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Development and Validation of an Instrument to Assess the Impact of Cyberbullying: The Cybervictimization Emotional Impact Scale

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Abstract

Cyberbullying is a phenomenon with important adverse consequences on victims. The emotional impact of this phenomenon has been well established. However, there is to date no instrument with good psychometric properties tested to assess such impact. The objective of this study was developing and testing the psychometric properties of an instrument to assess the emotional impact of cyberbullying: the "Cybervictimization Emotional Impact Scale, CVEIS." The sample included 1,016 Compulsory Secondary Education students (52.9 percent female) aged between 12 and 18 (M = 13.86, DT = 1.33) from three schools in southern Spain. The study used Confirmatory Factor Analyses to test the structure of the questionnaire and robustness of the scale. Internal consistency was also tested. The results supported the suitability of a three-factor model: active, depressed, and annoyed. This model showed an optimal adjustment, which was better than its competing models. It also demonstrated strong invariance among cybervictims and non-cybervictims and also among gender. The internal consistency of each factor, and the total scale, was also appropriate. The article concludes by discussing research and practical implications of the scale.

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... It is claimed that the negative effects of cyber victimization are related to the coping strategy adopted by the victims. In other words, it is stated that the negative emotions experienced by the victims who adopt an ineffective coping strategy are more intense (Jacobs et al., 2014;Elipe et al., 2017;Beyazıt et al., 2021). For example, seeking social support from family and peers, one of the strategies used to cope with cyberbullying, reduces depressive symptoms, while confronting the bully increases the likelihood that victims will experience depression (Machmutow et al., 2012). ...
... It is stated that the coping strategy used when faced with cyberbullying reduces or strengthens the negative effects of cyberbullying (Machmutow et al., 2012;Jacobs et al., 2014). Also, previous research has revealed that the negative effects of cyberbullying on adolescents' lives are related to the coping strategy used, and that adolescents who use ineffective coping strategies are more likely to experience the negative effects of cyberbullying more intensely (Jacobs et al., 2014;Elipe et al., 2017). It is stated that the strategy of seeking help and information by asking support from family, peers or an adult in coping with cyberbullying is effective in reducing depressive symptoms, which is one of the psychological effects of cyberbullying. ...
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Due to the prevalence of cyberbullying in adolescence and its association with a number of negative psychosocial consequences, there is a need to develop programs to prevent this phenomenon. In this study, the aim was to examine the effect of the Cyberbullying Awareness Program on adolescents’ awareness of cyberbullying and their coping skills. A total of 38 adolescents were included in the study, where 17 adolescents were assigned to the intervention group and 21 to the control group. The mean age of the adolescents was 13.8 (SD = 0.44). The Cyberbullying Awareness Program was administered to the intervention group in 10 sessions. The Cyberbullying Awareness Scale for Adolescents and Coping with Cyberbullying Scale were used as data collection tools in the study. As a result of the study, it was determined that the Cyberbullying Awareness Program was effective in increasing the awareness level of the adolescents in the intervention group about cyberbullying, as well the development of their skills to cope with cyberbullying. In line with the results of the study, suggestions are presented to educators and policy makers. It is recommended that policy makers include cyberbullying prevention programs in their national curriculums in order to increase the awareness of adolescents about cyberbullying and improve their coping skills, and these programs should be implemented by educators to children and adolescents nationwide.
... Sadness was associated with cybervictims in more than 80% of cases, and fear in all of the cases, in line with the literature [77,78]. Nonetheless, sadness was also associated with defenders, possibly indicating empathy towards the victim, and cyberbullies. ...
... Given that cyberbullies' sadness came commonly after discovering their actions, this emotion could be interpreted as an outcome of the social disapproval of their aggressive behaviors [79]. Anger was depicted in relation to cybervictims and defenders, plausibly indicating a negative activation in response to the unpleasant event and a willingness to restore a desired condition [77,80]. Cyberbullies' anger, on the other hand, was represented as a reaction to uncontrollable events (e.g., a thunderstorm), as if adolescents perceive that this role is somehow characterized by emotional dysregulation, as confirmed by previous studies [81]. ...
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The present study aimed at giving voice to students from disadvantaged socio-economic backgrounds using a co-participatory approach. Participants were 59 adolescents (52.5% males) aged between 14 and 16 from five European countries who created ten comics to illustrate cyberbullying for a broader audience of peers. We analyzed texts and images according to four primary themes: cyberbullying episodes (types, platforms, co-occurrence with bullying), coping strategies, characters (roles, gender, and group membership), and emotions. The content analysis showed that online denigration on social media platforms was widely represented and that cyberbullying co-existed with bullying. Social strategies were frequently combined with passive and confrontational coping, up to suicide. All roles (cyberbully, cybervictim, bystander, reinforcer, defender) were portrayed among the 154 characters identified, even if victims and defenders appeared in the vignettes more often. Males, females, peers, and adults were represented in all roles. Among the 87 emotions detected, sadness was the most frequently expressed, followed by joy, surprise, anger, and fear. Emotions, mainly represented by drawings or drawings with text, were most often represented in association with cybervictims. The results are discussed in terms of their methodological and practical implications, as they emphasize the importance of valorizing young peoples’ voices in research and interventions against cyberbullying.
... On the other hand, the article has been limited only to the validity analysis on the psychometric measurement scale studied, without analyzing other dimensions. Also, future research lines will allow for a series of local studies on technostress in the Chilean educational system [18,19,25,67] to be completed, as well as for extensive measurements to be developed on technostress in university students, and further work relating technostress with other aspects, such as techno-addiction, cyberbullying, transformation of learning processes and engagement to educational work, and stimulating 'learning by doing' [5,6,[68][69][70]. Funding: The publication fee (article processing charge, APC) was partially funded by Universidad Central de Chile (Code: ACD219201) and was partially funded through the publication incentive fund by Universidad Andres Bello (Code: CC21500), and the Universidad Autónoma de Chile (Code: CC456001). ...
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The main aim in this research was to validate a scale for measuring technostress in Chilean university students under the context of hybrid education. There were 212 university students as participants from the central-south zone of Chile. For measuring technostress manifestations, a technostress questionnaire for Chinese university professors and its adaptation for Spanish university students was used as a base instrument to adapt the scale. The exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis generated an adequacy of the psychometric scale by eliminating three items from the original scales but generated important changes by reordering the other 19 items into only three factors, establishing an important local difference with previous versions that contemplated five factors, but retaining as a central axis the stress produced by a misfit between the person and his or her environment. The resulting scale was based on factors such as Abilities-Demands Techno-Educational, Needs-Supplies Resources, and Person-People Factor. It also has a good internal consistency with a scale that allows for the continuation of technostress measurements in the local context; adding to studies on this topic which have already been carried out on diverse actors of the Chilean educational system; proposing a reliable and valid psychometric scale of technostress in Chilean university students; and giving researchers and academic managers the ability to know the adverse effects of the use of technologies and propose mitigation actions.
