At the dialectal crossroads: The Spanish of Albuquerque, New Mexico

Abstract

Bills & Vigil (2008) have established two dialects of New Mexican Spanish - Traditional Spanish and Border Spanish. In general, archaisms and Anglicisms predominate in the north of the state (Traditional Spanish) whereas Mexicanisms predominate in the south (Border Spanish). The recent incorporation of Mexicanisms in the Spanish of Albuquerque has placed it at a dialectal crossroads where a Traditional variety is being supplanted by Mexican Spanish, thereby making it more similar to Border Spanish. This study addresses the extent to which the Spanish of Albuquerque has absorbed Mexicanisms and explores how they were introduced into the community. The use of Mexicanisms is compared to that of archaisms and Anglicisms using an original 20-hour corpus of spoken Albuquerque Spanish. Contrary to the claims of Bills & Vigil (2008), the Spanish of Albuquerque is much more similar to Border Spanish than Traditional Spanish and should be reclassified to reflect this difference.

Full text

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
177#
23435637!%%!.8639:3;!#$%<+!
=443>?37!@!A3:;BC;D!#$%<+!
!
!
AT!THE!DIALECTAL!CROSSROADS:!!
THE!SPANISH!OF!ALBUQUERQUE,!NEW!MEXICO!
Mark#WALTERMIRE#
New#Mexico#State#University*∗#
markw@nmsu.edu#
#
Abstract!
Bills#&#Vigil#(2008)#have#established#two#dialects#of#New#Mexican#Spanish#–#Traditional#Spanish#and#
Border#Spanish.# In#general,# archaisms#and# Anglicisms#predominate# in#the# north#of#the#state#(Traditional#
Spanish)#whereas#Mexicanisms# predominate#in#the# south#(Border#Spanish).# The#recent#incorporation# of#
Mexicanisms#in# the#Spanish#of# Albuquerque#has# placed#it#at# a#dialectal#crossroads#where#a# Traditional#
variety#is#being#supplanted#by#Mexican# Spanish,#thereby#making# it#more#similar# to#Border#Spanish.# This#
study#addresses#the#extent#to#which#the#Spanish#of#Albuquerque#has#absorbed#Mexicanisms#and#explores#
how#they#were#introduced#into#the#community.#The#use#of#Mexicanisms#is#compared#to#that#of#archaisms#
and#Anglicisms#using#an#original#20-hour#corpus#of#spoken#Albuquerque#Spanish.#Contrary#to#the#claims#of#
Bills#&#Vigil#(2008),#the#Spanish#of#Albuquerque#is#much#more#similar#to#Border#Spanish#than#Traditional#
Spanish#and#should#be#reclassified#to#reflect#this#difference.#
#
Keywords!
dialect#change,#social#variation,#lexical#variation,#Spanish#in#the#U.S.,#Mexican#immigration!
!
!
EN!LA!ENCRUCIJADA!DIALECTAL:!EL!ESPAÑOL!DE!ALBUQUERQUE,!!NUEVO!MÉJICO!
Resumen#
Bills#&#Vigil#(2008)#han#establecido#la#existencia#de#dos#dialectos#del#español#de#Nuevo#Méjico#–#el#
español#tradicional#y#el#español#de#frontera.#En#general,#los#arcaísmos#y#los#anglicismos#predominan#en#el#
norte#del#estado# (español# tradicional)# mientras# que# los# mexicanismos#predominan# en# el#sur# (español#
fronterizo).#La#reciente#incorporación#de#mexicanismos#en#el#español#of#Albuquerque#lo#ha#situado#en#una#
encrucijada#dialectal# donde#una# variedad# tradicional#está# siendo# suplantada# por# el# español# mejicano,#
∗*#New#Mexico#State#University,#Department#of#Languages#and#Linguistics,# MSC#3L,#Las#Cruces,#NM,# USA#
88003.#
©Universitat de Barcelona

EC;F!G=HIJ2E,2J!
178#
haciéndola#más#similar#al# español# fronterizo.# Este#estudio#se#refiere#a# la# medida# en# que#el#español#de##
Albuquerque#ha#absorbido#Mexicanismos#y#explora#cómo#fueron#introducidos#en#la#comunidad.#El#uso#de#
mexicanismos#se#compara#con#el#de#los#arcaísmos#y#anglicismos#utilizando#un#corpus#original#de#20#horas#
de#habla#española#de#Albuquerque.# Contrariamente#a#lo#que# indican#Bills# &# Vigil#(2008),#el#español#de#
Albuquerque# es#mucho# más#similar# al#español# de# la# frontera#que# el#español# tradicional#y#debería#ser#
reclasificado#para#reflejar#esta#diferencia.#
#
Palabras!clave!
cambio#dialectal,#variación#social,#variación#léxica,#español#en#EE.UU.,#emigración#mejicana!
#
#
1.!The!Spanish!of!New!Mexico!
#
Spanish#expeditions#leaving#from#New#Spain#(now#Mexico)#scoured#the#southwest#
of#what#is#now#the#United#States#throughout#the#early#part#of#the#sixteenth#century.#The#
first#permanent#settlement#in#this#region#was#not#until#1598,#however,#near#present-day#
Española,#New#Mexico,#which#is#located#about#25#miles#northwest#of#Santa#Fe,#as#shown#
in#Figure#1.#
#
Figure#1.!Map#of#New#Mexican#Cities#and#Towns#
#
©Universitat de Barcelona

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
179#
Permanent# settlements# by# Spanish# explorers# in# other# areas# of# what# is# now# the#
southwest#of#the#United#States#did# not# occur# until#much#later#(Texas#-#1659,#Arizona# -#
1700,# California# -# 1769,# Colorado# -# 1851)# (Silva-Corvalán# 2001:# 298-299).# It# should# be#
noted# that# “such# ‘Spaniards’# had# already# become# thoroughly# ‘Americanized’# –# often#
more#specifically#‘Mexicanized’,# manifesting#a#hybrid#culture# and#language#enriched#by#
contact#with#the#Native#Americans#of#the#Caribbean#and#Mexico”#(Bills#&#Vigil#1999:#43).#
Three#major#historical#factors#have#shaped#New#Mexican#Spanish.#These#are:#1)#relative#
isolation# from# the# rest# of# the# Spanish-speaking# world# for# several# centuries;# 2)# the#
gradual#settlement#of#English#speakers#in#New#Mexico#beginning#in#the#mid-1800s;#and#
3)#massive#waves#of#immigration#of#Spanish#speakers,#primarily#from#Mexico,#into#the#
United#States#in#the#second#half#of#the#twentieth#century.#
The# linguistic# consequences# of# these# developments# include# the# common# use# of#
archaisms,# Anglicisms,# and# Mexicanisms.# Since# New# Mexico# was# the# first# area# to# be#
settled#by#speakers#using#now-archaic#traits#of#Spanish#and#it#was#so#distant#from#other#
Spanish-speaking#areas,#many#archaic#forms#have#survived#among#New#Mexican#Spanish#
speakers,#particularly# among# older# speakers.# Many#now-archaic# traits# of# Spanish# have#
been#preserved#due#to#New#Mexico’s#relative#isolation#from#other#dialects#of#Spanish#for#
such# an# extensive# period.# This# isolation# resulted# from# the# fact# that# New# Mexico# was#
located# “1,500# miles# from# Mexico# City# and# initially# 750# miles# from# the# closest#
Hispanophone#town#in#Mexico”#(Bills#&#Vigil#1999:#43).#Due#to#such#limited#contact#with#
other# varieties# of# Spanish# for# such# a# long# period# of# time,# archaic# features# have# been#
largely#preserved#in#northern#New#Mexican#Spanish.#From#the#extensive#data#collected#
in# the# New# Mexico-Colorado# Spanish# Survey# (hereafter# NMCOSS),# Bills# &# Vigil# (1999)#
have# revealed# the# distribution# of# archaic# lexical# forms# such# as# ?KL548M?;CN3# ‘woman’s#
dress’#(standard#63O?578),#93O98#‘same’#(standard#95O98),#CO5LC#‘thus’#(standard#COP)#in#
various# parts# of# New# Mexico.# Archaic# morphological# forms# (such# as# 6573# ‘I# saw’#
(standard#65),#6578!#‘he/she#saw’#(standard#658),#O398O#‘we#are’#(standard#O898O),#QC5RC#
‘there# is/are,# pres.# subj.’# (standard# QCDC))# and# phonological# forms# (“such# as# the#
retention# of# the# /x/# fricative# corresponding# to# orthographic# Q”# (Bills# &# Vigil# 1999:#50)#
and# retention# of# labiodental# [v]# corresponding# to# orthographic# 6# (Torres# Cacoullos# &#
Ferreira#2000)#are#also#prevalent#in#this#dialect.#These#archaic#features#have#been#passed#
©Universitat de Barcelona

