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The topology of Mobility as a Service: A tool for understanding effects on business and society, user behavior, and technological requirements
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to shed light on the concept of MaaS and what characterizes a “MaaS service”, and to propose a topology of MaaS as a tool for facilitating the discussion of MaaS and enabling the “comparison of” different services, and for understanding MaaS’ potential effects. Based on a literature review analyzing existing definitions, and an expert workshop identifying key aspects and ascertaining service differentiations accordingly, the resulting proposed topology consists of MaaS Levels 0 to 4 as characterized by different types of integration: 0 no integration; 1 integration of information; 2 integration of payment; 3 integration of the customer relationship and experience; 4 integration of policy. The levels are described in terms of their added value and further discussed regarding implications for business, society, users, and technical requirements. The proposed topology adds clarity to the discussion of such a trending topic and enables the positioning of services along the MaaS spectrum. It also deepens the understanding of why MaaS can take time to develop (Levels 3 and 4 in particular) and can help support the development of action plans in terms of what needs to be done depending on what type of MaaS one wants to develop. Further analysis is desirable regarding the possibilities and problems linked with the different levels of MaaS. Such an analysis is key to understanding which effects can be achieved via the implementation of different levels of MaaS services in terms of e.g. social, economic and ecological sustainability, and business potential.
... • The user should be at the 'heart' of the ecosystem • From modal-centric to a user-centric mobility system • Provide mobility services that reflect the needs of the customer • The perspective is on the traveller experience • The system offers tailor-made mobility solutions • Personalization of services through predicted traveller situation Sochor et al., 2016;Giesecke et al., 2016;Dotter, 2016;Sochor, Arby, & Karlsson, 2017;Docherty et al., 2017;EPOMM, 2017;MaaS Alliance AISBL, 2017;Pasquale, 2017;Mulley et al., 2018 "Integration" ...
... • Of multiple modes of transport, collective and private • Of data and information • Booking, payment and tickets in one platform • Of physical infrastructures • Of local mobility policies • Of actors and stakeholdersorganizational • Of new concepts and solutions • Of Mobility Packages • ICTtechnological services and systems Gebhardt et al., 2016;Kamargianni et al., 2016;Dotter, 2016;Sochor et al., 2017;König et al., 2017;Pasquale, 2017;Docherty et al., 2017;Polis Network, 2017;S. Li et al., 2017;Wittstock & Teuteberg, 2018;Veerapanane et al., 2018 "Interoperablility" ...
... As stated in the beginning of this chapter, the second set of interaction within the "MaaS system" is the "acquisition possibility" or by other words the "enabler of use", hereafter identified fundamentally as "Payment" Sochor et al., 2017;Polis Network, 2017;Wittstock & Teuteberg, 2018). Despite abundant references to "Ticketing" as an important function inside a "MaaS System" (Ambrosino, Nelson, Boero, et al., 2016;König et al., 2016b;Sochor et al., 2017;Pasquale, 2017), in this work it was considered that the possibility of issuing a "ticket", or other title that enables the use of a mobility service, is implicit and a consequence of "payment", a rational also shared by other authors (e.g. ...
World population forecasted growth, ageing population, rising urbanization and congestion levels carry several challenges inside urban mobility systems. The digitalization megatrend is reshaping lives worldwide while at the same time “Usership” is thriving along collaborative consumption. “Mobility-as-a-Service” (“MaaS”) emerges as a potential mobility disruption, in this new mobility ecosystem.
Inspired in Finland's “MaaS” ecosystem, this paper aims to propose a “Mobility as a Service Public Policy Framework” with a two-stage approach. First structuring the “MaaS” concept, looking for the core features, its relations, that leads to its reconceptualization and a topology proposal. Secondly, a public policy framework is proposed, considering the policy instruments, indicative group of stakeholders responsible and the different urban mobility management decision levels.
The authors argue that is fundamental to understand the nature of decisions which are intimately connected with the Urban Mobility system, to design and implement a coherent and effective policy framework, where the policy tools chosen to materialize policy decisions regarding “MaaS” should first consider the identification of the founding pillars of the “MaaS” concept, guiding the process of policy design accordingly.
If “MaaS” is considered a Mobility Management tool, it can constitute an opportunity to redefine public transport and its financing.
... A selection of these conditions is listed in Table 3. Condition of success Reference a) Collaboration, cooperation, and coordination based on trust and shared visions between key actors, stakeholders, and a platform operator. (EC, 2015;Finger et al., 2015;Holmberg et al., 2015;Sochor et al., 2017) b) Availability and standardisation of data on mobility and other related data (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) c) Strong and continuous financial support from related organisations (Lund et al., 2017) d) Attractive business opportunities for potential actors (Lund et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2017) e) Provision of appropriate physical infrastructure Lund et al., 2017) f) Suitable regulation regarding data security and privacy (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017) g) Availability of enabling technology (CIVITAS, 2016;Lund et al., 2017;Mulley, 2017) h) Apparent added value of MaaS from customer perspective e.g. personalised service, easy access, easy payment, etc. (Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) Step III Increasing the robustness of the basic policy ...
