretical constructs; (b) of various models of personality, temperament, emotion, motivation, and psychopathology; and (c) of the traditions of personality description in terms of traits and in terms of types. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved)
We summarize and integrate a large body of research showing that agency and communion
constitute two fundamental dimensions of content in social cognition. Agentic content
refers to goal-achievement and task functioning (competence, assertiveness,
decisiveness), whereas communal content refers to the maintenance of relationships
and social functioning (benevolence, trustworthiness,morality).Wepresent a Dual Perspective
Model of Agency and Communion (DPM-AC) developed to show that the two dimensions
are differently linked to the basic perspectives in social interaction, that is, the actor
versus the observer/recipient perspectives. We review numerous research confirming
three general hypotheses of the DPM. First, communal content is primary among the
fundamental dimensions. Second, in the observer/recipient perspective (perception of
others), communal content receives more weight than agentic content. Third, in the actor
perspective (self-perception), agentic content receives more weight than communal content.
Wethen discuss the complex issues of relations of agency and communion to valence
as well as associations between agency and communion. Although they are logically
independent and their inferences are based on different cues, the two content dimensions
of meaning frequently function as psychological alternatives in social cognition.
Cybernetics, the study of goal-directed, adaptive systems, is the best framework for an integrative theory of personality. Cybernetic Big Five Theory attempts to provide a comprehensive, synthetic, and mechanistic explanatory model. Constructs that describe psychological individual differences are divided into personality traits, reflecting variation in the parameters of evolved cybernetic mechanisms, and characteristic adaptations, representing goals, interpretations, and strategies defined in relation to an individual’s particular life circumstances. The theory identifies mechanisms in which variation is responsible for traits in the top three levels of a hierarchical trait taxonomy based on the Big Five and describes the causal dynamics between traits and characteristic adaptations. Lastly, the theory links function and dysfunction in traits and characteristic adaptations to psychopathology and well-being.
The literature on personality traits and defense mechanisms suggests individual differences in two self-favoring tendencies, which we label “egoistic bias” and “moralistic bias.” The two biases are self-deceptive in nature and can be traced to two fundamental values, agency and communion, that impel two corresponding motives, nPower and nApproval. The two sequences of values, motives, and biases form two personality constellations, Alpha and Gamma. Associated with Alpha is an egoistic bias, a self-deceptive tendency to exaggerate one's social and intellectual status. This tendency leads to unrealistically positive self-perceptions on such traits as dominance, fearlessness, emotional stability, intellect, and creativity. Self-perceptions of high Alpha scorers have a narcissistic, “superhero” quality. Associated with Gamma is a moralistic bias, a self-deceptive tendency to deny socially deviant impulses and to claim sanctimonious “saint-like” attributes. This tendency is played out in overly positive self-perceptions on such traits as agreeableness, dutifulness, and restraint. The Alpha-Gamma conception provides an integrative framework for a number of central issues in personality psychology.
Contents: Facts and Theories of Adult Development. A Trait Approach to Personality. Measuring Personality. The Search for Growth or Decline in Personality. Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Personality and Aging. The Course of Personality Development in the Individual. Stability Reconsidered: Qualifications and Rival Hypotheses. A Different View: Ego Psychologies and Projective Methods. Adult Development as Seen through the Personal Interview. A Five-Factor Theory of Personality. The Influences of Personality on the Life Course.
In the 45 years since Cattell used English trait terms to begin the formulation of his “description of personality,” a number of investigators have proposed an alternative structure based on 5 orthogonal factors. The generality of this 5-factor model is here demonstrated across unusally comprehensive sets of trait terms. In the first 3 studies, 1,431 trait adjectives grouped into 75 clusters were analyzed; virtually identical structures emerged in 10 replications, each based on a different factor-analytic procedure. A 2nd study of 479 common terms grouped into 133 synonym clusters revealed the same structure in 2 samples of self-ratings and in 2 samples of peer ratings. None of the factors beyond the 5th generalized across the samples. In the 3rd study, analyses of 100 clusters derived from 339 triat terms suggest their potential utility as Big-Five markers in future studies.
We propose a refined theory of basic individual values intended to provide greater heuristic and explanatory power than the original theory of 10 values (Schwartz, 1992). The
refined theory more accurately expresses the central assumption of the original theory that research has largely ignored: Values form a circular motivational continuum. The theory defines and orders 19 values on the continuum based on their compatible and conflicting motivations, expression of self-protection vs. growth, and personal vs. social focus. We assess the theory with a new instrument in 15 samples from 10 countries (N=6059). CFA and MDS analyses support discrimination of the 19 values, confirming the refined theory. MDS analyses largely support the predicted motivational order of the values. Analyses of predictive validity demonstrate that the refined values theory provides greater and more precise insight into the value underpinnings of beliefs. Each value correlates uniquely with external variables.