EC;F!G=HIJ2E,2J!
180#
on#to#younger#generations,#though#younger#speakers#use#them#to#a#lesser#extent#(Bills#&#
Vigil#2008)#since#many#of#them#do#not#speak#Spanish#and#largely#possess#receptive#skills#
in#this#language#(Bills#1997;#Bills#&#Vigil#1999;#Bills#&#Vigil#2008;#Hernández-Chávez,#Bills#
&# Hudson# 1996;# Hudson,# Hernández-Chávez# &# Bills# 1995).# The# relative# isolation# of#
Spanish#in#present-day# New#Mexico#persisted#with# very#little#external#contact#until#the#
mid-1800s.#With#the#Treaty#of#Guadalupe#Hidalgo#in# 1848,# “a# great# swath#of#northern#
Mexico# was# ceded# to# the# United# States# […]# One# surprising# consequence# of# this# event#
was#an#accelerated#opening#up#of#new#areas#to#Hispano#settlers”#(Bills#&#Vigil#1999:#48).##
Settlement# by# non-Hispanos# was# relatively# slow.# According# to# Williams# (1986:#
126),#“Anglo-Americans#constituted#less#than#9#percent#of#the#territorial#population#[of#
New# Mexico]# in# 1880.”# By# the# 1940s,# however,# “only# half# of# the# population# of# New#
Mexico#was#Hispanic”#(Simmons#1977:#163).#The#settlement#of#non-Hispanos#has#had#a#
very# strong# impact# on# the# Spanish# of# the# area,# but# its# impact# has# been# less# linguistic#
than#it#has#been#socio-cultural.#Contact#with#English#has#contributed#many#loanwords#to#
the#lexical#repertory#of#New#Mexican#Spanish,#some#established#and#some#spontaneous,#
and# has# also# resulted# in# frequent# code-switching# among# bilinguals# in# all# areas# of# the#
state.#The#historical#context#just#described#has#directly#affected#the#use#of#English-origin#
loanwords#in#the#Spanish#of#New#Mexico.#Common#loanwords#include#?;84C!(standard#
4C958L3?C! ‘truck’),# S8L4Q3! (standard# CS9B3;T8# ‘lunch’),# and# ;3>8;?3# (standard# 5LU8;93#
‘report’).#Moreover,#English#has#displaced#the#use#of#Spanish#to#a#great#degree#and#has#
gradually#become#the# dominant#language#of#the# state.#According#to#Bills#&#Vigil#(1999:#
55),#“the#children#of#Hispanic#heritage#are#abandoning#the#Spanish#language#entirely#and#
growing#up#as# English# monolinguals.# More# and# more,# those# who# speak# Spanish# in#the#
southwest# United# States# [read# New# Mexico]# tend# to# be# first-generation# Mexican#
immigrants#and#their#children”.#Though# this# situation#may#be#reversing#somewhat#due#
to#bilingual#education#and#heritage#language#programs#throughout#the#state,#the#effect#
of#the#dominance#of#English#is#undeniable.##
The# speech# of# Mexican# immigrants# has# also# affected# New# Mexican# Spanish,#
primarily# at# the# lexical# and# morphological# levels.# The# use# of# Mexicanisms,# which#
Company#Company#(2010:#xvi),#in#her#introduction#to#the#V54458LC;58!73! E3W54CL5O98O,#
defines#as#“a#collection#of#words,#phrases,# expressions,# and# meanings# characteristic#of#
©Universitat de Barcelona

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
181#
the#speech#of#Mexico,#which#distinguish#the#Mexican#variety#from#Peninsular#Spanish”#is#
common# throughout# the# state# (translation# mine).# These# are# not# simply# forms# that#
scarcely# exist# in# other# varieties# (such# as# 4QC9C48MC#‘child’# or# TC4C?3# ‘grass’)# but# also#
forms# whose# meaning# is# different# in# other# varieties# (such# as# >C7;3! ‘cool’# and# 4C;LCS#
‘brother’).#The#presence#of#Mexican#speakers#is#now#felt#by#many#in#the#community#due#
to#several#decades#of#increased#immigration.1#Several#participants#for#the#current#study#
indicated#this#during#interviews,#as#shown#in#the#following#comments:#
#
(1) E:#X(!D(!D!>B3O(!BQ(!BQ(!3S(!3S(!Y3S!3O>CZ8S!O3!QC:SC!9B4Q8!C[BP!3L!\C;3SCO!8!]^##
# # ‘And,#and,#and,#so,#uh,#uh,#is#Spanish#spoken#a#lot##here#in#Barelas#or#…?’#
C:#.8+!.8!4898!9_O!CL?3O+!.8!9_O!S8O![B3! QC:SCL!3O>CZ8S(!BQ+!JO!9BD(! BQ(!3O!9_O!S8O!
>C5OCO(!S8O!93W54CL8O(!S8O![B3!QC:SCL+##
#‘No.#Not#like#before.#The#only#ones#who#speak#Spanish,#uh.#It’s#really,#uh,#it’s# more#
the#Mexicans,#uh,#who#speak.’##
E:#X!S8O!653N8O!?C9:5`L(!YL8^##
#‘And#old#people#too,#right?’#
C:#X!S8O!4Q54CL8O(!L8O8?;8O(![B3!O8L!73!\C;3SCO(!QC:SCL!4898(!BQ(!3S!OSCLR+##
#‘And#the#Chicanos,#us,#that#are#from#Barelas,#speak#like,#uh,#slang.’#(15/10:#59-11:#21)#
#
(2)#aCD! UC95S5CO! C[BP! [B3! 65653;8L! QCO?C! 3S! ]! YbB5`L! OC:3^! c3;8(! BQ(! CQ8;C! 3O?8O! 7PCO! O8L!
9B4Q8O!93W54CL8O!CQ8;C+##
#‘There#are#families#that#lived#here#until#the#…#Who#knows?#But,#uh,#now#these#days#there#
are#a#lot#of#Mexicans#now.’#(15/24:#55-25:#10)#
#
The#use#of# Mexican#Spanish#was#stigmatized#by# many#New#Mexicans#in# the#past,#
who#claimed#a#Spanish#heritage#and#rejected#connections#to#Mexico.#This#discrimination#
is#recounted#by#several#participants#for#the#current#study#who#witnessed#it#first-hand,#as#
exemplified#in#the#following#comments:#
1#According# to# U.S.# Census# data# obtained# from# American# Fact# Finder# (factfinder.census.gov),# Mexican#
immigration#to#Albuquerque#tripled#from#1980#to#2010.#In#the#1980s,#a#total#4,882#immigrants#of#Mexican#
origin#migrated#to#Albuquerque.#By#the#1990s,#this#number#nearly#doubled#to#9,067.#A#decade#later,#that#
number#grew#even#more,#with#12,516#Mexican#immigrants#settling#in#Albuquerque#during#the#2000s.#
©Universitat de Barcelona