... A selection of these conditions is listed in Table 3. Condition of success Reference a) Collaboration, cooperation, and coordination based on trust and shared visions between key actors, stakeholders, and a platform operator. (EC, 2015;Finger et al., 2015;Holmberg et al., 2015;Sochor et al., 2017) b) Availability and standardisation of data on mobility and other related data (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) c) Strong and continuous financial support from related organisations (Lund et al., 2017) d) Attractive business opportunities for potential actors (Lund et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2017) e) Provision of appropriate physical infrastructure Lund et al., 2017) f) Suitable regulation regarding data security and privacy (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017) g) Availability of enabling technology (CIVITAS, 2016;Lund et al., 2017;Mulley, 2017) h) Apparent added value of MaaS from customer perspective e.g. personalised service, easy access, easy payment, etc. (Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) Step III Increasing the robustness of the basic policy ...
... (EC, 2015;Finger et al., 2015;Holmberg et al., 2015;Sochor et al., 2017) b) Availability and standardisation of data on mobility and other related data (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) c) Strong and continuous financial support from related organisations (Lund et al., 2017) d) Attractive business opportunities for potential actors (Lund et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2017) e) Provision of appropriate physical infrastructure Lund et al., 2017) f) Suitable regulation regarding data security and privacy (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017) g) Availability of enabling technology (CIVITAS, 2016;Lund et al., 2017;Mulley, 2017) h) Apparent added value of MaaS from customer perspective e.g. personalised service, easy access, easy payment, etc. (Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) Step III Increasing the robustness of the basic policy ...
Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is an innovative transport concept that combines a range of transport modes and services to provide a user-orientated service via a single interface. Since its emergence, MaaS has drawn increasing interest within and beyond the transport sector for its potential as an innovative and potentially effective solution to urban transport problems. However, the implementation of MaaS is surrounded by uncertainties concerning various aspects, such as on technological feasibility, future demand and willingness of crucial stakeholders to cooperate. These uncertainties can prevent large-scale implementation of the concept from taking place. In this paper, an adaptive approach is proposed, which allows policymakers to create policies that are more robust for uncertain future situations and which can be adapted as the future unfolds and uncertainties are resolved. In particular, a Dynamic Adaptive Policymaking (DAP) is currently being developed for implementing MaaS for the Dutch city of Nijmegen. The study is based on a desktop research and has been produced by discussion among a small group of experts. Its outcomes are presented in an initial plan, which a real-world project could be based upon, and an alternative planning approach could be designed to handle uncertainty.
... A selection of these conditions is listed in Table 3. Condition of success Reference a) Collaboration, cooperation, and coordination based on trust and shared visions between key actors, stakeholders, and a platform operator. (EC, 2015;Finger et al., 2015;Holmberg et al., 2015;Sochor et al., 2017) b) Availability and standardisation of data on mobility and other related data (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) c) Strong and continuous financial support from related organisations (Lund et al., 2017) d) Attractive business opportunities for potential actors (Lund et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2017) e) Provision of appropriate physical infrastructure Lund et al., 2017) f) Suitable regulation regarding data security and privacy (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017) g) Availability of enabling technology (CIVITAS, 2016;Lund et al., 2017;Mulley, 2017) h) Apparent added value of MaaS from customer perspective e.g. personalised service, easy access, easy payment, etc. (Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) Step III Increasing the robustness of the basic policy ...
... A selection of these conditions is listed in Table 3. Condition of success Reference a) Collaboration, cooperation, and coordination based on trust and shared visions between key actors, stakeholders, and a platform operator. (EC, 2015;Finger et al., 2015;Holmberg et al., 2015;Sochor et al., 2017) b) Availability and standardisation of data on mobility and other related data (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) c) Strong and continuous financial support from related organisations (Lund et al., 2017) d) Attractive business opportunities for potential actors (Lund et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2017) e) Provision of appropriate physical infrastructure Lund et al., 2017) f) Suitable regulation regarding data security and privacy (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017) g) Availability of enabling technology (CIVITAS, 2016;Lund et al., 2017;Mulley, 2017) h) Apparent added value of MaaS from customer perspective e.g. personalised service, easy access, easy payment, etc. (Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) Step III Increasing the robustness of the basic policy ...
... (EC, 2015;Finger et al., 2015;Holmberg et al., 2015;Sochor et al., 2017) b) Availability and standardisation of data on mobility and other related data (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) c) Strong and continuous financial support from related organisations (Lund et al., 2017) d) Attractive business opportunities for potential actors (Lund et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2017) e) Provision of appropriate physical infrastructure Lund et al., 2017) f) Suitable regulation regarding data security and privacy (Finger et al., 2015;Lund et al., 2017) g) Availability of enabling technology (CIVITAS, 2016;Lund et al., 2017;Mulley, 2017) h) Apparent added value of MaaS from customer perspective e.g. personalised service, easy access, easy payment, etc. (Lund et al., 2017;Sochor et al., 2017) Step III Increasing the robustness of the basic policy ...
Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) is an innovative transport concept that combines a range of transport modes and services to provide a user-orientated service via a single interface. Since its emergence, MaaS has drawn increasing interest within and beyond the transport sector for its potential as an innovative and potentially effective solution to urban transport problems. However, the implementation of MaaS is surrounded by uncertainties concerning various aspects, such as on technological feasibility, future demand and willingness of crucial stakeholders to cooperate. These uncertainties can prevent large-scale implementation of the concept from taking place.
In this paper, an adaptive approach is proposed, which allows policymakers to create policies that are more robust for uncertain future situations and which can be adapted as the future unfolds and uncertainties are resolved. In particular, a Dynamic Adaptive Policymaking (DAP) is currently being developed for implementing MaaS for the Dutch city of Nijmegen. The study is based on a desktop research and has been produced by discussion among a small group of experts. Its outcomes are presented in an initial plan, which a real-world project could be based upon, and an alternative planning approach could be designed to handle uncertainty.
... Although MaaS currently lacks a robust definition, existing attempts to characterise the concept highlight some of its potential sustainability attributes. As noted in the introduction, Sochor et al. (2017) characterise MaaS in 'topological' terms, i.e. with reference to mobility-related services that exist at different levels of integration. Seen this way, MaaS comprises a set of different mobilityrelated services that can potentially generate different types of value, for private individuals and for broader publics. ...
... Some MMPs also facilitate bookings and payments (cf. levels 1 and 2 in the Sochor et al. (2017) topology). Most MMPs provide informational services for free, and collect user data which is typically anonymised and aggregated before being put to use. ...
... Different levels of integration within MaaS and value generated. Source:Sochor et al. (2017). ...
This paper examines the ways in which business models for MaaS can generate sustainable value, that is, value that extends beyond the traditional ‘profit norm’ embedded in business models, and belongs to the economic, environmental and social dimensions of sustainability. We draw on the growing literature on sustainable business models to explicate a set of principles and guidelines for generating sustainable value, and address one key function of a business model that is often overlooked in this field – value capture. We then identify different ways in which MaaS business models can generate sustainable value, linked to mobility services, data-based services, environmental technology and material recirculation. We identify potential mechanisms for value capture, and discuss the implications of our findings for practitioners and future research.
... A more systematic approach was adopted by Sochor et al. [32], who aimed to facilitate the comparison of different services and to understand potential effects. Based on an analysis of the existing definitions and the expert workshop, the researchers identified key aspects and integration levels. ...
... To define and provide an overview of the most relevant MaaS initiatives, a wide range of literature (e.g. [10,12,32]) and the service map of MaaS Alliance were used during the application search. If the applications were available to download, then they were tested, otherwise external information was used (e.g. ...
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a new transport concept which integrates, manages, and distributes private and public mobility alternatives by using intelligent digital technologies. Recently, research and implementations have been widely conducted. In order to reveal future implications, it is crucial to analyze the available MaaS services by using systematic methodology. Cluster analysis was applied to create typical groups of MaaS services and to define the common features of the systems, which may highlight future trends. In order to identify the most relevant MaaS initiatives, the typical parameters of the services were taken into account and a dataset was developed. More than 30 MaaS services from 14 countries were investigated, and the features and the functionalities of these services were analyzed. The findings demonstrate that there is potential for the development of the applications in terms of their payment features, their personalization, and the provision of all attainable elements of MaaS. The number of operators is constantly increasing. However, it is uncertain whether public or private MaaS operators will be dominant on the market. Three cluster groups were created with specific features and directions of development. The Route planners group involves a few modes of transport, but it provides an extensive service. While the Third parties group has primarily private MaaS operators, the Public systems group usually includes public MaaS operators. This comprehensive study might be useful to MaaS operators and regulators for understanding the typical features and the development directions of the market.
... Although there is currently not any established definition of MaaS, this concept basically offers mobility services by integrating transport services, information, payment and ticketing. One of the core aspects of this concept is the possibility to disconnect mobility from particular modes of transport (Sochor, Arby, & Karlsson, 2017), (Bonte & Hodgson, 2016). Eventually, the purchase of a mobility servicepackage for a fixed monthly flat-rate for example may, inter alia, spare to own a private vehicle (König, Eckhardt, Aapaoja, Sochor, & Karlsson, 2016). ...
... The reason for this particular screening-procedure was to collect data from a preferably wide scope Regarding the second part of the research question dealing with the design of related payment options (category Nr. 10 "Costs") the main focus was laid on exploring whether multimodal monthly mobility-flat rates were seen as a positive development or if the respondents rather oppose to this payment option. This personal assessment is of importance as deeply integrated mobility services also include contractual integration and the bundling and subscription of services (Sochor, Arby, & Karlsson, 2017). Through the present analyses it became very clear, that alternative ways to pay ones monthly mobility are mostly rejected. ...