... Furthermore, no research analyzing the relationship between profiles (victim or aggressor) evaluated using the ECIP-Q and other variables associated with cyberbullying has been found. Recent studies that use other questionnaires to evaluate cyberbullying show that both student victims [33][34][35][36] and aggressors [16,37,38] present symptoms of depression and antisocial behavior [39]. Some authors consider that school cyberbullying can generate a greater psychosocial maladjustment in the victims than that caused by face-to-face bullying [33,40] due to the aforementioned characteristics: large audience, anonymity of the bully, or the unlimited nature of the harassment [41]. ...
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The prevention of cyberbullying at school requires assessing its prevalence by means of brief measurement instruments with adequate psychometric properties. The present study aims to study the psychometric properties of the European Cyberbullying Intervention Project Questionnaire (ECIP-Q) in a sample of 1777 Spanish adolescents (54.1% women, M = 15.71 years; SD = 1.26), selected by stratified random cluster sampling. The two-factor model (victimization and aggression) displayed appropriate goodness of-fit indices. Configural measurement invariance model across gender was found. The omega reliability coefficient for the victimization subscale was 0.82, and for the aggression subscale was 0.68. The ECIP-Q scores were negatively associated with self-esteem and prosocial behavior, and positively associated with depression symptoms and emotional and behavioral difficulties. Significant differences were found between victim and non-victim groups, and between aggressor and non-aggressor groups on the same variables. Victims and aggressors scored lower on self-esteem, and higher on depression symptoms and emotional and behavioral difficulties than those not involved in cyberbullying situations. These findings contribute to demonstrate the satisfactory psychometric quality of the ECIP-Q scores as an assessment tool for cyberbullying in Spanish adolescents.
... Depressed and annoyed impact. To assess the emotional impact on women of receiving an unsolicited dick pic (i.e., hypothetical dick pic scenario), two of the subscales of the Cybervictimization Emotional Impact Scale (CVEIS; Elipe et al., 2017) were adapted: the depressed impact subscale (i.e., tense/nervous; guilty; scared/afraid; lonely; ashamed; defenseless/helpless), and the annoyed impact subscale (i.e., angry/annoyed; irritable/in a bad mood; choleric/enraged). Both subscales were composed of a series of emotions that were to be rated according to the degree to which they were experienced/felt, using a 5-point Likert response scale ranging from 1 (Not at all) to 5 (Very much). ...
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The sending of sexually explicit images by men to women without prior request, a practice commonly referred to as sending or receiving a “dick pic,” is a fairly common manifestation of sexual cyber-violence that has grown in recent times. As research on this type of sexual cyber-violence is limited, the current study analyzed the prevalence of this phenomenon in a sample of 347 Spanish women between 18 and 30 years of age, studying the factors that influence the emotional impact reported by women if they received an unsolicited dick pic (using a hypothetical scenario) and exploring the various coping strategies that women would use in that situation. Results showed a significant prevalence of this type of cyber-violence in the sample, as 48.1% of the participants had received an unsolicited dick pic from an unknown man at some point. Women with lower levels of hostile sexism—but not of benevolent sexism—reported a higher depressed and angry/annoyed emotional impact of the sexual cyber-violence scenario. This was also the case for women with a less conservative political ideology, with less religious beliefs, as well as those women who perceived that their female friends receive this type of images frequently (descriptive norm) and who perceived that their female friends are less accepting of these situations (injunctive norm). In addition, from the strategies presented to the participants to cope with this situation of sexual cyber-violence, it was observed that a significant percentage of women would choose strategies, such as talking about the incident with other people and blocking the sender’s access. Yet, fewer women would employ effective strategies, such as reporting the perpetrator’s profile to the managers or administrators of the social network or reporting the incident to the police. This study is one of the first studies in Spain that addresses this new form of sexual cyber-violence against women by unknown men and suggests that, in online social networks, women experience the same situations of abuse, harassment, and sexual objectification that they have faced offline in everyday life. Therefore, more work needs to be done to raise awareness and try to prevent these situations, while also providing more support to these women so that they can adopt effective coping strategies.
... The Cyberbullying Victimization Emotional Impact Scale (CVEIS; Elipe et al., 2017) was used to assess the emotional impact of experiencing victimization. The scale comprises 18 items distributed across three factors: (a) active impact, six items (e.g., energetic, lively; determined, daring; active, alert), α = .91; ...
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Introduction A relationship between homophobic verbal and bullying victimization has been established in the scientific literature, yet its findings remain debated. Similarly, the emotional impact of these phenomena may cross over, although not enough evidence is available to confirm this hypothesis. The study sought to examine this overlap of phenomena as well as their emotional impact, both independently and jointly, in a community-based school sample of adolescents with varying sexual orientations. Methods A total of 2089 Spanish students aged 11 to 18 years (M = 13.68, SD = 1.31) completed self-report measures assessing homophobic verbal and bullying victimization, sexual orientation, and emotional impact during 2017. Results Lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adolescents reported greater homophobic verbal and bullying victimization than their non-LGB peers. No differences were found in emotional impact based on sexual orientation or gender. However, differences were found for victimization type, with LGB youth overrepresented in the poly-victim group. A mediation effect of homophobic verbal victimization was observed between bullying victimization and negative emotional impact. Conclusions LGB students more frequently experience more types of victimization than their non-LGB peers. Homophobic victimization amplifies the likely emotional impact of bullying victimization, which should be considered in prevention programs and psychological interventions. Policy Implications These findings highlight the importance of sexual diversity in the study of bullying behavior. It is also identified as a key area when developing prevention programs aimed at eradicating this type of violence from our schools.
... Survey-based methods have been used to examine the definitional criteria of cyberbullying (Fern andez-Antelo & Cuadrado-Gordillo, 2018;Hutson, 2016;Mehari et al., 2014), the psychometric properties of existing measurement tools (Berne et al., 2013;Buelga et al., 2020;Elipe et al., 2017;Palladino et al., 2015), prevalence rates (Brochado et al., 2017;Wang et al., 2019), risk and protective factors (Gül et al., 2019;Kowalski et al., 2019;Zych et al., 2019), and the psychosocial correlates of cyberbullying (Fahy et al., 2016;Garaigordobil & Machimbarrena, 2019;Kowalski & Limber, 2013;Navarro et al., 2015). This information has set the foundation for the inquiry of more complex research questions that are related to mitigating the impact of cyberbullying (Ansary, 2020). ...