EC;F!G=HIJ2E,2J!
182#
(3)#aC:PC!;3O?CB;CL?3O!C[BP!D!SBRC;3O![B3!?3LPCL!BLCO(!BQ(!4C;?CO!3L!SCO!>B3;?CO(!BQ(!4BCL78!
3L?;CO![B3!734PCL!d.8!O3!>3;95?3L!>3;;8O!L5!93W54CL8Oe+##
‘There#were#restaurants#here#and#places#that#had#some,#uh,#signs#on#the#doors,#uh,#when#
you#enter#that#said#“No#dogs#or#Mexicans#allowed”.’#(05/7:#20-7:#31)#
#
This#type#of#discrimination,#of#course,#is#a#consequence#of#the#myth#that#northern#
New#Mexicans#are# descended# from# Spain.# The# same# participant,# however,# rejects#this#
idea#in#the#following#comment.#
#
(4) X8! O8D(!C[BP!4898!7543L!3L! 5LRS`O(! ->CL5OQ! =93;54CL+!.8!>B373O!O3;!->CL5OQ! =93;54CL(! 8!
->CL5OQ+!H8! [B3!3O3![B53;3!7345;!>C;C!9P!3O![B3!LC45O?3O!3L!JO>CZC! D!?3! Q545O?3O!45B7C7CL8!
C[BP+! X! SB3R8! 7543L(! d.8! L8! L8(! D8! O8D! >B;8+e! f! 4898! 93! 7543L! ?C9:5`L(! d.8O8?;8O! L8!
?3L398O!OCLR;3!93T4SC7C+!-398O!>B;8O!3O>CZ8S3O+e!Ygh98!>B;8^!#
!‘I’m,# like# they# say# here# in# English,# Spanish# American.# You# can’t# be# Spanish# American,# or#
Spanish.#What#that#means#to#me#is#that#you# were#born#in#Spain#and#you#became#a#citizen#
here.#And#then# they# say,#“No#no# no,# I’m#pure.”#Or#like# they#also#tell#me,# “We#don’t#have#
mixed#blood.#We’re#pure#Spanish.”#How#pure?#(05/2:#42-3:#07)#
#
Somewhat#ironically,#given#the#lack#of#prestige#of#Mexican#Spanish#in#the#past,#the#
presence#of#recent#immigrants#has#resulted#in#the#exposure#of#more#standard#linguistic#
forms#of#Spanish#to#New#Mexicans.#As#a#result,#less#standard#lexical#and#morphological#
forms# are# gradually# being# replaced# by# more# standard# Mexican# forms,# particularly# by#
younger#generations#(Bills#&#Vigil#2008).#The#standardization#of#New#Mexican#Spanish#is#
also#resulting#from#younger#New#Mexicans’#exposure# to# the# standard# form# of# Spanish#
taught# in# universities.# Since# Spanish# is# a# heritage# language# for# many# younger# New#
Mexicans,#they#enroll#in#university#classes#in#order#to# learn#the#grammar#of#a#language#
they#have#heard#used#in#the#home#throughout#their#lives.#Bills#&#Vigil#give#the#examples#
of# 63O?578# ‘woman’s# dress’,# which# is# replacing# ?KL548# and# ?;CN3;# UCS7C# ‘skirt’,# which# is#
replacing#LCRBCO;#standard# :SBOC#‘blouse’,#which#is#replacing#4B3;>8;#and# SC?C#‘tin#can’,#
which#is#replacing#:8?3# and#NC;;8#(Bills#&# Vigil#1999:#56).#More#standard# morphological#
forms#are#also#being#learned#at# the#expense#of#non-standard#forms.#For#example,#non-
©Universitat de Barcelona

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
183#
standard#6573#‘I#saw’#is#being#replaced#by#standard#65#in#large#part#due#to#more#exposure#
to#formal#Spanish#in#schools#(Bills#&#Vigil#2008:#227).#
!
!
2.!Barelas,!Albuquerque!
#
The# Albuquerque# neighborhood# of# Barelas,# which# is# located# just# south# of#
downtown,# was# one# of# the# first# permanent# settlements# in# New# Mexico.# As# such,# the#
Spanish# of# this# community# is# the# longest-standing# spoken# variety# in# Albuquerque.2#
Spanish# colonizers# heading# north# along# the# Camino# Real# used# the# landing# at# Barelas#
(originally#spelled#“Varelas”)#in#the#early#1500s#as#a#crossover#point#on#the#Río#Grande,#
which#it#still#borders#to#the#east.#Due#to#its#importance,#it#was#used# during#expeditions#
led#by#Coronado#in#1540#and#Oñate#in#1598.#Barelas#was#formally#established#in#the#late#
1600s# as# a# ranching# settlement# by# Don# Pedro# Varela.# Currently,# the# neighborhood#
covers# about# ten# square# blocks# south# of# downtown# Albuquerque,# running# north# and#
south#from#Coal#Avenue#to#Bridge#Boulevard#and#east#and#west#from#2nd#Street#to#12th#
Street.#This#location#is#shown#in#Figure#2.#
#
Figure#2.#!Map#of#Barelas#[-8B;43/!i88RS3!EC>O]#
#
2#The#Spanish#of# Barelas#will#represent# that#of#Albuquerque#for# the#current#study.# Other,#more#recently#
established# areas# of# Albuquerque# have# been# populated# by# Mexican# immigrants# rather# than# native#
:B;[B3Z8O.# It# is# important# that# a# non-immigrant# community# represent# Albuquerque# since# the# Spanish#
spoken#in#the#city#is#not#Mexican#Spanish.#The#variety#of#Spanish#analyzed#in#the#current#study#is#distinctly#
New#Mexican.#
©Universitat de Barcelona

EC;F!G=HIJ2E,2J!
184#
Due#to#its#long#history,#the#variety#of#Spanish#spoken#in#Barelas#is#actually#one#of#
the# oldest# in# the# entire# state# of# New# Mexico# and# represents# features# that# have# long#
been# associated# with# traditional# New# Mexican# Spanish,# which# is# linguistically# quite#
distinct# from# its# neighbor# to# the# south# (Bills# &# Vigil# 2008).3## According# to# Bills# &# Vigil#
(2008:# 5),# speakers# of# this# dialect# “represent# early# settlement# prior# to# the# twentieth#
century#and#today#reside#primarily#in#the#upper#Río#Grande#drainage#area#of#central#and#
northern#New#Mexico”.##The#variety#of#Spanish#spoken#in#Barelas#represents#one#of#the#
southernmost#dialects#of#traditional#New#Mexican#Spanish.#Historically,#Barelas#was#not#
considered#an#immigrant#community.#Unlike#other#areas#of#Albuquerque,#the#Spanish#of#
Barelas#has#not# yet#assimilated#many#of#the#characteristics#of# border#Mexican#Spanish,#
which#has#greatly#influenced#the#Spanish# spoken#in#the#southern#part#of#the#state.#The#
incorporation#of#traits#from#border#Mexican#Spanish#in#Barelas#began#more#recently#as#a#
natural# result# of# growing# numbers# of# immigrants# moving# into# the# community.# In# this#
sense,#Barelas#represents#a# dialectal#crossroads#where#a#traditional,# somewhat# archaic#
variety#is#being#supplanted#by#border#Mexican#Spanish.#
Traditional# New# Mexican# Spanish# is# most# distinct# from# Border# New# Mexican#
Spanish#in#terms#of#its#lexical#inventory,#which#has#been#documented#extensively#in#the#
past#century#(Bills#&#Vigil#2008;#Cobos#1983;#Espinosa#1909;# Hills#1906;#Ornstein#1975).#
In#general#terms,#archaisms#and# Anglicisms#are#more#prominently#used#in#the#northern#
two-thirds#of#the# state#(Bills#&#Vigil#2008:#51-64,#173)#whereas#modern#Mexican# terms#
are#more#commonly#used#in#the#southern#third#(Bills#&#Vigil#2008:#39).#According#to#Bills#
&# Vigil# (2008:# 39),# “certain# features# characteristic# of# the# popular# speech# of# modern#
Mexico#prevail#mostly#in#the#southern#part#of#New#Mexico#[…]#and#in#other#areas#where#
immigrants#have# been# most# likely# to# find#employment.# The# spatial# constraints# on#this#
most# recent# Mexican# influence# are# the# basis# for# our# distinguishing# the# two# major#
dialects#we#label#Border#Spanish#and#Traditional#Spanish”.#
The#purpose#of#the#current#study#is#determine#the#extent#to#which#the#Spanish#of#
Barelas# has# incorporated# Mexicanisms;# if# it# has# incorporated# a# significant# number# of#
them,#to#determine#whether#the#Spanish#of#Albuquerque#is#in#need#of#reclassification#as#
3#The#use#of#the#term#traditional#here,#though#somewhat# contentious#even#to#the#authors# themselves,#is#
used#only#insofar#as#a#distinction#with#southern#(or#border)#New#Mexican#Spanish.#It#by#no#means#implies#
that#this#variety#is#more#traditional,#in#the#cultural#sense,#than#any#other#variety.##
©Universitat de Barcelona