This paper presents the results of a qualitative research dealing with the question, which behavioural characteristics of potential users of mobility services are the most important ones to be considered when introducing multimodal mobility services such as the concept of ‘Mobility as a Service’ (MaaS). The basic assumption which led to this research was, that, despite it is often mentioned that MaaS is a user-centric approach, the human nature of bounded rationality and the society´s impact on individual mobility behaviour has not been considered adequately so far. Still it is assumed, that people want in the first place to travel quick, cost-efficient, safe, healthy, etc. A multimodal MaaS-concept offers them the possibility to do so and the successful implementation of such an approach is widely expected. The present discourse is mainly led by technical, processual aspects of MaaS and strongly focuses on purely rational motives of mobility. But there are, amongst others, two main non directly observable psychological variables which massively influence mobility behaviour and the acceptance of MaaS: habit on the one hand and control beliefs on the other hand. These seem not to be taken into account sufficiently until now when it comes to designing and introducing MaaS projects. Moreover this research suggests that it is also crucial, considering an individually perceived added value of multimodal mobility services as an important element towards their success. This paper wants to give some input and explanation on how the rational concept of MaaS could be elaborated and developed by the findings of social and psychological sciences to better meet the consumer needs and to strengthen its capacities to modernize travel behaviour in urban areas.
... However, as the concept gains wider acceptance, the number of both academic and grey literature getting published each year is constantly growing. The topics explored include business models Ebrahimi, et al., 2018), impacts on specific transport modes (Hensher, 2017;Smith, et al., 2017), end user demand (Sochor, et al., 2015;Ho, et al., 2017;, governmental role (Heikkilä, 2014), topology of services (Kamargianni, et al., 2016;Jittrapirom, et al., 2017;Sochor, et al., 2017), issues around implementation of MaaS (Mulley, 2017;Wong, et al., 2017). Most existing literature consists of thought pieces and reviews. ...
... Some examples from academic literature include studies, which review MaaS-like, integrated services in order to highlight key characteristics (Jittrapirom, et al., 2017). Others, take it one step further and attempt to classify these services based on the level of integration (Kamargianni, et al., 2016;Sochor, et al., 2017). There are also studies, which provide thoughts on one aspect of MaaS, such as the conditions of its implementation (Li & Voege, 2017) or the way various modes could be offered under MaaS (Hensher, 2017). ...
As the number of Mobility as a Service (MaaS) applications have started to grow, it is of high importance to gain a deeper understanding of the different aspects of this concept. With many different business models and product designs emerging, there is still little knowledge on what consumer preferences are, and how users navigate between various MaaS offerings. With this in mind, the main objective of this paper is to contribute to research about user preferences for MaaS products and more specifically for plans. In doing so, the paper aims to provide insights about what modes and features people prefer in their plans and what individual characteristics have a significant effect on choosing across MaaS plans. Taking London as a case study, an explanatory sequential mixed methods research design is used, in which the quantitative phase is carried out first, followed by the qualitative phase to help explain the quantitative results and provide additional insights. The quantitative phase includes an online survey and stated preference experiments followed by a MaaS plan choice model, while the qualitative comprises of in-depth interviews and thematic analysis. The results of the study provide interesting insights to consumer behavior and can be valuable to the private and public sector as well as the research community.
... Desse modo, a MaaS é apreciada por várias abordagens, tais como: a demanda de viagens (Calderón et al., 2020;Smith et al., 2018;Jittrapirom et al., 2017;Kamargianni & Matyas, 2017); os aspectos espaciais da cidade, como o planejamento urbano (Tinnilä, 2016;Sochor et al., 2017), e os modelos de negócios relacionados ao sistema de transportes . Além de ser apreciada pelas composições de diferentes modalidades de serviços de transportes Sarasini et al., 2017), por exemplo, sistema de bike-sharing, car-sharing, car poolling ou aluguel de carro (Karmagianni et al., 2016). ...
A mobilidade integrada poderia ser prejudicada pelo hábito de usar o automóvel? Essa é uma questão central para a mobilidade que precisa ser discutida. Nessa perspectiva, objetivou-se, por meio da revisão da literatura, identificar as estratégias que favoreçam a implementação da mobilidade sustentável, a fim de apontar uma agenda de pesquisa baseada na literatura. Assim, iniciou-se com a conceituação acerca da Mobilidade como um Serviço (MaaS). Aborda-se a viabilidade da mobilidade alternativa, considerando-se o hábito de usar o automóvel, visto que a literatura aponta essa variável como uma barreira para a promoção da Mobilidade complementar. Segue-se com a discussão sobre os comportamentos habituais de se usar o automóvel e como eles podem ser modificados. Como um resultado, sugerem-se várias estratégias para a promoção da quebra do hábito de usar automóvel de modo que se favoreça a mobilidade complementar. Por último, a partir das diretrizes indicadas para promoção da Mobilidade como Serviço, sugere-se uma agenda de pesquisa futura para dar suporte à área de conhecimento.