The authors examined relations between self-regulatory properties of personality (ego-control and ego-resilience) and the Big Five. Ego-control and ego-resilience were independent predictors of each Big Five dimension. Additionally, cluster analysis suggested four replicable ‘types’. Participants in the first (largest) cluster reported the highest levels of resilience and moderately low levels of control. The second cluster reported above-average resilience and high control. The third cluster reported below-average resilience and extremely low control. The final cluster reported very low resilience and high control. The four clusters differed systematically in their Big Five profiles. These findings suggest that self-regulatory processes are co-ordinated with other basic personality dimensions, and attest to the utility of conducting both variable-centred and person-centred analyses. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses using different personality measures in three samples confirmed the existence of general factor of personality (The Big One) within the five-factor model. The Big One is characterized by high versus low Emotional Stability, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Extraversion, and Openness, and by high versus low higher-order factors of personality, Stability, and Plasticity. A comprehensive theoretical model of personality structure was therefore proposed with the Big One at the highest level of the hierarchy. The Big One was interpreted as a basic personality disposition that integrates the most general non-cognitive dimensions of personality. It is associated with social desirability, emotionality, motivation, well-being, satisfaction with life, and self-esteem. It also may have deep biological roots, evolutionary, genetic, and neurophysiological.
In a university sample (n=245) and a community sample (n=222), we replicate the higher-order factor solution for the Five Factor Model (Big Five) reported by Digman (Digman, J. M. (1997). Higher-order factors of the Big Five. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1246–1256). We present a biologically predicated model of these two personality factors, relating them to serotonergic and dopaminergic function, and we label them Stability (Emotional Stability, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness) and Plasticity (Extraversion and Openness). Based on this model, we hypothesize that Stability will positively predict conformity (as indicated by socially desirable responding) and that Plasticity will negatively predict conformity. A structural equation model indicates that conformity is indeed positively related to Stability (university sample: β=0.98; community sample: β=0.69; P<0.01 for both) and negatively related to Plasticity (university sample: β=−0.48, P<0.07; community sample: β=−0.42, P<0.05). These findings suggest that there are pros and cons of conformity, such that the most thorough conformists will tend to be stable but also rigid, less able to adjust to novelty or change.
Though most personality researchers now recognize that ratings of the Big Five are not orthogonal, the field has been divided about whether these trait intercorrelations are substantive (i.e., driven by higher order factors) or artifactual (i.e., driven by correlated measurement error). We used a meta-analytic multitrait-multirater study to estimate trait correlations after common method variance was controlled. Our results indicated that common method variance substantially inflates trait correlations, and, once controlled, correlations among the Big Five became relatively modest. We then evaluated whether two different theories of higher order factors could account for the pattern of Big Five trait correlations. Our results did not support Rushton and colleagues' (Rushton & Irwing, 2008; Rushton et al., 2009) proposed general factor of personality, but Digman's (1997) α and β metatraits (relabeled by DeYoung, Peterson, and Higgins (2002) as Stability and Plasticity, respectively) produced viable fit. However, our models showed considerable overlap between Stability and Emotional Stability and between Plasticity and Extraversion, raising the question of whether these metatraits are redundant with their dominant Big Five traits. This pattern of findings was robust when we included only studies whose observers were intimately acquainted with targets. Our results underscore the importance of using a multirater approach to studying personality and the need to separate the causes and outcomes of higher order metatraits from those of the Big Five. We discussed the implications of these findings for the array of research fields in which personality is studied.
We tested the hypothesis that only 3 factors of personality description are replicable across many different languages if they are independently derived by a psycholexical approach. Our test was based on 14 trait taxonomies from 12 different languages. Factors were compared at each level of factor extraction with solutions with 1 to 6 factors. The 294 factors in the comparisons were identified using sets of markers of the 6-factor model by correlating the marker scales with the factors. The factor structures were pairwise compared in each case on the basis of the common variables that define the 2 sets of factors. Congruence coefficients were calculated between the varimax rotated structures after Procrustes rotation, where each structure in turn served as a target to which all other structures were rotated. On the basis of average congruence coefficients of all 91 comparisons, we conclude that factor solutions with 3 factors on average are replicable across languages; solutions with more factors are not.