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The investigation of bystander behavior in response to cyberbullying is a developing area of research that is still in its infancy. To advance this area of inquiry, researchers can use information and communication technology (ICT) platforms, such as simulated social media websites, as an experimental paradigm to facilitate and measure the behavior change of cyber-bystanders in a controlled virtual environment. However, this is a method that remains under-utilized by researchers and it remains unclear why. Thus, the purpose of this paper is to use an informed and empirical framework to systematically identify the methodological shortcomings that contribute to the underutilization of ICT platforms in cyber-bystander research. The final section of the paper builds on these 5 principles by critically analyzing the unique features of ICT platforms to outline ways in which researchers can design paradigms that are informed by both theory and practice. Overall, this paper aims to further develop the types of experimental methods that are used in the field of cyberbullying to create new avenues of research.
... To examine the emotional impact of sexting, an adaptation of the Cybervictimization Emotional Impact Scale, namely the CVEIS (Elipe et al., 2017) was used. Just following the four sexting items, a filter question was asked, and those who said to have sent, received, or forwarded videos, photos, or messages of an erotic-sexual nature were required to fill in the current questionnaire. ...
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Sexting refers to the exchange of sexual content material via technological devices. The definitions of this phenomenon vary greatly, mainly, depending on the types of sexting: primary and secondary. Besides the above, there is no common perspective on whether sexting is a risk behavior that entails some type of impact by itself or not and, in such a case, whether this impact varies according to gender. In addition, the need to be popular has shown to be a factor that could increase the probability of being involved in sexting. The present study analyzes the potential emotional impact of sexting as well as the effect of the need for popularity on this phenomenon and if it varies according to gender. The sample comprised 2,356 high school students (46.8% female, 53.2% male; age range 11–18 years old, M = 13.72; SD = 1.31) belonging to 12 compulsory secondary education (ESO) schools from the south of Spain. To assess sexting implication, four questions were presented to participants (sending, receiving, forwarding, and receiving sexts via intermediary). Scales, self-report, about emotional impact (depressed, annoyed, and active) and need for popularity were also applied. The results obtained show that, although sexting has a clear emotional impact on adolescents, it does not appear to generate a negative impact among those involved, at least in the short term. Concretely, this phenomenon seems to trigger emotions related to activation in boys and girls (I feel lively, energetic, satisfied, ready, determined, active). Additionally, with respect to the need for popularity, its relevance, specially, in relation to active emotional impact has been confirmed by the analyses. Statistical models found for boys and girls were similar. In addition, some differences in emotional impact by gender were found, girls feeling more depressed and annoyed in secondary sexting, and boys more active regarding both types of sexting.
... In previous studies of cyberbullying, researchers have tended to focus on its prevalence, influential factors, and psychological impact on victims (Elipe et al., 2017;Lee and Shin, 2017;Schenk and Fremouw, 2012;Wright, 2018;Yang et al., 2018). However, it has also been found that the experience of cyberbullying can have serious psychological effects for bullies, such as sleeping difficulties, depression, suicide, and substance abuse (Donoghue and Meltzer, 2018;Reed et al., 2015;Rodelli et al., 2018;Selkie et al., 2015). ...
Article
Background: Cyberbullying is a serious social issue that can cause a number of psychological and behavioral problems for perpetrators and victims. Previous studies have shown that adolescent victims of cyberbullying are more likely to exhibit depressive symptoms. However, few studies have investigated the relationship between the perpetration of cyberbullying and depression, or the mediating and moderating mechanisms underlying this relationship. Methods: A questionnaire survey was conducted among 476 college students to investigate the relationships between cyberbullying perpetration and depression, the mediating role of social anxiety, and the moderating role of neuroticism. Results: The results showed that cyberbullying perpetration had a significant and positive predictive effect on depression. Social anxiety partially mediated this relationship. The direct predictive effect of cyberbullying perpetration on depression, and the relation between social anxiety and depression, were both moderated by neuroticism. Cyberbullying perpetration had a greater impact on depression for college students with lower levels of neuroticism and the predictive function of social anxiety on depression was stronger for individuals with low levels of neuroticism too. But neuroticism did not moderate the association between cyberbullying perpetration and social anxiety. Limitations: This study focused only on the individual variables influencing the relationship between cyberbullying perpetration and depression, and did not examine interpersonal or environmental variables. Also, the cross-sectional research design means that causality cannot be deduced from the results. Conclusions: Cyberbullying perpetration can predict depression directly, and also indirectly via the mediating role of social anxiety. Neuroticism moderates the relation both between cyberbullying and depression, and between social anxiety and depression. These findings provide new perspectives for the treatment and prevention of depression among college students.
... However, more research targeting the cyberbullies is needed to identify their symptom pro iles for screening purposes and for the more effective prevention of cyberbullying. Even the screening scales have focused on cybervictims, for example, The Cybervictimization Emotional Impact Scale which has been recently tested for its psychometric properties in Spain [95]. This scale yielded three factors including active, depressed and annoyed. ...
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Introduction Problematic Usage of the Internet (PUI) refers to a broad and likely heterogeneous group of Internet-related conditions associated with behavioural disturbances and functional impairment. Methods Within PUI several conditions have been reported, including Gaming Disorder, Shopping Addiction, Cyberchondria, Gambling Disorder, Cyberpornography Addiction and Cyberbullying. While increasing reports in the field try to define the epidemiologic and clinical boundaries of these conditions, the rapid and continuous evolution of Internet related behaviours as well as their problematic/pathological expressions are often difficult to diagnose, assess, approach with treatment interventions and follow-up. Results In addition, some of the PUI-related conditions show characteristics of addiction to the Internet as a preferential tool to engage in specific behaviours, while some others exclusively manifest on the Internet, making it necessary to find distinct assessment and treatment pathways. Conclusion The inclusion of Internet Gaming Disorder in Section III by the DSM-5 and the recognition of Gaming Disorder by the ICD-11 opened the way for a systematic clinical investigation of this and other PUI-related conditions, particularly in terms of preventive and therapeutic strategies. The present article is aimed at offering an updated clinical overview on the main expressions of PUI, focussing on the latest acquisitions in this evolving field.