... The Data considered was categorized as follows: i) Static (Sochor, Arby, & Karlsson, 2017); ii) Real-time (Docherty, Marsden, & Anable, 2017;Gebhardt et al., 2016); iii)Archived or Historical data (Giesecke, Surakka, & Hakonen, 2016); iv) Processed or analysed data (e.g. relying on data analysis and "big data analytics") (Ebrahimi, Sharmeen, & Meurs, 2018;Sarasini, Sochor, & Arby, 2017); v) Predictive data (e.g. ...
World population forecasted growth, ageing population, rising urbanization and congestion levels carry several challenges inside urban mobility systems. The digitalization megatrend is reshaping lives worldwide while at the same time “Usership” is thriving along collaborative consumption. “Mobility-as-a-Service” (“MaaS”) emerges as a potential mobility disruption, in this new mobility ecosystem.
Inspired in Finland's “MaaS” ecosystem, this paper aims to propose a “Mobility as a Service Public Policy Framework” with a two-stage approach. First structuring the “MaaS” concept, looking for the core features, its relations, that leads to its reconceptualization and a topology proposal. Secondly, a public policy framework is proposed, considering the policy instruments, indicative group of stakeholders responsible and the different urban mobility management decision levels.
The authors argue that is fundamental to understand the nature of decisions which are intimately connected with the Urban Mobility system, to design and implement a coherent and effective policy framework, where the policy tools chosen to materialize policy decisions regarding “MaaS” should first consider the identification of the founding pillars of the “MaaS” concept, guiding the process of policy design accordingly.
If “MaaS” is considered a Mobility Management tool, it can constitute an opportunity to redefine public transport and its financing.
... In general, when defining MaaS, the different authors attempted to highlight its core elements: a unique single platform (app or website), real-time information on all available modes in the city (public and private), multimodal transportation (intermodal journey planners), technological integration to plan, book and pay for mobility needs, and personalized bundled mobility packages according to user's particular requirements [16]. In a broad sense, MaaS requires the integration of different aspects, ranging from the initial integration of information, booking and payment functions up until the bundling of services and the development of general policies [71]. ...
Transport integration has evolved into Mobility as a service (MaaS), and as a recent topic, MaaS-literature is rapidly growing. This study analyses 57 MaaS-focused documents (the majority being peer-reviewed articles) from Scopus in January 2019. The aim is to comprehensively answer MaaS basic W-questions: 1) What is MaaS? 2), When and where did the term appear? 3), Who are the main actors in MaaS? 4), How can MaaS be implemented? and 5) Why should it be implemented? Future research lines are also offered. Our findings show that MaaS is an ongoing topical subject; there are still many contributions under development to reach a definition. In order to succeed in implementing it, key stakeholders, such as transport authorities and transport operators, must cooperate to achieve the predicted sustainable effects envisioned. New data on user travel behaviour and their preferences should be obtained through MaaS pilots, helping transport planners and policy makers when evaluating MaaS impacts and its feasibility to be the next transport paradigm.
... Copyright c 2020 The Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers Here are some examples of how MaaS has evolved through five levels from 0 to 4 [3]. In level 0 (no integration), all information is provided separately. ...
Promoting the use of public transport (PT) is considered to be an effective way to reduce the number of passenger cars. The concept of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS), which began in Europe and is now spreading rapidly around the world, is expected to help to improve the convenience of PT on the viewpoint of users, using the latest information communication technology and Internet of Things technologies. This paper outlines the concept of MaaS in Europe and the efforts made at the policy level. It also focuses on the development of MaaS from the viewpoint of promoting the use of PT in Japan.
... It offers travelers easy, flexible, reliable and sustainable choices for solving urban mobility issues. Several implementations of different levels of MaaS services are present, which were designed by public and private operators ( Sochor et al., 2017). One of the first MaaS concepts was realized by MaaS Global in Finland. ...
Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is a solution that combines a number of services and provides a platform, where multimodal journey planning, booking, payment and ticketing are integrated. Current MaaS solutions provide pay-as-you-go options or predefined mobility packages, however research and development in this field are still far from a mature concept. This paper deals with the creation of mobility packages for users, taking into account several city specific parameters (e.g. demography, cost of living, modal split, weather conditions, environmental friendliness). A method has been elaborated, which assigns package levels to cities involving different transportation modes, such as public transport, bike-sharing, car-sharing and taxi. During the analysis 15 cities in Europe have been considered and based on their specific parameters the most suitable mobility packages were created for them.
Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS) has gained increasing worldwide popularity in the transport industry. However, it remains unclear how MaaS might diffuse over time and across space at the micro-scale. In response, we developed a spatial agent-based model to explore MaaS adoption and subscription (SABM-MaaS) in Beijing, China, which was based on the empirical findings derived from questionnaire survey data collected in Beijing in January 2020. In particular, we designed four MaaS plans, including pay-as-you-go, monthly, season (spanning three months), and yearly subscription plans, to observe which plan would be adopted by users. The results of the reference scenario revealed that the monthly plan (with a 20% discount) was the most prevalent, with almost one-fifth of agents adopting it, and it was followed by pay-as-you-go, season, and yearly plan. Moreover, we also set up several “what-if” scenarios to explore MaaS packages with different discount offerings, offering only one type of MaaS plan, and varying the intensity of MaaS advertisement. The findings also discovered that users still preferred the monthly subscription and pay-as-you-go options over long-term plans. Furthermore, while a strong intensity of MaaS advertisement had a substantial positive impact during the early stages of MaaS release, it did not sufficiently accelerate overall MaaS adoption and diffusion in the long run. The research outcomes provide valuable insights for the MaaS companies, multimodal transport operators, and demand-responsive transport planners in making better decisions regarding MaaS promotion, price and discount strategies, and shared mobility service planning.
Transport is one of the largest emitters of harmful
substances that affect air quality. Each transport mode has
different volume of passenger transport and at the same time
has a differentiated negative impact on air quality. That is
why in the European Union has been making special efforts
for many years to create and implement strategies aimed at
improving air quality. The main goal of this paper is to
present a methodology that enables quantification and
analysis of the impacts of each passenger transport mode on
air quality using feed-forward neural networks. The
developed model uses parameters for EU member states in
the period from 2000 to 2014. In addition to the scientific and
practical contribution, the development of model provides a
good basic for the universal platform formation in order to
create and develop strategies, i.e. measures to improve air
quality on global level.
By taking city specific parameters into account, this paper explains the definition of mobility packages for users in the Mobility as a Service framework. Therefore, a method that creates package levels for various transportation modes in cities is elaborated. The method involves urban characteristics, the aspects of city structure, environmental awareness, modal split, and financial features, as well. Mobility packages are created for public transport, bike-sharing, car-sharing, and taxi. In order to create more diverse mobility packages, the preferences of user groups are considered, and special packages are prepared for travelers. The method is tested with a short survey in Budapest, Hungary. The results show that the workers’ package is similar to the basic package, while in case of students and pensioners, the service level of car-sharing and taxi is lowered based on the revealed usage requirements.
The concept of mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) was conceived in Finland, and it is characteristically user-oriented. Interest in MaaS has quickly spread across Europe along with the rapid advances in information and communications technology and the internet of things in recent years, as the realization of MaaS is consistent with the policy directions of the EU member states promoting the use of public transport.
This paper describes the MaaS concept in EU, the birth of the concept in Finland and its background, and EU-wide policy level initiatives and their characteristics.
Following a political order in late 2014, the regional public transport organisation (PTO) in West Sweden has been on a quest to procure Mobility as a Service (MaaS). In spring 2016, they invited potential bidders to discuss the terms for such procurement through a 'request for information’ process. 65 actors participated in a start-up meeting, and 30 explicated their thoughts in subsequent individual meetings with the PTO. Based on participatory observation of these meetings, this paper explores which aspects that frequented the discussions. It identifies seven aspects that potential bidders believe are important to consider when procuring MaaS: cross-sector collaboration, allocation of responsibilities, governance, business models, target groups, service design and technical integration. Moreover, the analysis suggests that MaaS (in this context) is premature for public procurement at this point in time. Instead more collaborative forms of public-private partnerships seem to be needed to drive the development.
Executive summary.
This deliverable, D4 Impact Assessment, presents a summary of the work completed within WP4 of the MAASiFiE project.
The overall objectives of WP4 were formulated as:
• to evaluate more in-depth two case studies (one in Sweden and one in Austria). In order to provide a broader basis for the assessments, also information on a sample of additional MaaS and MaaS-related services has been gathered and analysed;
• based on these evaluations, to assess the consequences of introducing MaaS concepts on a broader scale from an individual (user), organisational, and societal perspective respectively;
• to assess the (potential) economic, environmental and social impacts of MaaS; and hereby provide a basis and support for stakeholders' decision making.
Based on a literature review, a web-survey to experts and stakeholders, and the knowledge and experience of the members of the MAASiFiE project team, a tentative impact assessment framework was proposed consisting of altogether 17 impact areas: six on an individual level, six on a business level, and five on a societal level. Compared to most other impact assessments, the business aspects of MaaS were added in terms of revenues, collaboration, and responsibilities.
The framework was used in order to evaluate the case studies (UbiGo and SMILE) and the additional MaaS and MaaS-related services where at least some information of relevance was available.
In a more in-depth analysis of the UbiGo case, UbiGo was found to have potential to reduce or suppress car ownership, i.e. it is a good option for those who consider investing in a family car (or not) but in particular for those who otherwise would invest in a second family car. Furthermore, it will attract users who experience it to be an economically feasible alternative – or who consider the service to offer considerable additional benefits; and it will mainly attract households in areas with (i) high availability to public transport in terms of routes and frequency and (ii) access to carsharing within less than approximately 300m (suggestion). Results from the field trial of UbiGo show an overall decrease in private car use (as well as private vehicles taken off the road for the duration of the FOT) and an increase in the use of, for instance public transport and carsharing services. Furthermore, attitudes towards for instance public transport improved while attitudes towards private car use became less positive. As the UbiGo field trial was not designed to mirror the population of Gothenburg, but to target households that were believed to benefit in particular from having access to the UbiGo service, it is difficult to extrapolate potential due many and complex interactions between various demographic factors, not to mention good enough physical and economic access. However, based on assumptions outlined, several simplified scenarios illustrate the potential for UbiGo to facilitate a reduction of private car ownership in the city centre.