Reanalyses of a number of studies of self-reported mood indicate that Positive and Negative Affect consistently emerge as the first two Varimax rotated dimensions in orthogonal factor analyses or as the first two second-order factors derived from oblique solutions. The two factors emerged with varying sets of descriptors and were even replicated in several data sets characterized by possible methodological problems noted by earlier writers (acquiescence response bias, inappropriate response formats, and so on). The results thus strongly attest to the stability and robustness of Positive and Negative Affect in self-report. Because this same two-dimensional configuration has also been consistently identified in all of the other major lines of mood research, it is now firmly established as the basic structure of English-language affect at the general factor level.
Discusses how competition between afferent data and learned feedback expectancies can stabilize a developing code by buffering committed populations of detectors against continual erosion by new environmental demands. The gating phenomena that result lead to dynamically maintained critical periods and to attentional phenomena such as overshadowing in the adult. The functional unit of cognitive coding is suggested to be an adaptive resonance, or amplification and prolongation of neural activity, that occurs when afferent data and efferent expectancies reach consensus through a matching process. The resonant state embodies the perceptual event, and its amplified and sustained activities are capable of driving slow changes of long-term memory. These mechanisms help to explain and predict (a) positive and negative aftereffects, the McCollough effect, spatial frequency adaptation, monocular rivalry, binocular rivalry and hysteresis, pattern completion, and Gestalt switching; (b) analgesia, partial reinforcement acquisition effect, conditioned reinforcers, underaroused vs overaroused depression; (c) the contingent negative variation, P300, and pontogeniculo-occipital waves; and (d) olfactory coding, corticogeniculate feedback, matching of proprioceptive and terminal motor maps, and cerebral dominance. (125 ref)
Estimated factor correlations from 14 studies supporting the 5 factor, Big Five model of personality trait organization--5 studies based on children and adolescents, 9 on adults--were factor analyzed. Two higher-order factors were clearly evident in all studies. One was principally related to the Big Five trait dimensions Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, and Emotional Stability; the other, the dimensions Extraversion and Intellect. Two models, one for children and adolescents, the other for adults, were tested by confirmatory factor analysis with generally excellent results. Many personality theorists appear to have considered one or both of these 2 metatraits, provisionally labeled alpha and beta.
In a large community sample (N=490), the Big Five were not orthogonal when modeled as latent variables representing the shared variance of reports from 4 different informants. Additionally, the standard higher-order factor structure was present in latent space: Neuroticism (reversed), Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness formed one factor, labeled Stability, and Extraversion and Openness/Intellect formed a second factor, labeled Plasticity. Comparison of two instruments, the Big Five Inventory and the Mini-Markers, supported the hypotheses that single-adjective rating instruments are likely to yield lower interrater agreement than phrase rating instruments and that lower interrater agreement is associated with weaker correlations among the Big Five and a less coherent higher-order factor structure. In conclusion, an interpretation of the higher-order factors is discussed, including possible neurobiological substrates.
A list of 2,365 personality descriptive items was selected from a computerized database of the Dutch language. The list included terms from various word classes, such as trait adjectives, trait nouns, and trait verbs, and from expressions in which the meaning was drawn from a combination of words. The items were administered to 1,466 participants, who provided self- or other-ratings. Principal components analyses were performed on both original and ipsatized data. The data set was split to investigate the invariance of the factors. The analyses yielded a final 8-factorial structure that included the Big 5. Three new trait factors were discovered, namely Virtue, Competence, and Hedonism.
The paper presents empirical verification of the Circumplex of Personality Metatraits (CPM) that overcomes some problems with the Big Five and enables the integration of various constructs and models developed within many sub-disciplines of psychology. Empirical verification of the model was conducted on a group of 1045 participants in two steps: (1) validation of the model (e.g., the circular arrangement of the metatraits, and relations with the Big Five); (2) verification of the synthesizing potential of this model by testing the predicted locations of temperamental traits, interpersonal traits, values, affects, and mental health constructs within the CPM. It has been found that the CPM can be treated as a matrix accommodating constructs described by circumplex, circular, and noncircular models.
One of the more disturbing features of intellectual life at the present time is the way in which irrationalism is so widely advocated, and irrationalist doctrines taken for granted. In my view, one of the main components of modern irrationalism is relativism (the doctrine that truth is relative to our intellectual background or framework: that it may change from one framework to another), and, in particular, the doctrine of the impossibility of mutual understanding between different cultures, generations, or historical periods. In this paper I discuss the problem of relativism. It is my claim that behind it lies what I call ‘The Myth of the Framework’. I explain and criticize this myth, and comment also on arguments due to Quine, Kuhn, and Whorf which have been used in its defence.