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Background: Between 15% and 70% of adolescents report experiencing cybervictimization. Cybervictimization is associated with multiple negative consequences, including depressed mood. Few validated, easily disseminated interventions exist to prevent cybervictimization and its consequences. With over 97% of adolescents using social media (such as YouTube, Facebook, Instagram, or Snapchat), recruiting and delivering a prevention intervention through social media and apps may improve accessibility of prevention tools for at-risk youth. Objective: This study aims to evaluate the feasibility and acceptability of and obtain preliminary outcome data on IMPACT (Intervention Media to Prevent Adolescent Cyber-Conflict Through Technology), a brief, remote app-based intervention to prevent and reduce the effect of cyberbullying. Methods: From January 30, 2020, to May 3, 2020, a national sample of 80 adolescents with a history of past-year cybervictimization was recruited through Instagram for a randomized control trial of IMPACT, a brief, remote research assistant-led intervention and a fully automated app-based program, versus enhanced web-based resources (control). Feasibility and acceptability were measured by consent, daily use, and validated surveys. Although not powered for efficacy, outcomes (victimization, bystander self-efficacy, and well-being) were measured using validated measures at 8 and 16 weeks and evaluated using a series of longitudinal mixed models. Results: Regarding feasibility, 24.5% (121/494) of eligible participants provided contact information; of these, 69.4% (84/121) completed full enrollment procedures. Of the participants enrolled, 45% (36/80) were randomized into the IMPACT intervention and 55% (44/80) into the enhanced web-based resources groups. All participants randomized to the intervention condition completed the remote intervention session, and 89% (77/80) of the daily prompts were answered. The retention rate was 99% (79/80) at 8 weeks and 96% (77/80) at 16 weeks for all participants. Regarding acceptability, 100% (36/36) of the intervention participants were at least moderately satisfied with IMPACT overall, and 92% (33/36) of the participants were at least moderately satisfied with the app. At both 8 and 16 weeks, well-being was significantly higher (β=1.17, SE 0.87, P=.02 at 8 weeks and β=3.24, SE 0.95, P<.001 at 16 weeks) and psychological stress was lower (β=-.66, SE 0.08, P=.04 at 8 weeks and β=-.89, SE 0.09, P<.001 at 16 weeks) among IMPACT users than among control group users. Participants in the intervention group attempted significantly more bystander interventions than those in the control group at 8 weeks (β=.82, SE 0.42; P=.02). Conclusions: This remote app-based intervention for victims of cyberbullying was feasible and acceptable, increased overall well-being and bystander interventions, and decreased psychological stress. Our findings are especially noteworthy given that the trial took place during the COVID-19 pandemic. The use of Instagram to recruit adolescents can be a successful strategy for identifying and intervening with those at the highest risk of cybervictimization. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04259216; http://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04259216.
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IMPORTANCE Peer victimization is related to an increased chance of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among children and adolescents. OBJECTIVE To examine the relationship between peer victimization and suicidal ideation or suicide attempts using meta-analysis. DATA SOURCES Ovid MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Web of Science were searched for articles from 1910 to 2013. The search terms were bully*, teas*, victim*, mobbing, ragging, and harassment in combination with the term suic*. Of the 491 studies identified, 34 reported on the relationship between peer victimization and suicidal ideation, with a total of 284 375 participants. Nine studies reported on the relationship between peer victimization and suicide attempts, with a total of 70 102 participants. STUDY SELECTION Studies were eligible for inclusion if they reported an effect size on the relationship between peer victimization and suicidal ideation or suicide attempt in children or adolescents. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS Two observers independently coded the effect sizes from the articles. Data were pooled using a random effects model. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES This study focused on suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Peer victimization was hypothesized to be related to suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. RESULTS Peer victimization was found to be related to both suicidal ideation (odds ratio, 2.23 [95% CI, 2.10-2.37]) and suicide attempts (2.55 [1.95-3.34]) among children and adolescents. Analyses indicated that these results were not attributable to publication bias. Results were not moderated by sex, age, or study quality. Cyberbullying was more strongly related to suicidal ideation compared with traditional bullying. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Peer victimization is a risk factor for child and adolescent suicidal ideation and attempts. Schools should use evidence-based practices to reduce bullying.
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The study's aim was to obtain an overview of all relevant variables involved in ineffective coping behavior and improvement in coping behavior as it pertains to cyberbullying among adolescents, in order to systematically develop a theory- and evidence-based intervention. This was done by means of a three round online Delphi study. First, 20 key experts listed possible relevant determinants. Next, 70 experts scored these determinants on their relevance and finally, experts rerated relevance of each determinant based on group median scores. The experts agreed that 115 items are relevant for ineffective (62) or improvement in (53) coping behavior. New found determinants were the extent to which one can adjust behavior upon feedback, impulsivity, self-confidence, communication style, personality, decision-making skills, conflict resolution skills, previous participation in personal resilience training, social relationships, rumors and self-disclosure. We conclude that the Delphi technique is useful in discovering new and relevant determinants of behavior.
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Although the Internet has transformed the way our world operates, it has also served as a venue for cyberbullying, a serious form of misbehavior among youth. With many of today's youth experiencing acts of cyberbullying, a growing body of literature has begun to document the prevalence, predictors, and outcomes of this behavior, but the literature is highly fragmented and lacks theoretical focus. Therefore, our purpose in the present article is to provide a critical review of the existing cyberbullying research. The general aggression model is proposed as a useful theoretical framework from which to understand this phenomenon. Additionally, results from a meta-analytic review are presented to highlight the size of the relationships between cyberbullying and traditional bullying, as well as relationships between cyberbullying and other meaningful behavioral and psychological variables. Mixed effects meta-analysis results indicate that among the strongest associations with cyberbullying perpetration were normative beliefs about aggression and moral disengagement, and the strongest associations with cyberbullying victimization were stress and suicidal ideation. Several methodological and sample characteristics served as moderators of these relationships. Limitations of the meta-analysis include issues dealing with causality or directionality of these associations as well as generalizability for those meta-analytic estimates that are based on smaller sets of studies (k < 5). Finally, the present results uncover important areas for future research. We provide a relevant agenda, including the need for understanding the incremental impact of cyberbullying (over and above traditional bullying) on key behavioral and psychological outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
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We investigated the co-occurrence of traditional bullying, cyberbullying, traditional victimization, and cybervictimization, and analyzed whether students belonging to particular groups of bullies (e.g., traditional, cyber, or both), victims (e.g., traditional, cyber, or both), and bully-victims differed regarding adjustment. Seven hundred sixty-one adolescents (49% boys) aged 14–19 years (M = 15.6 years) were surveyed. More students than expected by chance were totally uninvolved, more students were traditional bully-victims, and more students were combined bully-victims (traditional and cyber). The highest risks for poor adjustment (high scores in reactive and instrumental aggression, depressive, and somatic symptoms) were observed in students who were identified as combined bully-victims (traditional and cyber). In addition gender differences were examined.
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The association between mental health problems and traditional bullying is well known, whereas the strength of the association in cyberbullying is less known. This study aimed to compare the association between mutually exclusive groups of bullying involvement and psychosomatic problems as measured by the PsychoSomatic Problems scale. The sample comprised 3820 students (13–16 years old) in Sweden. The results indicate an association between bullying and psychosomatic problems, regardless of type of bullying involvement. No statistically significant differences in psychosomatic problems were found between cyberbullying and traditional bullying, either for victims or for bullies. The results do not confirm the hypothesis that the association between bullying and mental health is stronger for cyberbullying than for traditional bullying. Another important finding is that cyberbullies seem as likely as cybervictims to be at risk for mental health problems.