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
185#
a#dialect.#To#accomplish#this,#words#of#the#three#lexical#types#just#discussed#(archaisms,#
Anglicisms,#and#Mexicanisms)# included# in# the# dialect# maps# in# Bills# &#Vigil#(2008)#were#
investigated#using#a#20-hour#original#corpus#of#spoken#\C;3S3Z8#Spanish#recorded#by#the#
author# in# 2010.4#Since# the# number# of# these# terms# is# hardly# vast# enough# to# make# any#
definitive#claims#as# to#whether#the#Spanish#of#Albuquerque#more# closely#approximates#
Traditional#Spanish#or#Border#Spanish,#the#entire#Barelas#corpus#will#be#examined,#with#
each#of#the#terms# encountered# in#the#corpus#being#classified# as# archaisms,#Anglicisms,#
and# Mexicanisms.# Via# the# quantitative# analysis# of# patterns# of# usage# of# these# lexical#
types,#the#possibility#of#reclassifying#the#Spanish#of#Albuquerque#will#be#explored.#
!
!
3.!Methodology!
!
The# two# major# dialects# of# New# Mexican# Spanish# (the# Traditional# Spanish# of# the#
north#and#the#Border#Spanish#of#the#south)#as#proposed#by#Bills#&#Vigil#(2008)#are#based#
on# the# geographical# distributions# of# the# three# lexical# types# just# described# (archaisms,#
Anglicisms# and# Mexicanisms)# as# reported# by# 357# Spanish# speakers.# As# part# of# the#
NMCOSS,#various#terms#fitting#these#types#were#solicited#from#participants#“by#means#of#
pictures# and# real# objects,# which# were# then# grouped# into# semantic# categories# (colors,#
birds,# domesticated# animals,# foods,# clothing,# etc.)”# (Bills# &# Vigil# 2008:#27).# The#
distributions# of# these# terms# are# displayed# in# a# series# of# dialect# maps# in# this# work.# A#
corpus#of#spoken#Albuquerque#Spanish#from#the#neighborhood#of#Barelas#will#be#utilized#
to#identify#terms#belonging#to#these#three#lexical#types#given#that#the#number#of#forms#
presented# in# Bills# &# Vigil# (2008)# is# limited# and# does# not# include# the# range# of# forms#
present#in#the#Barelas#corpus.#The#advantage#of#using#interview#data#is#that#these#forms#
were#never#solicited#from#participants#and,#as#such,#reflect#their#actual#usage#within#the#
4#None#of#the#Mexicanisms#from#Bills#&#Vigil#(2008)#were#encountered#in#the#Barelas#corpus.#This#is#largely#
due# to# the# infrequency# with# which# these# words# are# actually# used# in# day-to-day# discourse# (e.g.#
>C;?57B;CM>C;?578M>C;?3! ‘part# (in# hair)’;# 4QB>C;;8OCM48S5:;P#‘hummingbird’;# etc.).# Of# the# archaisms# and#
Anglicisms#given#in#Bills#&#Vigil#(2008),#three#of#each#type#were#encountered#in#the#Barelas#corpus.#These#
are:# ?KL548#‘dress’,# CS:3;48[B3! ‘apricot’,# 6573#‘I# saw’,# ?;84C#‘pickup# truck’,# OB3;C#‘sweater’,# and# [B3[B3#
‘cake’.##
©Universitat de Barcelona

EC;F!G=HIJ2E,2J!
186#
community.# The# use# of# interview# data# will# ensure# an# accurate# determination# of# the#
extent#to#which#each#lexical#type#is#used#in#the#Spanish#of#Albuquerque.##
#
0+%!A53S7j8;F!
#
Sociolinguistic# interviews# with# 15# fluid# bilinguals# of# Spanish# and# English# were#
conducted#by#the#author#in#the#summer#of#2010#in#the#neighborhood#of#Barelas.#Though#
this#number#seems#small,#there#are#only#21#speakers#from#Albuquerque#represented#in#
the# NMCOSS,# which# is# far# and# wide# the# most# comprehensive# documentation# of# New#
Mexican# Spanish.# Furthermore,# Barelas# is# a# small,# tightknit# community# of# fewer# than#
3,500# residents# and,# as# such,# fewer# speakers# are# needed# to# achieve# an# accurate#
representation#of#the#neighborhood.#All#participants#have#lived#in#Barelas#for#at#least#20#
years.# In# an# attempt# to# approximate# the# vernacular,# which# is# representative# of#
unmonitored,# informal# speech# (Labov# 1972,# 1984),# various# protocols# were# followed.#
Initial#interviews#were#set#up#with#close#friends#and#family#members#of#a#main#contact#in#
the#community#who#is#a# close#friend#of#the#author.#More#importantly,#however,#is#that#
almost#every#interview#was#recorded#only#after#having#made#initial#contact#and#engaged#
in#social#interactions#with#participants.#Only#a#couple#of#interviews#were#conducted#“on#
the#spot”#(i.e.#immediately#after#meeting#a#participant).#Participants#chose#the#locations#
and#times#of#the#interviews.# They#were#encouraged#to#speak#about#topics#that#were#of#
particular#interest#to#them# and#were#not#discouraged#from# switching#between#Spanish#
and# English,# though# an# attempt# was# made# to# steer# speech# toward# Spanish# whenever#
possible.# No# pre-written# questions# were# used# in# any# of# the# interviews,# allowing# for#
spontaneous#interaction#and# fluid#discourse.#Each#speaker#was# recorded#in#Spanish#for#
approximately# one# hour,# yielding# a# total# of# more# than# 20# hours# of# recorded#
spontaneous#conversation.#All#interviews#were#recorded#as#WAV#files#using#a#lapel-style#
omnidirectional#microphone#as#this#is# one# of# the#least#unobtrusive#means#by#which#to#
capture# spontaneous# language# data.# After# the# interviews# were# conducted,# they# were#
transcribed#and#organized#by#interview#session#in#order#to#facilitate#the#process#of#token#
extraction.#
#
©Universitat de Barcelona