First, a word about “neuropsychology.” This term has commonly been used in a quite restricted sense to delineate that part of psychology which is concerned with the study, in human beings, of the effects of known (even if often poorly known) structural damage to the brain. I use “neuropsychology,” in contrast, in a much wider sense, as in my book, The Neuropsychology of Anxiety (Gray, 1982a), to mean the study, quite generally, of the role played by the brain in behavioral and psychological function, whether in human or animal subjects, and whether there is structural damage to the brain or not. Since I also take it as axiomatic (and few would, I think, disagree with the axiom) that all behavioral and psychological function depends upon the activities of the brain, it follows that “neuropsychology” has a breadth which shadows that of “psychology” itself: if there is a psychology of hunger, intelligence, love, or learning French, then there is ipso facto a neuropsychology of the same.
Recently, it has been proposed that all non-cognitive measures of personality share a general factor of personality. A problem with many of these studies is a lack of clarity in defining a general factor. In this paper we address the multiple ways in which a general factor has been identified and argue that many of these approaches find factors that are not in fact general. Through the use of artificial examples, we show that a general factor is not: The first factor or component of a correlation or covariance matrix.The first factor resulting from a bifactor rotation or biquartimin transformationNecessarily the result of a confirmatory factor analysis forcing a bifactor solution We consider how the definition of what constitutes a general factor can lead to confusion, and we will demonstrate alternative ways of estimating the general factor saturation that are more appropriate.
This article aims at a discussion of three controversial issues about the Big Five (1) Is the five-factor model comprehensive? (2) How should the amount of variance accounted for by the Big Five be measured? (3) Are the Big Five orthogonal and do they represent the highest hierarchical level of personality description? Subjects were 115 men and women in the age range from 20 to 63years. They answered three Big Five measures (1) a German version of the NEO-FFI, (2) 45 bipolar ratings scales, developed by Ostendorf [Ostendorf, F. (1990). Sprache und Persönlichkeitsstruktur. Zur Validität des Fünf-Faktoren-Modells. [Language and the structure of personality. About the validity of the Five-Factor-Model]. Regensburg: Roderer.], (3) the Hamburg personality inventory, developed by Andresen [Andresen, B. (1995). Risikobereitschaft (R): der sechste Basisfaktor der Persönlichkeit: Konvergenz multivariater Studien und Konstruktexplikation. [Risk preference (R): the sixth basic factor of personality: convergence of multivariate studies and construct explication], Zeitschrift für Differentielle und Diagnostische Psychologie, 16, 210–236.], as well as the Trier personality inventory, developed by Becker [Becker, P. (1989). Der Trierer Persönlichkeitsfragebogen TPF. Handanweisung. [The Trier personality inventory. TPI. Manual]. Göttingen: Hogrefe.] and the Trier behavior control inventory, developed by Becker [Becker, P. (1995). Seelische Gesundheit und Verhaltenskontrolle. Eine integrative Persönlichkeitstheorie und ihre klinische Anwendung. [Mental health and behavior control. An integrative personality theory and its clinical application]. Göttingen: Hogrefe.]. The results of several factor analyses lead to the following conclusions (1) The five-factor model is not comprehensive. At least a sixth factor hedonism/spontaneity can be replicated. (2) The Big Five and the six first-order factors are not orthogonal but oblique so that two higher-order factors (the Big Two), labelled mental health and behavior control, can be found. The loadings of the 33 basic variables and of the six first-order factors on the Big Two have a circumplex structure.
OBJECTIVE: Here, two studies seek to characterize a parsimonious common-denominator personality structure with optimal cross-cultural replicability. Personality differences are observed in all human populations and cultures, but lexicons for personality attributes that contain so many distinctions that parsimony is lacking. Models stipulating the most important attributes have been formulated by experts or by empirical studies drawing on experience in a very limited range of cultures. METHOD: Factor-analyses of personality lexicons of nine languages of diverse provenance (Chinese, Korean, Filipino, Turkish, Greek, Polish, Hungarian, Maasai, and Senoufo) were examined, and their common structure compared to that of several prominent models in psychology. RESULTS: A parsimonious bivariate model showed evidence of substantial convergence and ubiquity across cultures. Analyses involving key markers of these dimensions in English indicate that they are broad dimensions involving the overlapping content of the interpersonal circumplex, models of communion and agency, and of morality/warmth and competence. CONCLUSIONS: These "Big Two" dimensions - Social Self-Regulation and Dynamism - provide a common-denominator model involving the two most crucial axes of personality variation, ubiquitous across cultures. The Big Two might serve as an umbrella model serving to link diverse theoretical models and associated research literatures.