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In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
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Cyberbullying (CB) is deliberate, aggressive activity carried out through digital means. Cyber victimization (CV) in adolescence may be related to negative psychosocial variables such as loneliness, and depressive mood. The purpose of the present study, the first of its kind in Israel, was to examine the association between adolescent CV and two social-emotional variables: loneliness and depressive mood. The sample consisted of 242 Israeli adolescents, aged 13-16 years, who completed questionnaires regarding Internet use, cyberbullying, traditional bullying, loneliness and depressive mood. 16.5% of the participants reported being cyber victims and 32.5% reported knowing someone who was cyber victimized. The results revealed a relationship between CV and loneliness (social, emotional and general) as well as with depressive mood. A logistic hierarchic regression found that loneliness, gender and depressive mood each explain some variance in cyber victimization in adolescents. As an anchor for comparison, and in order to shed light on the findings, results are presented in comparison to traditional bullying. The results make a contribution to national and international cyberbullying research and broaden the knowledge about potential risk factors for cyber victimization.
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Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) have generated new forms of communication. As in traditional communication scenarios, potentially harmful relational dynamics, such as intimidation and harassment between peers (cyberbullying), may develop in these scenarios. In addition, some of the characteristics of these new forms of communication may facilitate the establishment of these forms of aggression. This study analyzes the emotional perceptions of the pupils involved in cyberbullying via the Internet. Participants were 830 pupils from 10 secondary schools in Cordoba (Spain). The instrument used was “Cuestionario Cyberbullying” (Ortega, Calmaestra & Mora-Merchán, 2007). Results confirmed that, as in traditional bullying, bullies and victims show different emotional perceptions about the victim’s suffering. Data suggest that bullies and aggressive-victims may show an emotional perception deficit that could mean they are insensitive to the victim’s feelings.
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This study examined associations among depression, suicidal behaviors, and bullying and victimization experiences in 1491 high school students using data from the 2009 Youth Risk Behavior Survey. Results demonstrated that depression mediated the association between bullying/victimization and suicide attempts, but differently for males and females. Specifically, depression mediated the link between traditional victimization and suicide attempts similarly across gender, whereas depression mediated the link between cyber victimization and suicide attempts only for females. Similarly, depression mediated the link between traditional bullying and suicide attempts for females only. Depression did not mediate the link between cyberbullying and suicide attempts for either gender. Implications of the findings are discussed, including the importance of greater detection of depression among students involved in bullying, and the need for a suicide prevention and intervention component in anti-bullying programs. Findings suggest that bullying prevention efforts be extended from middle school students to include high school students.
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After sketching how my own interest and research into bullying problems began, I address a number of potentially controversial issues related to the definition and measurement of such problems. The importance of maintaining the distinctions between bullying victimization and general victimization and between bullying perpetration and general aggression is strongly emphasized. There are particular problems with the common method of peer nominations for purposes of prevalence estimation, comparisons of such estimates and mean levels across groups and time, and measurement of change. Two large-scale projects with time series data show that several recent claims about cyber bullying made in the media and by some researchers are greatly exaggerated and lack scientific support. Recent meta-analyses of the long-term outcomes for former bullies and victims provide convincing evidence that being involved in such problems is not just a harmless and passing school problem but something that has serious adjustment and public health consequences that also entail great costs to society. Another section presents my view of why the theme of bullying took quite some time to reach the peer relations research community in the United States and the role of a dominant research tradition focusing on "likeability" in this account. In a final section, I summarize some reasons why it may be considered important and interesting to focus both research and intervention on bully/victim problems. Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Clinical Psychology Volume 9 is March 26, 2013. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/catalog/pubdates.aspx for revised estimates.
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Several studies show certain co-occurrence of the traditional bullying and the cyberbullying. However, the results about relation and homogeneity among the roles of each of them are not unanimous. The present study intends to advance in the knowledge about the above-mentioned co-occurrence by exploring the dimensions of victimization and traditional aggression and cyber-victimization and cyber-aggression and by identifying its eventual directionality. A short-term longitudinal design was developed. The sample was formed by 274 adolescents, aging 12 to 18 years-old, belonging to 2 schools of Andalusia (South of Spain). In order to value the impact of bullying and cyberbullying the European Cyberbullying Intervention Project Questionnaire (ECIPQ) and the European Bullying Intervention Project Questionnaire (EBIPQ) were used. The results show important simultaneity among both phenomena and suggest that although in cyberbullying -cyber-victimization and cyber-aggression- may be predicted because of previous involvement of the subject in traditional bullying, on the contrary it does not happen. In addition, previous victimization is a risk factor for traditional bullying and for cyberbullying. Results are discussed in relation to the process and socio-group dynamics arising from the bullying and cyberbullying phenomena, and in terms of their prevention.
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We examine the emotional impact caused to victims of bullying in its traditional form, both directly and indirectly, as well as bullying inflicted by use of new technologies such as mobile phones and the Internet. A sample of 1, 671 adolescents and young people responded to a questionnaire which asked if they had been victims of various forms of bullying, as well as the emotions this caused. The results show that although traditional bullying affected significantly more young people than cyberbullying, the latter affected one in ten adolescents. Analysis of the emotions caused showed that traditional bullying produced a wide variety of impacts, with the victims being divided into five different emotional categories, while indirect bullying and cyberbullying presented a narrower variety of results with the victims being classifiable into just two groups: Those who said that they had not been emotionally affected and those who simultaneously suffered from a wide variety of negative emotions. The influence of age, gender, and severity on each emotional category is also analyzed. © 2009 Hogrefe Publishing.
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Using data from a regional census of high school students, we have documented the prevalence of cyberbullying and school bullying victimization and their associations with psychological distress. In the fall of 2008, 20,406 ninth- through twelfth-grade students in MetroWest Massachusetts completed surveys assessing their bullying victimization and psychological distress, including depressive symptoms, self-injury, and suicidality. A total of 15.8% of students reported cyberbullying and 25.9% reported school bullying in the past 12 months. A majority (59.7%) of cyberbullying victims were also school bullying victims; 36.3% of school bullying victims were also cyberbullying victims. Victimization was higher among nonheterosexually identified youths. Victims report lower school performance and school attachment. Controlled analyses indicated that distress was highest among victims of both cyberbullying and school bullying (adjusted odds ratios [AORs] were from 4.38 for depressive symptoms to 5.35 for suicide attempts requiring medical treatment). Victims of either form of bullying alone also reported elevated levels of distress. Our findings confirm the need for prevention efforts that address both forms of bullying and their relation to school performance and mental health.