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
187#
0+#!-3S34?58L!8U!>C;?545>CL?O!
#
In# order# to# achieve# as# representative# a# sample# as# possible,# the# selection# of#
participants#was#based#on#2000#census#data#(factfinder.census.gov),#which#includes#the#
neighborhood#of#Barelas#as#well#as#adjoining#areas#spanning#downtown#Albuquerque#to#
the#north#and#the#South#Broadway#section#of#the#city#to#the#south.5##According#to#census#
data,# there# are# 22,349# residents# living# in# this# part# of# the# city.# Unfortunately,# detailed#
demographic# data# for# the# neighborhood# of# Barelas# is# not# available# through# the# 2000#
census.#For#more#detailed#sociodemographic#data,#the#website#www.city-data.com#was#
used.# More# specific# population# estimates# show# that# the# population# of# Barelas# is# very#
small,#with#approximately#3,500#residents.6#####
Language# use# is# shaped# largely# by# the# social# and# professional# changes# one#
experiences#throughout#one’s#lifespan.#Younger#adult#speakers,#for#example,#are#actively#
engaged#in#raising#children#and#pursuing#professional#pursuits#while#older#speakers#may#
be#retired#or#have#children#who#have#already#moved#away#from#home.#For#this#reason,#
participants# were# selected# based# on# generational# groupings# that# correspond# roughly#
with#these#changes#(Group#1#=#25-50;#Group#2#=#>#51).#Unfortunately,#census#data#only#
show#the#number#of#residents#who# are# under# the#age#of#five,#between#the#ages#of# 18#
and#65,#and#older#than#65.#Given#the#lack#of#more#specific#figures#with#regards#to#the#18#
to# 65# year-old# group,# a# roughly# equal# number# of# participants# was# chosen# for# each#
generational#grouping.##
With#respect#to#the# population’s#distribution#by#sex,#census# data#are#much#more#
specific.#According#to#these#data,#there#are#10,712#women#and#11,637#men#living#in#this#
area# of# the# city.# Population# estimates# by# sex# for# Barelas# (www.city-data.com)# parallel#
these# figures# (1,703# females# and# 1,796# males).# With# this# in# mind,# a# roughly# equal#
number#of#females#and#males#were#interviewed.#To#ensure#the#accurate#representation#
of#general#social#characteristics#among#the#set# of# participants,# an# approximately# equal#
5#Census#data#for#2010#according#to#zip#codes#were#not#available#at#the#time#of#authorship.#
6#For# detailed# information# see# http://www.city-data.com/neighborhood/South-Valley-Albuquerque-
NM.html.#The#specific#nature#of#these#data#are#due#to#the#use#of#this#website#for#real#estate#purposes.#
©Universitat de Barcelona

EC;F!G=HIJ2E,2J!
188#
number# of# male# and# female# participants# was# chosen# for# each# generational# grouping#
(G1/F#=#4;#G1/M#=#4;#G2/F#=#3;#G2/M#=#4).#
Barelas#is#a# low-income#neighborhood#which#has# faced#economic#hardships#since#
the#decline#of#the#railway#boom#that#led#to#relative#prosperity#in#the#area#at#the#turn#of#
the#twentieth#century.#The#average#single-family#income#in#2009,#according#to#data#from#
www.city-data.com,#was#only#$24,020,#just#over#half#of#the#average#single-family#income#
for#greater#Albuquerque#in#the#same#year#($44,594).#The#occupations#held#by#residents#
are#also#a#reflection#of# its# middle# to# middle-lower# class# history.# Occupations# requiring#
advanced#degrees#and#formal#training#are#scarce#among#the#neighborhood’s#residents#
while# occupations# in# service,# construction,# maintenance,# production,# transportation,#
and# sales# are# extremely# common.# According# to# www.city-data.com,# 72.2%# of# all#
employed#women#in#the#community#hold#these#jobs#while#a#total#of#87.1%#of#men#have#
similar#jobs.7##Participants#were#selected# based# on#this#occupational#distribution#in#the#
community.# Of# a# total# of# 15# participants,# only# two# participants# (one# male# and# one#
female)#have#jobs#that#require#advanced#degrees#and#formal#training.#
Though# participants# were# not# selected# based# on# language# preference# or# their#
parents’#nationalities,#these#two#variables#are#important#in#the#current#study#in#that#they#
may#be#conditioning#the#use#of#Mexicanisms#in#Barelas.#There#is# a# tacit# assumption# in#
the# community# that# Spanish# is# being# lost# at# the# expense# of# English,# especially# among#
younger# speakers,# and# that# the# only# way# to# maintain# Spanish# is# by# speaking# it# in# the#
home.8#According#to#several#participants,#
#
(4) -3!S3O!6C!8S657CL78!3L!3O8![B3!6CL!C>;3L753L78!3S!5LRS`O+!-3!S3O!6C!8S657CL78(!4898!O5RB3L!
QC:SCL78!?CL?8!3S!5LRS`O!3L!SC!3O4B3SC(!48L!S8O!C95R8O+##
#‘They’re# forgetting# it# as# they’re# learning# English.# They’re# forgetting# it,# as# they# keep#
speaking#so#much#English#in#school,#with#their#friends.’#(14/14:#56-15:#04)#
#
7#It#should#be#noted#that#these#percentages#would#be# almost#the#same#if#women#in#the#community#were#
employed#in#transportation,#which#represents#10%#of#the#male#workforce.#
8#This# is# true# for# the# 15# participants# of# the# current# study.# Of# the# youngest# generation,# not# a# single#
participant#prefers#Spanish.#Of#the#eight#younger#speakers,#three#prefer#English#and#five#claim#to#have#no#
preference#at#all.#The#older#generation#exhibits#a#wider#range#of#variation#regarding#language#preference,#
with#only#two#speakers#who#prefer#English#and#two#who#claim#no#preference#at#all;#and,#not#surprisingly#
three#speakers#actually#prefer#Spanish.#
©Universitat de Barcelona

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
189#
(5) -3! 93! QC43! [B3! 4BCL78! ?53L3O! >C7;3O! 93W54CL8O(! LBL4C! O3! >53;73! >8;[B3! 3O?_O! QC:S3(!
QC:S3!48L!3SS8O+##
‘It#seems# to#me#that# when# you# have# Mexican# parents,#you#never#lose#it#because#you’re#
always#talking#with#them.’#(13/19:#05-19:#11)#
#
It#should#come#as#no#surprise,#then,#that#all#of#the#participants#in#the#current#study#
who#prefer#English#were#raised#in# a#household#in#which#both#parents#were# born#in#the#
United#States.#Participants#with#at#least#one#Mexican-born#parent#either#prefer#Spanish#
or#have#no#preference.#This#does#not#mean#that#a#participant#raised#by#two#U.S.-born#
parents,# however,# automatically# prefers# English.# This# is# also# an# assumption# made# by#
many#and#one#which# is# particularly# untrue# of# older# speakers,# many# of# whom# grew# up#
speaking#Spanish,#as#expressed#in#the#following#comment:#
#
(6) cC;343![B3!SCO!R3L?3O!CQ8;C(![B3!653L3L!73!E`W548(!3O?_L!C[BP!D!93!7543L(!dcB3O(!Y7hL73!
C>;3L75O?3!?K!?878!3S!3O>CZ8S!?CL!:8L5?8^e!H3O!75R8(!dk>B3O(!D8!LBL4C!S8!>3;7Ple##
‘It#seems#that#the#people#now,#that#are#coming#from#Mexico,#they’re#here#and#they#say#to#
me,# “So,# where# did# you# learn# all# of# that# really# beautiful# Spanish?”# I# tell# them,# “Well,# I#
never#lost#it.”(04/22:#43-22:#54)#
#
Of#the#participants#for#the# current#study,#about#an#even#number#were#raised#in#a#
household#of#two#U.S.-born#parents#(N=8)#as#were#raised#in#a#household#with#at#least#
one# Mexican-born# parent# (N=7).# There# is# a# greater# preference# for# English# in# the#
community# overall# with# five# participants# who# prefer# this# language,# three# participants#
who#prefer# Spanish,# and# seven# participants#who# have# no# strong# preference#for# either#
language.##
#
#
4.!Results!
!
All# examples# of# the# three# lexical# types# for# the# current# study# –# archaisms,#
Anglicisms# and# Mexicanisms# –# were# extracted# from# transcriptions# of# the# Barelas#
©Universitat de Barcelona