Considering the evaluation of the SMILE service, SMILE app users were found to have used alternative routes more often, especially for non-routine trips such as leisure and shopping trips. Furthermore, the generation up to 40 years old showed a changed mobility behaviour regarding public transport usage in the urban region of Vienna. Overall multimodal combinations were used more often, for example combinations of bike and public transport as well as vehicle sharing. Hand in hand with the trend of using shared mobility facilities instead of privately owned vehicles, a reduction in car usage especially in inner city areas was observed. A reduced number of parking spaces, congestion in peak-hours and enlarged parking zones work additionally as deterrents for private car usage.
Overall, the assessments suggest that a broader introduction of MaaS could result in overall positive impacts, in terms a modal shift, a change in attitudes and an increase in perceived accessibility to the transport system (as illustrated in the table presented below). However, some conflicts between impacts on different levels were identified where, for instance increased accessibility to the transport system – a desired impact on an individual and societal level – may result in an increase in the number of trips made – possibly a desired impact on an individual level but an undesired impact on a societal level with negative implications for emissions as well as congestion. When planning for a further introduction of MaaS from a societal perspective, such conflicts must be addressed in order to best determine how to potentially integrate overall societal goals into the MaaS offer and business model.
From the services covered, it is clear that the business level is not typically addressed in analyses of MaaS or the information is not generally available. Thus, there is a gap between information needed and topics covered in evaluations (if any), as there is an active search for knowledge in the transportation/MaaS community regarding business and collaboration models, roles and responsibilities of various stakeholders, etc., so as to better understand how to sustainably operationalize the concept of MaaS. From the limited experience that has been documented, MaaS will result in (or necessitate) impacts on the business level including increased collaboration and partnerships in the value chain, increased data sharing, as well as changes in organisations and their roles. MaaS also has the potential to attract new customer segments, although the impacts on revenues and numbers of customers are unclear due to their intimate link with the specific MaaS offer (number of modes, subscription levels, relative prices, etc.).
A fundamental issue for feasibility studies in general and the assessment of possible impacts which have been part of the present project, is the lack of empirical evidence. The argued impacts of MaaS, positive and/or negative, are to a large extent based on informed assumptions and experts' opinions. Hence, it is important that different pilots and trials are initiated, with the intention to be developed into a fully functioning service, in order to provide further evidence of the possible impacts of an implementation of MaaS. Resources must then be allocated to address and evaluate different types of impacts (economic, environmental, and social) on different levels (individual, business and societal). However, in order to allow for a comparison between, for instance, different levels of integration and/or different business models, a common assessment framework would be beneficial. The framework introduced in the report provides a first attempt.
http://www.vtt.fi/sites/maasifie/results
Executive summary
The transnational research programme “Call 2014: Mobility and ITS” was launched by the Conference of European Directors of Roads (CEDR). Funded within that program, Mobility as a Service for Linking Europe (MAASiFiE) is a two-year project that investigates the prerequisites for organizing user-oriented and ecological mobility services in order to provide consumers with flexible, efficient and user-friendly services covering multiple modes of transport on a one-stop-shop principle. Megatrends like changing demographics in terms of population growth, ageing of population, new population requirements of millennials, and ICT technology transformation, play a major role enabling the evolvement of new mobility services.
Mobility service concepts are changing in the direction of combining and implementing new business models, enabling the development of innovative services and products in mobility markets. With this respect, Deliverable 3 as part of Work Package (WP) 3 of the MAASiFiE project concentrates on the identification of new business and operator models providing an insight into the new transport paradigm of Mobility-as-a-Service (MaaS). Based on a state-of- the-art survey covering interviews with experts, an online questionnaire, case examples of MaaS services and a literature review, a more thorough understanding of how transport- related stakeholders perceive and interact with the topic of MaaS is gained. Thus, an elaboration of responsibilities/roles, business models, related value chains and operator models in the context of MaaS is enabled and results are provided in this document. As a common point of reference, the consortium has agreed upon the following definition of MaaS: Multimodal and sustainable mobility services addressing customers' transport needs by integrating planning and payment on a one-stop-shop principle.