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Using data from the 2006 Health Behavior in School-aged Children (HBSC) survey, the prevalence of 6 forms of bullying (physical, verbal, relational, sexual, cyber, and racist), and the role of smoking and drinking in bullying was examined among Italian adolescents for this study. The sample was composed of 2667 Italian middle and secondary school students (49.9% girls) randomly selected. The revised Olweus Bully/Victim Questionnaire was used to measure physical, verbal, relational, sexual, cyber, and racist forms of bullying. For each form, 3 categories were created and compared with students "not involved in bullying": bully, victim, and bully-victim. Logistic regressions were applied to test the connections among the 3 forms of involvement in different types of bullying and smoking and drinking. Prevalence of having been bullied or having bullied others at school at least once in the last 2 months was 11.6% for physical, 52% for verbal, 47.9% for relational, 18.5% for sexual, 19.4% for cyber, and 9.4% for racist bullying. Compared to girls, boys were more likely to be involved in physical bullying; moreover, boys were more involved as bullies in verbal, sexual, cyber, and racist bullying. In contrast, girls were more likely to be victims of verbal, relational, sexual, and cyber bullying than were boys. Logistic regressions showed the connection between the different forms of involvement in bullying and smoking and drinking. Our results indicate that all forms of bullying behavior are associated with legal substance use. Implication for prevention program was discussed.
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To date, relatively little is known about differences between perpetrators and victims of cyber and traditional forms of aggression. Hence, this study investigated differences among traditional and cyber aggressors and victims on psychosocial characteristics typically examined in research on traditional aggression and victimization, specifically effortful control, manipulativeness, remorselessness, proactive and reactive aggression, and anxious/depressive symptoms. Participants (N = 300; 63.2% female; M age = 12.89, SD = .95; 52% Caucasian, 27% African American, 11% Latino, and 10% other) were categorized based on aggressor type (non/low aggressor, traditional-only, cyber-only, and combined traditional and cyber) and victim type (non-victim, traditional-only, cyber-only, and combined traditional and cyber). Cyber aggressors reported lower levels of reactive aggression compared to traditional-only and combined aggressors. Combined aggressors demonstrated the poorest psychosocial profile compared to all other aggressor groups. For victimization, cyber-only and combined victims reported higher levels of reactive aggression and were more likely to be cyber aggressors themselves compared to traditional-only victims and non-victims. Findings suggest that there may be unique aspects about cyber aggression and victimization that warrant further investigation.
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Evidencia reciente sugiere que la estructura de la afectividad está conformada por dos grandes dimensiones relativamente independientes entre sí, denominadas afecto positivo y negativo. En análisis factoriales, tales dimensiones han aparecido consistentemente como los dos primeros factores (en rotaciones ortogonales y oblicuas). El Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson, Clark y Tellegen, 1988a), un cuestionario de autoinforme de 20 items, es una de las medidas del afecto más empleadas y se ha indicado que posee excelentes propiedades psicométricas con muestras de Estados Unidos. Mediante el presente estudio se ha investigado la estructura del afecto, así como también la validez factorial de la versión española del PANAS, en una muestra de 712 estudiantes universitarios residentes en Madrid. Usando técnicas exploratorias y confirmatorias (EQS) de análisis factorial, los autores evaluaron la estructura del PANAS y el modelo bifactorial del afecto, analizando posibles diferencias sexuales. Los resultados indican la existencia de una estructura bidimensional robusta y estable (afecto positivo y negativo), y proporcionan un fuerte apoyo a la validez de constructo y fiabilidad (consistencia interna) de la versión española del PANAS, así como a la validación transcultural del cuestionario y de la naturaleza bidimensional del afecto.
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En este trabajo se revisa y amplía el sistema de clasificación de las metodologías de investigación en Psicología previamente publicado por los autores. Se establecen pautas para guiar su utilización y se presentan algunas reflexiones sobre su utilidad. El sistema está basado en la lógica del plan de investigación. En un primer nivel, se compone de tres grandes grupos: a) estudios teóricos, b) estudios empíricos cuantitativos y c) estudios empíricos cualitativos. El primer grupo se descompone en estudios clásicos de revisión y estudios meta-analíticos. El segundo grupo se desglosa en siete clases: estudios descriptivos mediante observación, estudios descriptivos de poblaciones mediante encuestas, experimentos, cuasi experimentos, estudios ex post facto, experimentos de caso único y estudios instrumentales. El tercer grupo queda desglosado en etnografía, estudio de casos e investigación-acción. Se presentan las características más importantes de cada clase de estudio y, dentro de ellas, las claves que permiten identificar cada una de sus posibles variantes. Siempre se ilustran con investigaciones publicadas. El sistema de clasificación aquí propuesto se utilizará como modelo para los informes de investigación que se envíen a esta revista.
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To explore the types, prevalence and associated variables of cyberbullying among students with intellectual and developmental disability attending special education settings. Students (n = 114) with intellectual and developmental disability who were between 12-19 years of age completed a questionnaire containing questions related to bullying and victimization via the internet and cellphones. Other questions concerned sociodemographic characteristics (IQ, age, gender, diagnosis), self-esteem and depressive feelings. Between 4-9% of students reported bullying or victimization of bullying at least once a week. Significant associations were found between cyberbullying and IQ, frequency of computer usage and self-esteem and depressive feelings. No associations were found between cyberbullying and age and gender. Cyberbullying is prevalent among students with intellectual and developmental disability in special education settings. Programmes should be developed to deal with this issue in which students, teachers and parents work together.
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A family of scaling corrections aimed to improve the chi-square approximation of goodness-of-fit test statistics in small samples, large models, and nonnormal data was proposed in Satorra and Bentler (1994). For structural equations models, Satorra-Bentler's (SB) scaling corrections are available in standard computer software. Often, however, the interest is not on the overall fit of a model, but on a test of the restrictions that a null model sayM 0 implies on a less restricted oneM 1. IfT 0 andT 1 denote the goodness-of-fit test statistics associated toM 0 andM 1, respectively, then typically the differenceT d =T 0−T 1 is used as a chi-square test statistic with degrees of freedom equal to the difference on the number of independent parameters estimated under the modelsM 0 andM 1. As in the case of the goodness-of-fit test, it is of interest to scale the statisticT d in order to improve its chi-square approximation in realistic, that is, nonasymptotic and nonormal, applications. In a recent paper, Satorra (2000) shows that the difference between two SB scaled test statistics for overall model fit does not yield the correct SB scaled difference test statistic. Satorra developed an expression that permits scaling the difference test statistic, but his formula has some practical limitations, since it requires heavy computations that are not available in standard computer software. The purpose of the present paper is to provide an easy way to compute the scaled difference chi-square statistic from the scaled goodness-of-fit test statistics of modelsM 0 andM 1. A Monte Carlo study is provided to illustrate the performance of the competing statistics.
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This article advances a simple conception of test validity: A test is valid for measuring an attribute if (a) the attribute exists and (b) variations in the attribute causally produce variation in the measurement outcomes. This conception is shown to diverge from current validity theory in several respects. In particular, the emphasis in the proposed conception is on ontology, reference, and causality, whereas current validity theory focuses on epistemology, meaning, and correlation. It is argued that the proposed conception is not only simpler but also theoretically superior to the position taken in the existing literature. Further, it has clear theoretical and practical implications for validation research. Most important, validation research must not be directed at the relation between the measured attribute and other attributes but at the processes that convey the effect of the measured attribute on the test scores.