EC;F!G=HIJ2E,2J!
190#
interviews.#These#types#appear#in#the#appendix.#The#raw#numbers#for#each#of#the#three#
lexical#types#in#the#Spanish#of#Albuquerque#are#shown#in#Figure#3.#
#
#
Figure#3.##Raw#Numbers#of#Each#Lexical#Type#in#Albuquerque#Spanish#
#
The# number# of# Mexicanisms# (N=41)# in# the# Spanish# of# Albuquerque# is# over# four#
times#that#of#archaisms.#A#mere#10#archaic#lexical#types#were#encountered#in#the#Barelas#
corpus.#This#is#important#given#that#archaisms#have#long#characterized#Traditional#New#
Mexican#Spanish.#The#relative#lack#of#use#of#archaic#forms#in#the#Spanish#of#Albuquerque#
demonstrates# that# the# Spanish# of# the# city# should# no# longer# be# considered# Traditional#
Spanish.# The# use# of# Anglicisms# is# also# characteristic# of# Traditional# Spanish,# but# the#
number#of# these# forms# (N=18)# is# less# than# half# that# of# Mexicanisms# in# the# Spanish# of#
Albuquerque.#The#extensive#use#of#Mexicanisms,#some#of#which#are#very#recent#(even#in#
varieties# of# Mexican# Spanish),# is# somewhat# surprising# given# that# the# Spanish# of#
Albuquerque#has# always# been# classified# as# Traditional# New# Mexican# Spanish,# which# is#
characterized#by#a#lack#of#Mexicanisms.#The#use#of#Mexicanisms#is#supposed#to#only#be#
common#in#Border#Spanish;#but#these#results#clearly#show#that#this#is#not#the#case.#The#
use#of#Mexicanisms#is#quite#robust#in#the#Spanish#of#Albuquerque,#which# seems# to# be#
the# result# of# an# influx# of# Mexican-born# immigrants# to# the# city# over# the# past# several#
decades.#It#would#seem#that#the#use#of#Mexicanisms#comes#from#those#immigrants#and#
their#children.#Since#only#native-born#:C;3S3Z8O#were#interviewed#for#the#current#study,#
10#
18#
41#
TOTAL#NUMBER#OF#LEXICAL#TYPES#
Archaisms# Anglicisms# Mexicanisms#
©Universitat de Barcelona

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
191#
the#use#of#Mexicanisms#by#foreign-born#Mexican#residents#will#not#be#explored#here.#It#
is# plausible,# however,# that# their# children# have# been# instrumental# in# incorporating#
Mexicanisms#in#the#Spanish#of#the#city.#To#further#explore#the#leaders#of#lexical#change#
in#the#community,#we#will#not#turn#to#the#rates#of#use#of#Mexicanisms#according#to#the#
social# characteristics# of# participants.# Frequencies# of# use# of# Mexicanisms# according# to#
these#characteristics#are#displayed#in#Table#1.#
#
!Factor!group# # Factor###N# # # %# # !!!
#-3W!
# # # # Female####30/59# # # 50.8# # #
# # # # Male###114/189# # 60.3# # #
#i3L3;C?58L!!
# # # # First#(25-50)## # 77/103## # 74.8# #
# # # # Second#(>#51)# # 67/145## # 46.2# # !
#HCLRBCR3!c;3U3;3L43!!
# # # # None###38/57# # # 66.7#
English###90/146## # 61.6#
# # # # Spanish###16/45# # # 35.6#
#cC;3L?Om!\5;?Q>SC43!
# # # # Mexico###31/48# # # 64.6# # #
# # # # United#States# # 113/200# # 56.5# #
______________________________________________________________________________#
Sex:# χ²# =# 1.66;# 7U#=# 1;# >#=# 0.198;# Generation:# χ²# =# 20.2;# 7U#=# 1;# >#=# 0.000;# Language#
Preference:#χ²#=#11.9;#7U#=#2;#>#=#0.003;#Parents’#Birthplace:#χ²#=#1.04;#7U#=#1;#>#=#0.308#
Table#1.#Use#of#Mexicanisms#according#to#participants’#social#characteristics##
#
First,# it# should# be# noted# that# not# only# is# there# a# greater# number# of# types# of#
Mexicanisms# in# the# Spanish# of# Albuquerque# (N# =# 41;# see# Figure# 3)# but# also# a# greater#
number#of#tokens#of#Mexicanisms#(N#=#144)#than#archaisms#and#Anglicisms#combined#(N#
=# 104).# It# can# fairly# be# said,# then,# that# the# use# of# Mexicanisms# is# much# more#
characteristic# of# the# Spanish# of# Albuquerque# than# is# the# use# of# either# archaisms# or#
Anglicisms.# That# said,# the# only# factors# that# seem# to# be# of# any# significance# in# the#
©Universitat de Barcelona

EC;F!G=HIJ2E,2J!
192#
conditioning#of#use#of#Mexicanisms#within#the#community#are#generation#and#language#
preference.#Frequencies#of#use#of#Mexicanisms#are#very#similar#by#sex#(with#males#using#
Mexicanisms# slightly# more# frequently# than# females,# at# a# rate# of# 60.3%# compared# to#
50.8%)#and,#somewhat#surprisingly,#by#parents’#birthplace#(with#those#of# Mexican-born#
parents#using#them#only#about#8%#more#often#than#those#with#U.S.-born#parents).#It#was#
expected#that#speakers# with#at#least#one#Mexican-born#parent#would# use#Mexicanisms#
at#a#considerably#higher#rate#than#other#members#of#the#community.#Alas,#this#is#not#the#
case.# Members# of# the# youngest# generation,# rather,# regardless# of# where# their# parents#
were#born,#are#those#who#use#Mexicanisms#most#often.#They#use#Mexicanisms#at#a#rate#
far#higher#than#that# of#members#of#the#oldest#generation# (74.8%#compared#to#46.2%).#
This#difference#is#similar#according#to#language#preference.#Very#surprisingly,#the#use#of#
Mexicanisms# is# most# common# among# participants# who# have# no# clear# preference# for#
either# Spanish# or# English# and# those# who# prefer# English.# On# the# surface,# this# is#
counterintuitive,# but# this# result# is# likely# due# to# the# fact# that# younger# speakers#
categorically#prefer#English#or#have#no#preference.#In#other#words,#the# rates#of#use# are#
high#among#these#participants#not# due# to# their# language# preferences# but# due# to# their#
age.#To#see#which#of#these#factor#groups#is#statistically#significant#in#the#conditioning#of#
use#of#Mexicanisms#in#the#Spanish#of#the#community,#we#will#now#turn#to#a#multivariate#
analysis# of# the# social# factors# described# in# the# previous# section# and# their# possible#
conditioning#effect#on#the#use#of#Mexicanisms#in#Albuquerque#Spanish.#This#analysis#was#
conducted# using# GoldVarb# X,# which# is# a# statistical# analysis# program# that# generates#
probability# weights# corresponding# to# observed# frequencies# in# a# corpus# (Lawrence,#
Robinson#&#Tagliamonte#2001).#This#type#of#analysis#is#well#suited#for#the#current#study#
in#that#it#was#designed#to#handle#non-continuous#dependent#variables#with#two#possible#
applied#variants#or#groups#of#variants#(in#this#case,#Mexicanisms#vis-à-vis#archaisms#and#
Anglicisms).#In#this# way,#statistically#relevant#probabilities#for#the#social# conditioning#of#
the#use#of#Mexicanisms,#which#are#only#characteristic#of#Border#Spanish,#can#be#assessed#
for# a# variety# in# which# their# use# has# been# claimed# to# be# minimal.# The# results# of# this#
analysis#are#shown#in#Table#2.#
!
!
©Universitat de Barcelona