AN ESSAY ON THE PROBLEM OF ULTIMATE CONCERN, I.E., ON " "THAT WHICH DETERMINES OUR BEING OR NOT BEING . . . .' " IN THIS CONTEXT, 2 TERMS, AGENCY AND COMMUNION, ARE DEVELOPED "TO CHARACTERIZE 2 FUNDAMENTAL MODALITIES IN THE EXISTENCE OF LIVING FORMS, AGENCY FOR THE EXISTENCE OF AN ORGANISM AS AN INDIVIDUAL, AND COMMUNION FOR THE PARTICIPATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN SOME LARGER ORGANISM OF WHICH THE INDIVIDUAL IS A PART." THESE NOTIONS, AND THE PROBLEM OF ULTIMATE CONCERN, ARE DISCUSSED IN RELATION TO "SOCIAL ORGANIZATION, SCIENCE, IDEOLOGY, MYTH, SEXUALITY, DEATH, DISEASE, AND MAN'S PSYCHOLOGICAL LIFE." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
• This work, a second edition of which has very kindly been requested, was followed by La Construction du réel chez l'enfant and was to have been completed by a study of the genesis of imitation in the child. The latter piece of research, whose publication we have postponed because it is so closely connected with the analysis of play and representational symbolism, appeared in 1945, inserted in a third work, La formation du symbole chez l'enfant. Together these three works form one entity dedicated to the beginnings of intelligence, that is to say, to the various manifestations of sensorimotor intelligence and to the most elementary forms of expression. The theses developed in this volume, which concern in particular the formation of the sensorimotor schemata and the mechanism of mental assimilation, have given rise to much discussion which pleases us and prompts us to thank both our opponents and our sympathizers for their kind interest in our work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The rationale for lexical studies rests on the assumption that the most meaningful personality attributes tend to become encoded in language as single-word descriptors. We articulate some key premises of the lexical approach and then review a number of studies that have been conducted examining the factor structure of personality descriptors extracted from dictionaries. We compare lexical studies in English and 12 other languages, with attention to delineating consistencies between the structures found in diverse languages. Our review suggests that the Anglo-Germanic Big Five is reproduced better in some languages than in others. We propose some organizing rules for lexical factor structures that may be more generalizable than the contemporary Big-Five model. And, we propose several candidate structural models that should be compared with the Big Five in future studies, including structures with one, two, and three very broad factors, an alternative five-factor structure identified in Italian and Hungarian studies, and a seven-factor structure represented in Hebrew and Philippine studies. We recommend that in future studies more attention be paid to middle-level personality constructs and to examining the effects of methodological variations on the resulting factor structures.
Some recent developments with regard to the five-factor approach are reported. Some inconsistencies seem to arise, as reported by a number of investigators. Especially to be noted is the finding that five factors do not encompass wider scans of the inventory domain. Further, the recent introduction of higher order factor analyses suggests that it is possible and conceptually attractive to reduce the five factors to only two broader factors. Finally, a new theoretical offering for the five-factor approach is argued as not intrinsically unique to the five-factor approach but applies instead to almost any personality orientation.
Comorbidity has presented a persistent puzzle for psychopathology research. We review recent literature indicating that the puzzle of comorbidity is being solved by research fitting explicit quantitative models to data on comorbidity. We present a meta-analysis of a liability spectrum model of comorbidity, in which specific mental disorders are understood as manifestations of latent liability factors that explain comorbidity by virtue of their impact on multiple disorders. Nosological, structural, etiological, and psychological aspects of this liability spectrum approach to understanding comorbidity are discussed.
The authors argue that a new six-dimensional framework for personality structure--the HEXACO model--constitutes a viable alternative to the well-known Big Five or five-factor model. The new model is consistent with the cross-culturally replicated finding of a common six-dimensional structure containing the factors Honesty-Humility (H), Emotionality (E), eExtraversion (X), Agreeableness (A), Conscientiousness (C), and Openness to Experience (O). Also, the HEXACO model predicts several personality phenomena that are not explained within the B5/FFM, including the relations of personality factors with theoretical biologists' constructs of reciprocal and kin altruism and the patterns of sex differences in personality traits. In addition, the HEXACO model accommodates several personality variables that are poorly assimilated within the B5/FFM.
Exploration in temperament: International perspectives on theory and measurement
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Power, intimacy, and the life story: Personological inquiries into identity
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The abdication of philosophy -Philosophy and the public good: Essays in honor of
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A dyadic -interactional perspective on the Five Factor Model
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A basic bivariate structure of personality attributes evident across nine languages
- M S Katigbak
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- H Zhou
Katigbak, M. S., Somer, O., Szarota, P., Szirmak, Z.,
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