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Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) is widely used for examining hypothesized relations among ordinal variables (e.g., Likert-type items). A theoretically appropriate method fits the CFA model to polychoric correlations using either weighted least squares (WLS) or robust WLS. Importantly, this approach assumes that a continuous, normal latent process determines each observed variable. The extent to which violations of this assumption undermine CFA estimation is not well-known. In this article, the authors empirically study this issue using a computer simulation study. The results suggest that estimation of polychoric correlations is robust to modest violations of underlying normality. Further, WLS performed adequately only at the largest sample size but led to substantial estimation difficulties with smaller samples. Finally, robust WLS performed well across all conditions.
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Cyberbullying describes bullying using mobile phones and the internet. Most previous studies have focused on the prevalence of text message and email bullying. Two surveys with pupils aged 11-16 years: (1) 92 pupils from 14 schools, supplemented by focus groups; (2) 533 pupils from 5 schools, to assess the generalisability of findings from the first study, and investigate relationships of cyberbullying to general internet use. Both studies differentiated cyberbullying inside and outside of school, and 7 media of cyberbullying. Both studies found cyberbullying less frequent than traditional bullying, but appreciable, and reported more outside of school than inside. Phone call and text message bullying were most prevalent, with instant messaging bullying in the second study; their impact was perceived as comparable to traditional bullying. Mobile phone/video clip bullying, while rarer, was perceived to have more negative impact. Age and gender differences varied between the two studies. Study 1 found that most cyberbullying was done by one or a few students, usually from the same year group. It often just lasted about a week, but sometimes much longer. The second study found that being a cybervictim, but not a cyberbully, correlated with internet use; many cybervictims were traditional 'bully-victims'. Pupils recommended blocking/avoiding messages, and telling someone, as the best coping strategies; but many cybervictims had told nobody about it. Cyberbullying is an important new kind of bullying, with some different characteristics from traditional bullying. Much happens outside school. Implications for research and practical action are discussed.
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The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
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This article examines the impact of bullying between age 13 and 16 years on negative outcomes at age 17 years, taking into account various resilience factors at the individual, family, and community level. Using longitudinal data from the Edinburgh Study of Youth Transitions and Crime, a prospective cohort study of around 4,300 young people in Scotland, the impact of bullying perpetration on later engagement in violence and the impact of bullying victimization on later psychological distress are modeled. The analysis finds significant resilience factors, which reduce violence and psychological distress in late adolescence; however, even when controlling for such factors, both bullying perpetration and bullying victimization are strongly predictive of later negative outcomes. The findings support policy responses that implement early and effective interventions within schools to both prevent bullying and improve individual resilience to its long-term effects.
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Online social networking sites (SNS) are a ubiquitous platform for communication. However, SNS can provide opportunities for abuse and harassment, typically referred to as cyberbullying. The current study examined adolescent victims’ understanding of cyberbullying, the specific types of cyberbullying events experienced in SNS and the impact of these events. Twenty-five adolescents (15–24 years old) who responded to an invitation for participants with previous negative experiences in SNS took part in individual semi-structured interviews. Results showed that the basic criteria for the definition of cyberbullying published in previous research were either not referenced by participants, or they were more complex than initially anticipated. The most referenced criterion was the extent to which the experience had an impact on the victim, which is not a current definitional criterion. It was also found that 68% of victims reported experiencing a combined emotional, social and behavioural impact for each cyberbullying experience, and 12% reported no impact at all. These findings will contribute to the measurement of cyberbullying from the perspective of victims, and will also aid the development of intervention strategies based on the most common impact areas.
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Importance: Peer victimization is related to an increased chance of suicidal ideation and suicide attempts among children and adolescents. OBJECTIVE To examine the relationship between peer victimization and suicidal ideation or suicide attempts using meta-analysis. DATA SOURCES Ovid MEDLINE, PsycINFO, and Web of Science were searched for articles from 1910 to 2013. The search terms were bully*, teas*, victim*, mobbing, ragging, and harassment in combination with the term suic*. Of the 491 studies identified, 34 reported on the relationship between peer victimization and suicidal ideation, with a total of 284,375 participants. Nine studies reported on the relationship between peer victimization and suicide attempts, with a total of 70,102 participants. STUDY SELECTION Studies were eligible for inclusion if they reported an effect size on the relationship between peer victimization and suicidal ideation or suicide attempt in children or adolescents. Data extraction and synthesis: Two observers independently coded the effect sizes from the articles. Data were pooled using a random effects model. MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES This study focused on suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. Peer victimization was hypothesized to be related to suicidal ideation and suicide attempts. RESULTS Peer victimization was found to be related to both suicidal ideation (odds ratio, 2.23 [95% CI, 2.10-2.37]) and suicide attempts (2.55 [1.95 -3.34]) among children and adolescents. Analyses indicated that these results were not attributable to publication bias. Results were not moderated by sex, age, or study quality. Cyberbullying was more strongly related to suicidal ideation compared with traditional bullying. CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Peer victimization is a risk factor for child and adolescent suicidal ideation and attempts. Schools should use evidence-based practices to reduce bullying.
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This study focuses on the relationship between the concepts of cyberbullying/cybervictimization and loneliness. The subjects of the study were 389 secondary school students, of whom 159 were boys and 230 were girls, from various schools in the city of Trabzon. The study was carried out in the fall semester of the 2009–2010 academic year. The Loneliness Scale (UCLA) and the Cyberbullying Scale were used in the study. Correlation technique, multiple regression analysis and independent t test, were employed for statistical analysis. The study concluded that there was a significant correlation between becoming a cybervictim and loneliness among adolescents. Loneliness predicted by cybervictimization. These results were discussed and some conclusions were made.