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
193#
!
# # # Factor# # # N# # %#######Factor!
!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!Weight!
# # # First#Generation#77# # 74.8# # ###.67#
# # # Second#Generation#67# # 46.2# # ###.37#
# # # # !!!!!!!!!2CLR3!!!!0$#!!!!!!!!
________________________________________________________________________#
Other#factor#groups#included#in#analysis:#1)#sex,#2)#language#preference,#and#3)#parents’#
birthplace.#
IC:S3! #+#Multivariate# analysis# of# the# probabilities# of# co-occurrence# of# the# use# of# Mexicanisms# and#
participants’#social#characteristics#(p#=#0.000,#N#=#248,##Input#=#0.589,#Log#likelihood#=#-158.282)#
#
As#suspected,#it#is#not#language#preference#that#conditions#the#use#of#Mexicanisms#
in# the# community,# but# rather# generation.# It# is# statistically# probable# that# younger#
speakers#will#use#Mexicanisms#in#their#Spanish#(with#a#probability#weight#of#.67)#while#it#
is#statistically#improbable#that#older#speakers#will#do#the#same#(with#a#probability#weight#
of#only#.37).#None#of#the#other#factor#groups#are#statistically#significant.#This#means#that#
younger#speakers#are#incorporating#Mexicanisms#into# their# Spanish# regardless# of# their#
language# preference,# sex,# or# whether# they# grew# up# in# a# household# with# at# least# one#
Mexican-born# parent.# These# results# make# it# clear# that# the# idea# that# having# Mexican#
parents#leads#to#maintenance#of#Spanish#is#not#true.#The#presence#of#Mexican#Spanish#in#
the# community# has# already# led# to# maintenance# among# many# younger# speakers,# who#
have#incorporated#Mexicanisms#into#their#Spanish#since#this#is#their#model#of#Spanish#in#
the#community.#The#use#of#Traditional#Spanish#is#only#common#among#older#speakers#of#
the#community#who#prefer#Spanish.#These#speakers#(N=3)#grew#up#speaking#Traditional#
Spanish#and,#as#such,#use#very#few#Mexicanisms#relative#to#the#rest#of#the#community#(at#
a#rate#of# only# 35.6%;# see# Table1).# If# this# change#continues#to# advance,# the# Spanish# of#
Albuquerque# will# more# closely# resemble# Border# Spanish# with# the# passing# of# this#
generation.# This# should# not# be# altogether# surprising# since# younger# speakers# are# in#
constant# contact# with# some# variety# of# Mexican# Spanish.# It# is# the# variety# taught# in#
Albuquerque# schools,# many# of# which# have# bilingual# education# programs.# Younger#
members#of#the# community# have# consistent# interactions# with# other# younger# speakers#
©Universitat de Barcelona

EC;F!G=HIJ2E,2J!
194#
who# were# raised# in# households# with# at# least# one# Mexican-born# parent.# Given# the#
strength#of#peers#on#the#language#development#of#adolescents#(Schieffelin#&#Ochs#1986)#
and#teenagers#(Eckert#1989),#it#is#no#surprise#that#Mexicanisms#are#being#spread#into#the#
community# by# the# youngest# generation.# Their# use# seems# to# start# with# children# of#
Mexican# immigrants,# who# began# settling# in# the# city# in# great# numbers# starting# in# the#
1980s.# Now# these# children# are# grown,# as# are# the# children# of# U.S.-born# parents,# who#
have# now# assimilated# these# characteristics.# This# pattern# will# likely# not# reverse# with#
continuing#immigration#from#Mexico,#which#will#ultimately#lead#to#the#incorporation#of#a#
greater#number#of#Mexicanisms#into#the#Spanish#of#Albuquerque#over#time.!
!
!
5.!Conclusions!
#
The# Spanish# of# Albuquerque# does# not# fit# neatly# into# a# dialectal# classification# as#
either#Traditional#Spanish#or#Border#Spanish#given#that,#while#it#does#include#archaisms#
(N# =# 10)# and# Anglicisms# (N# =# 18),# which# are# characteristic# of# Traditional# Spanish,# it#
includes#many#more#Mexicanisms#(N#=#41).#As#it#would#be#absurd#to#label#Albuquerque#
Spanish# “Border# Spanish”# since# it# is# located# some# 270# miles# from# the# border# and# it#
cannot#be#labeled#“Traditional#Spanish”#since#the#use#of#Mexicanisms#in#this#variety#far#
outnumbers#that#of#archaisms#and#Anglicisms#(by#type#and#token#frequency),#I#propose#
that#Albuquerque#Spanish#be#considered#a#third#major#dialect#of#New#Mexican#Spanish.#
The#use#of#Mexicanisms#in# Albuquerque#Spanish#is# coming#from#younger#speakers#who#
have#grown#up#with#other#speakers#of#Mexican-born#parents.#Their#use#is#not#due#to#the#
children#of#Mexican#immigrants#themselves,#however,#as#clearly#shown#in#Tables#1#and#
2.#Increased#Mexican#immigration#starting#in#the#1980s#has#resulted#in#the#greater#use#of#
Mexicanisms,# which# have# spread# throughout# the# city# and# have# begun# to# supplant#
archaisms# slowly,# partly# due# to# the# greater# prestige# afforded# to# Mexican# Spanish# and#
lesser#prestige#afforded#to#archaisms#and#partly#due#to#the#fact#that#Mexican#Spanish#is#
the#model#for#Spanish#for#younger#speakers#in#the#community.#In#this#sense,#the#entire#
fabric#of#Albuquerque# Spanish#can#be#seen#as#changing,#which# has#been#happening#for#
quite# some# time.# It# seems# that# Traditional# Spanish# is# alive# and# well# in# northern# New#
Mexico#among#the#residents#who#actually#speak#the#language.#It#could#be#true,#however,#
©Universitat de Barcelona