Mobility services are expected to increase the use of public transport and ride sharing and to provide the means for rationalising passenger transport and wherever possible freight transport as well as identified by the state-of-the-art survey within Deliverable 3. In addition, available freight transport and logistic operations are analysed wherever similar characteristics to MaaS-related passenger applications are identified. Overall, the state-of- the-art survey results focusing on international MaaS concepts have shown that there currently exist various smaller MaaS-pilots covering different geographical service areas, including for instance city, rural and/or regional areas. Very few larger MaaS services have been established with a wider geographical coverage, including national and international service coverage. Based on different MaaS service areas, different aims and requirements for implementing MaaS concepts arise. While for instance, urban areas focus largely on the reduction of private car usage, congestion and transport-related emissions, rural areas aim at promoting higher efficiency and utilization rates by emphasizing demand driven transport services. National and international MaaS services focus rather on providing combined all-in- one packages including for instance long-haul transport, accommodation, event and booking services.
Identified value chains of MaaS services illustrate changes of roles and responsibilities in the organisation of transport of people and goods. In this respect, changes in value networks and related organisational requirements are derived and applied to show different combinations of MaaS services. Basically four MaaS operator models were identified: Reseller, Integrator, Public transport operator and PPP models. Based on service combination characteristics, it could be concluded that the commercial Reseller model may best fit travel agencies and therefore national and international traveling. The Public transport (PT) operator model could be mainly used in cities, where comprehensive PT already exists. The PPP model may be preferred for rural areas, as public actors have an interest in increasing efficiency of subsidized transportation. The commercial Integrator model would probably fit well in both urban and suburban areas and national/international MaaS; thus it could be considered the most versatile and flexible model. However, as MaaS is continuously developing, and can be implemented in various ways, the presented models and categorizations should be read and interpreted as a current understanding of an emerging phenomenon. http://www.vtt.fi/sites/maasifie/results
Novel mobility services that heavily rely on technological advances could contribute to seamless mobility. Mobility as a Service (MaaS) is such a concept. The objective of the FS-MaaS project is to propose the design of a MaaS concept for London, the MaaS-London, and examine its feasibility.
To work towards the concept of MaaS-London, first, the supply and the demand sides of the London transport market are analysed. There are a variety of mobility services supplied in London such as car clubs (car sharing), ride sharing, bike sharing, public transport, rail and taxi which altogether make London an ideal ground to exploit MaaS-London.
The MaaS-London is an integrated platform that includes registration and package selection, intermodal journey planning, booking, smart ticketing and payment functions so that the entire chain of transport can be managed in this centralised platform. The most outstanding feature of MaaS-London is the provision of mobility packages, which consist of tailored bundles of mobility services customised to individual needs.
The feasibility study indicates that the introduction of MaaS-London will benefit both the supply and the demand side. Transport operators will benefit by creating a larger market via the integrated platform. Travellers will also welcome the concept due to travel expense and time reduction, and better service experience. MaaS-London is a feasible product that can well serve London transport market and contribute to London’s 2020 vision.
The aim of this paper is to present and discuss results from the first in a series of four workshops held in three European countries – Austria, Finland, and Sweden – the purpose of which is to provide input for the development of a European roadmap for Mobility as a Service (MaaS) within the project Mobility as a Service for Linking Europe (MaaSiFiE). The first workshop focused on the need for change in the current mobility paradigm, during which experts discussed needs and visions for future mobility services. Although a range of factors, including enablers and obstacles, for developing MaaS in and across Europe were identified in the three national workshops, some common key issues emerged, including: the need for qualified leadership and a clearer division of new roles and responsibilities; a user-centered, holistic ‘life’ approach to mobility and traveler’s needs that is also founded on quality assurance, transparency, commonalities, and standards; a sustainability focus addressing both short- and long-term local and national goals of equity, accessibility, and environmental and consumer protection; a (eco)system approach in which rules, regulations, policies, actions, and mindsets of both individuals and organizations need to innovate so as to better support the development and implementation of MaaS.
The concept of Mobility as a Service or MaaS has been proposed as feasible way to achieve more sustainable transport. One example of such a service is UbiGo, a broker service for everyday urban travel developed and evaluated within the Go:Smart project in Gothenburg, Sweden. This paper presents evidence of travel behavior and related changes from a six-month field operational test (FOT), during which 195 participants tested the new service. Based on participant questionnaires, interviews, and travel diaries, change-enabling service attributes are identified, including the ‘transportation smorgasbord’ concept, simplicity, improved access and flexibility, and economy. Although not a service attribute per se, the FOT also enabled the trialability of new behaviors and a reevaluation of convenience. Additionally, the broader implications of the FOT findings on understanding travelers’ new choices and behaviors are discussed in terms of the future design of MaaS. Service design and demand are not independent of each other, and if a mobility service is to change behavior (i.e. achieve impact) as well as create added value, these goals need to drive design decisions and a deliberate, conscious development of service dimensions such as customization, bundling, and range of the offer. Based on the experiences gained, the authors emphasize a more holistic and flexible perspective on mobility (and design perspective on mobility services) that is focused on serving users’ needs, and that involves capitalizing on synergies between public and private actors, in order to develop the MaaS ‘offer’ and better meet the urban mobility challenge ahead.
Becoming a real mobility provider Combined Mobility: public transport in synergy with other modes like car-sharing, taxi and cycling
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