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Cyberbullying is a new phenomenon that has received substantial attention via media. An extensive review of the literature revealed limited nursing research on this topic. The purpose of this study was to examine the impact of cyberbullying on adolescents' physical (e.g., headache, stomachache, etc.) and psychosocial (e.g., self-esteem, depression, post traumatic stress syndrome, etc.) outcomes. Individuals who experience repeated traditional bullying are at increased risk for experiencing repeated incidents of cyberbullying. Research has shown that effects of cyberbullying may be more traumatic than traditional bullying because victims can be bullied 24 hours and 7 days a week, on and off school property. ^ A total of 367 adolescents aged 10 to 18 years of age (50.4% females and 49.6 males) in 4th through 12th grades participated in the study. A community-based approach was used to recruit students and collect data from charter schools, recreational centers, church youth groups, and a community organization. ^ Five instruments (The Student Survey; Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment; Depression Self-rating Scale; Children's Somatization Inventory, and a short demographic survey) were used to collect data on the dependent and independent variables. Data analysis used the IBM-SPSS (ver. 19.0) and included chi-square tests for independence, Pearson product moment correlations, logistic regression, and stepwise multiple linear regression analysis. ^ Data analysis revealed that adolescents from urban and suburban areas are similar in their views of what constitutes cyberbullying and the emotions that are associated with cyberbullying. Adolescents are more likely to view cyberbullying activities more seriously if they are closely attached to their peers and parents. The results also revealed that adolescents may be less likely to report cyberbullying incidents. Physical and mental health did not appear to be problematic for these students. ^ Given the pervasiveness of cyberbullying among adolescents, nurses are in a key position to address cyberbullying through the use of primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention. Nurses have a complete understanding of important health issues related to bullying behaviors and receive training on how to deal with these behaviors. The paucity of research studies regarding cyberbullying and health outcomes support the need for additional exploration of this topic. ^
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The statistical tests used in the analysis of structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error are examined. A drawback of the commonly applied chi square test, in addition to the known problems related to sample size and power, is that it may indicate an increasing correspondence between the hypothesized model and the observed data as both the measurement properties and the relationship between constructs decline. Further, and contrary to common assertion, the risk of making a Type II error can be substantial even when the sample size is large. Moreover, the present testing methods are unable to assess a model's explanatory power. To overcome these problems, the authors develop and apply a testing system based on measures of shared variance within the structural model, measurement model, and overall model.
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Background. Research has shown that the specific emotional consequences of bullying for victims are different depending on the type of bullying that they experience and certain personal characteristics of the victims. Some victims are negatively affected, whereas others report indifference. The specific factors involved in these responses are not yet clear. Aims. The study analysed the emotional consequences of cyberbullying for victims. It examined the relationship between background variables (age and gender), victimisation variables (duration of aggression and victim role, victim vs. bully/victim), individual variables (peer self-esteem, perceived support of parents and friends, and coping strategies used) and the different profiles of emotional consequences. Sample. Participants were 1671 students (48.7% girls) aged 12 to 17 years from the 1st and 3rd year of Compulsory Secondary School and the 1st year of High School from schools in Córdoba (Spain). From this sample, 70 were identified as cyber mobile phone victims and 124 as cyber internet victims. Method. A self-report instrument, the DAPHNE Questionnaire (Genta et al., 2012), was used. The questionnaire pack included some pre-existing questionnaires and some new items on the key variables of interest, plus demographic information. Results. Variables that helped to predict the emotional consequences of cyberbullying for victims included: gender, peer self-esteem, parental support and loneliness with friends for cyberbullying via mobile phone and only peer self-esteem for cyberbullying via the internet. In addition, some coping strategies were different according to the emotional profile of the victim for both kinds of cyberbullying. Conclusions. Results suggest that the emotional impact of cyberbullying on the victim depends on some individual variables but also on the type of cyberbullying. The interpretation that a person makes about the cyberbullying that they experience may be important in determining the emotional consequences suffered. Further research is required to disentangle factors that could help pupils avoid the potentially negative emotional consequences of cyberbullying.
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Mediator models were examined in which children's emotional reactions to peer aggression were hypothesized to mediate their selection of coping strategies and subsequent peer victimization and internalizing problems. Self-report data were collected from 145 ethnically diverse kindergarten through fifth grade children (66 females and 79 males) who attended a predominantly low- to middle-class school. Hypothetical scenarios were used to assess children's anticipated responses to peer aggression. Victims reported more intense negative emotions (e.g., fear and anger) than did nonvictims. Fear emerged as a predictor of advice seeking which, in turn, predicted conflict resolution and fewer internalizing problems. Conflict resolution was associated with reductions in victimization. Anger and embarrassment predicted revenge seeking which, in turn, was associated with increases in victimization. Additional pathways predicting changes in peer victimization across a single academic year as a function of children's emotional and coping responses to peer abuse are discussed.
Article
Past research has demonstrated the effects of bullying can be severe and long term for the individuals involved. The main aim of this study is to analyze the emotional impact on victims of traditional bullying, both direct and indirect forms, and of cyberbullying through mobile phones and the Internet. A sample of 5,862 adolescents from three different countries, Italy (N = 1,964), Spain (N = 1,671), and England (N = 2,227), responded to a questionnaire that asked if they had experience of various forms of bullying, and the consequent emotional impact. The results show that both traditional bullying and cyberbullying have a significant prevalence in the samples. Emotional responses are linked to types of bullying. Analysis of answers identified specific emotional profiles for the different types of bullying and cyberbullying. Direct bullying and cyberbullying via mobile phone showed similar profiles, and also indirect bullying and cyberbullying using the Internet. Similarities and differences between profiles are discussed and some hypotheses are presented to explain the results. In addition, school grade, gender, country, and severity of bullying episodes were related to the specific emotional profiles of each type of bullying.
Article
We reported our findings on the development and preliminary validation of a Spanish-language measure of positive and negative affect. Using confirmatory factor analytic techniques on data generated by 708 women in northern Spain, we obtained reasonable construct validity and reliability data for the measure. Consistent with past cross-cultural studies, a two-factor Positive Affect-Negative Affect (PA-NA)structure emerged, with PA and NA as relatively independent entities. The structure in this sample converged with that reported for a culturally separate group of participants. This factor structure has therefore revealed invariance across a number of cultural groups in Asia, Europe, and North America.
Article
Adolescents' access to and use of new media technology (e.g., cell phone, personal data assistant, computer for Internet access) are on the rise, and this explosion of technology brings with it potential benefits and risks. Attention is growing about the risk of adolescents to become victims of aggression perpetrated by peers with new technology. In September 2006, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention convened a panel of experts in technology and youth aggression to examine this specific risk. This special issue of the Journal of Adolescent Health presents the data and recommendations for future directions discussed at the meeting. The articles in the Journal support the argument that electronic aggression is an emerging public health problem in need of additional prevalence and etiological research to support the development and evaluation of effective prevention programs.
Summary of our cyberbullying research
  • J W Patchin
  • S Hinduja
Patchin JW, Hinduja S. Summary of our cyberbullying research (2004-2016). Cyberbullying Research Center. https:// cyberbullying.org/summary-of-our-cyberbullying-research (accessed November 2016).
Stress and anxiety-application to health, community, work place and education
  • S C Hunter
  • Jme Boyle
  • D Warden
Hunter SC, Boyle JME, Warden D. (2006) Emotion and coping in young victims of peer-aggression. In Buchwald P, ed. Stress and anxiety-application to health, community, work place and education. Newcastle, UK: Cambridge Scholar Press, pp. 307-324.
  • S Wachs
  • M Junger
  • R Sittichai
  • Traditional
Wachs S, Junger M, Sittichai R. Traditional, cyber and combined bullying roles: Differences in risky online and offline activities. Societies 2015; 5:109-135.