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
195#
that# Albuquerque# is# representative# of# a# larger# change# that# may# affect# even# smaller#
communities# of# the# north.# It# remains# to# be# seen# whether# “the# Traditional# Spanish# of#
New#Mexico#will#undergo#the#dialect#extinction#that#has#already#befallen#the#Traditional#
Spanish#of#other#southwestern#states#[…]#and#will#have#been#reabsorbed#by#its#“mother#
tongue”,# Mexican# Spanish”# (Bills# &# Vigil# 2008:# 345).# Regardless# of# the# lexical#
characteristics# of# the# Spanish# spoken# in# northern# New# Mexico,# it# seems# that# the#
preservation# of# Spanish# is# not# as# imperiled# as# it# was# several# decades# ago.# Somewhat#
ironically,# Mexican# Spanish,# which# was# once# denigrated# among# native# New# Mexicans,#
has#led#to#the#preservation#of#this#language#in#a#place#where#it#has#been#spoken#for#over#
400#years.##
#
#
References!
#
ACADEMIA#MEXICANA#DE#LA#LENGUA#(2010)#V54458LC;58!73!E3W54CL5O98O,#Mexico#City:#Siglo#XXI.#
BILLS,# Garland# (1997)# “New# Mexican# Spanish:# Demise# of# the# earliest# European# variety# in# the#
United#States”,#=93;54CL!->334Q,!72,#154-171.#
BILLS,#Garland#&#Neddy#VIGIL#(1999)#“Ashes#to#ashes:#The#historical#basis#for#dialect#variation#in#
New#Mexican#Spanish”,#289CL43!cQ5S8S8RD,#53,#43-60.##
BILLS,# Garland# &# Neddy# VIGIL# (2008)# IQ3! ->CL5OQ! HCLRBCR3! 8U! .3j! E3W548! CL7! -8B?Q3;L!
g8S8;C78/!=!H5LRB5O?54!=?SCO,#Albuquerque:#University#of#New#Mexico#Press.#
COBOS,# Rubén# (1983)# =! V54?58LC;D! 8U! .3j! E3W548! CL7! -8B?Q3;L! g8S8;C78! ->CL5OQ,# Santa# Fe:#
Museum#of#New#Mexico#Press.#
COMPANY#COMPANY,#Concepción#(2010)#“Introducción”,#in#Academia#Mexicana#de#la#Lengua#(ed.),#
V54458LC;58!73!E3W54CL5O98O,#México,#DF:#Siglo#XXI,#xv-xxiii.#
ECKERT,#Penelope# (1989)# n84FO! CL7! \B;L8B?O/! -845CS!gC?3R8;53O! CL7!,73L?5?D!5L!?Q3!a5RQ!-4Q88S,#
New#York:#Teachers#College#Press.#
ESPINOSA,#Aurelio#(1909)#IQ3!->CL5OQ!HCLRBCR3!5L!.3j!E3W548!CL7!-8B?Q3;L!g8S8;C78,#Santa#Fe:#
New#Mexican#Publishing#Company.#
HERNÁNDEZ-CHÁVEZ,#Eduardo,#Garland#BILLS#&#Alan#HUDSON#(1996)#“El#desplazamiento#de#español#
en#el#suroeste#de#EEUU#según#el#censo#de#1990”,#in#M.#Arjona#Iglesias,#J.#López#hávez,#A.#
Enríquez# Ovando,# G.# López# Lara# &# M.#A.# Novella# Gómez# (eds.),!=4?CO! 73S! o! g8LR;3O8!
©Universitat de Barcelona

EC;F!G=HIJ2E,2J!
196#
,L?3;LC458LCS!73!SC! =O845C45hL!73!H5LRpPO?54C!D!A5S8S8RPC!73!SC!=9`;54C!HC?5LC,!México,#DF:#
Universidad#Nacional#Autónoma#de#México,#664-672.#
HILLS,# Elijah# Clarence# (1906)# “New# Mexican# Spanish”,#cB:S54C?58LO! 8U! ?Q3! E873;L! HCLRBCR3!
=OO845C?58L!8U!=93;54C,#21,#706-753.#
HUDSON,#Alan,#Eduardo# HERNÁNDEZ-CHÁVEZ# &# Garland#BILLS#(1995)#“The#many#faces#of# language#
maintenance:#Spanish#language#claiming#in#five#southwestern#states”,#in#C.#Silva-Corvalán#
(ed.),!->CL5OQ! 5L! A8B;! g8L?5L3L?O/! -?B753O! 5L! HCLRBCR3! g8L?C4?! CL7! \5S5LRBCS5O9,#
Washington,#DC:#Georgetown#University#Press,#165-183.#
LABOV,#William#(1972)#-8458S5LRB5O?54!cC??3;LO,#Philadelphia:#University#of#Philadelphia#Press.#
LABOV,# William# (1984)# “Field# methods# of# the# Project# on# Linguistic# Change# and# Variation”,#
HCLRBCR3!5L!BO3/! ;3C75LRO!5L!O8458S5LRB5O?54O,#ed.#by#J.# Baugh# and# J.#Scherzer,#Englewood#
Cliffs,#NJ:#Prentice#Hall,#8-53.#
LAWRENCE,# Helen,# John# ROBINSON#&#Sali# TAGLIAMONTE# (2001)# i8S7qC;:/! =! 9BS?56C;5C?3! CLCSDO5O!
O>>S54C?58L!U8;!G5L78jO,# York:#University#of#York#Department#of#Language# and#Linguistic#
Science#and#Computer#Services.!
ORNSTEIN,# Jacob# (1975)# “The# archaic# and# the# modern# in# the# Spanish# of# New# Mexico”,# in# E.#
Hernández#Chávez,#A.#Cohen#&#A.#Beltramo#(eds.),#JS!H3LRBCN3!73!S8O!gQ54CL8O,#Arlington,#
VA:#Center#for#Applied#Linguistics,#6-12.###
REAL# ACADEMIA# ESPAÑOLA# (2014)23#V54458LC;58! 73! SC! S3LRBC! 3O>CZ8SC#(DRAE),# Madrid:# Real#
Academia#Española.##
SCHIEFFELIN,# Bambi# B.# &# Elinor# OCHS# (1986)# HCLRBCR3! O845CS5TC?58L! C4;8OO! 4BS?B;3O,# No.# 3,.#
Cambridge:#Cambridge#University#Press.#
SILVA-CORVALÁN,# Carmen# (2001)# -8458S5LRpPO?54C! D! >;CR9_?54C! 73S! 3O>CZ8S,# Washington,# DC:#
Georgetown#University#Press.#
SIMMONS,# Marc# (1977)# .3j! E3W548/! =L! ,L?3;>;3?563! a5O?8;D,# Albuquerque:# University# of# New#
Mexico#Press.#
TORRES#CACOULLOS,# Rena# &# Fernanda# FERREIRA# (2000)#“Lexical#frequency#and#voiced#labiodental-
bilabial#variation#in#New#Mexican#Spanish”,#-8B?Qj3O?!n8B;LCS!8U!H5LRB5O?54O,#19,#2:#1-17.#
WILLIAMS,#Jerry#(1986)2#.3j!E3W548!5L!EC>O,#Albuquerque:#University#of#New#Mexico#Press.#
#
www.city-data.com#
http://factfinder.census.gov/faces/nav/jsf/pages/index.xhtml#
!
!
©Universitat de Barcelona

Dialectologia!19,"#$%&'(!%&&)%*&+!!
,--./!#$%0)##1&!
197#
APPENDIX!
EXAMPLES!OF!LEXICAL!TYPES!IN!THE!SPANISH!OF!ALBUQUERQUE!
!
Archaisms!
albercoques#
a(n)sina#
haiga#
muncho/a(s)#
naiden/nadien#
semos#
traiba#
truje/trujo#
túnicos#
vide/vido
!
Anglicisms!
apenar#(pagar,#from#‘peni’)#
biles#
cachear#
chequear/checar#
lonche#
marqueta#
mopear#
presentes#
queque#
rentar#
reporte#
rofe#
rostear#
suera#
tracas#
troca#
troquero#
yarda
!
Mexicanisms!
atole#
carnal#(hermano)#
cerecillos#
chamaco/a#
chaparral#
chaparrito/a(s)#
chavalo#
chido#
chingones#
cholo#
cirqueros#
corretear#
desarmador#
enjarrar#
gacho#
güero/a(s)#
jale#(trabajo)#
jefito/a(s)#
loquera#(delincuencia)#
mande#(¿cómo?)#
manitos#
nomás#(sin#razón#ni#finalidad)#
onda#(ambiente)#
órale#
pachuco#
padre#(chido)#
paisa#
pinta#(prisión)#
plebe#
quiubo#
ruco/a#
simón#(sí)#
sobadora#
suave#
trapear#
valevergas#
vato#
verga#
zacate#
zafado/a#(chiflado/a)#
zoquete
#
©Universitat de Barcelona