Content uploaded by Ethan Budd Russo
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Ethan Budd Russo on Aug 14, 2017
Content may be subject to copyright.
REVIEW Open Access
Cannabis Roots:
A Traditional Therapy with Future Potential
for Treating Inflammation and Pain
Natasha R. Ryz,
1,
*David J. Remillard,
1
and Ethan B. Russo
2
Abstract
Introduction: The roots of the cannabis plant have a long history of medical use stretching back millennia. How-
ever, the therapeutic potential of cannabis roots has been largely ignored in modern times.
Discussion: In the first century, Pliny the Elder described in Natural Histories that a decoction of the root in water
could be used to relieve stiffness in the joints, gout, and related conditions. By the 17th century, various herbalists
were recommending cannabis root to treat inflammation, joint pain, gout, and other conditions. There has been
a subsequent paucity of research in this area, with only a few studies examining the composition of cannabis root
and its medical potential. Active compounds identified and measured in cannabis roots include triterpenoids,
friedelin (12.8 mg/kg) and epifriedelanol (21.3 mg/kg); alkaloids, cannabisativine (2.5 mg/kg) and anhydrocanna-
bisativine (0.3 mg/kg); carvone and dihydrocarvone; N-( p-hydroxy-b-phenylethyl)-p-hydroxy-trans-cinnamamide
(1.6 mg/kg); various sterols such as sitosterol (1.5%), campesterol (0.78%), and stigmasterol (0.56%); and
other minor compounds, including choline. Of note, cannabis roots are not a significant source of D
9
-
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), cannabidiol, or other known phytocannabinoids.
Conclusion: The current available data on the pharmacology of cannabis root components provide significant
support to the historical and ethnobotanical claims of clinical efficacy. Certainly, this suggests the need for reex-
amination of whole root preparations on inflammatory and malignant conditions employing modern scientific
techniques.
Keywords: cannabis; friedelin; gout; hemp; inflammation; root
Introduction
The cannabis plant is known for its multiple uses: the
leaves, flowers, seeds, stalks, and resin glands have all
been exploited for food, fuel, fiber, medicine, and
other uses. One of the first mentions of the medical
use of cannabis root was by the Roman historian,
Pliny the Elder, who wrote in his Natural Histories
that ‘‘a decoction of the root in water relaxes contrac-
tions of the joints and cures gout and similar maladies.’’
1
By the latter part of 17th century, various physicians and
herbalists recommended cannabis root to treat fever,
2,3
inflammation,
4–9
gout, arthritis, and joint pain,
1,5,6,8,10–
12
as well as skin burns
5,8,10
and hard tumors.
6–8
There
are also accounts of cannabis root being used to treat
postpartum hemorrhage,
13
difficult child labor,
14
sexu-
ally transmitted disease,
15
and gastrointestinal activi-
ty
16,17
and infection.
3,8
Despite a long history of
therapeutic use (Table 1), the roots of cannabis plants
have been largely ignored in modern medical research
and practice.
History of Use of Cannabis Roots
Gout, arthritis, and joint pain
In earlier times, cannabis root was used to treat
gout.
1,5,6,8,10–12
In1542,LeonhartFuchs,theGerman
physician and botanist, wrote in his herbal book
1
Ryz Re
´mi, Vancouver, Canada.
2
PHYTECS, Los Angeles, California.
*Address correspondence to: Natasha R. Ryz, PhD, Ryz Re
´mi, 306-8900 Citation Drive, Richmond, BC V6Y 3A3, E-mail: natasha@ryzremi.com
ªNatasha R. Ryz et al. 2017; Published by Mary Ann Liebert, Inc. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research
Volume 2.1, 2017
DOI: 10.1089/can.2017.0028
Cannabis and
Cannabinoid Research
210
Downloaded by 24.17.15.244 from online.liebertpub.com at 08/14/17. For personal use only.
‘‘hemp root, boiled in water, and wrapped—is also
good for gout.’’
10
Similarly, the French physician
and writer François Rabelais noted ‘‘the root of this
herb, boiled in water, soothes muscles, stiff joints, gout
pains, and rheumatism.’’
11
In 1613, Szymon Syrenski,
the Polish botanist and academic, recorded the uses of
hemp roots boiled in water for ‘‘curved and shrunken
body parts.’’
12
In 1640, John Parkinson, the English bot-
anist and herbalist, also noted ‘‘the decoction of the
rootes, easeth the paines of the goute, the hard tumours,
or knots of the joynts, the paines and shrinking of
the sinewes, and other the like paines of the hippes.’’
5
In 1710, the English physician Dr. William Salmon
recorded ‘‘the decoction of the root.—it is said .to
ease the pains of the gout, to help hard tumors or knots
in the joints, cramps, and shrinking of the sinews, and
to ease the pains of the hip, or sciatica, being applied
thereto by fomentation, and afterward mixed applied
made up into a cataplasm with barley flower, renewing
of it every day.’’
6
In 1758, the French writer M. Marcand-
ier reported in Traite
´du Chanvre, ‘‘its root, boiled in
water, and coated in the form of a cataplasm, mollifies
and softens the joints of the fingers that are shrunken.
Is quite good against the gout, and other inflammations;
it resolves tumors and callosities of the joints.’’
8
In gen-
eral, the historical records indicate that cannabis root is
most often extracted with boiling water
8,10–12
and ap-
plied topically to treat gout and arthritis.
6,8
Fever
In the 12th century, the Persian Philosopher Ibn Sina
(Avicenna) wrote in the Canon of Medicine that ‘‘the
compress with the boiled roots of cannabis decrease
fever.’’
2
In Argentina, cannabis root was also recom-
mended for fever due to infection with malaria—‘‘the
root bark, provides a fairly harsh taste mainly due to
the presence of tannin, is used fresh in cooking at the
rate of thirty grams per liter of water, or dry, fifteen
grams, for abbreviating bouts of fever in malaria.’’
3
From these accounts, cannabis roots were administered
both topically
2
and orally
3
for fever.
Inflammation
There are numerous mentions of cannabis root as a
treatment of inflammation.
4–9
In the 17th century,
Nicholas Culpeper, an English botanist, herbalist, and
physician, stated in his book Culpeper’s Complete
Herbal that ‘‘the decoction of the root allays inflamma-
tions of the head or any other parts.’’
4
In 1640, Parkin-
son also noted ‘‘hempe is cold and dry—The decoction,
of the roote is sayd to allay inflammations in the head
or any other part.’’
5
In 1710, Salmon recorded ‘‘the de-
coction of the root.—it is said to be good against, viz. to
allay inflammations in the head, or any other part.’’
6
In
1747, the English physician Robert James wrote in his
book Pharmacopoeia Universalis:or, A New Universal
English Dispensatory, ‘‘the root boil’d, and applied by
way of cataplasm, mitigates inflammations.’’
7
In the
18th century, M. Husain Khan also wrote in the Persian
medical text Makhzan-al-Adwiya, ‘‘A poultice of the
boiled root and leaves for discussing inflammations,
and cure of erysipelas, and for allaying neuralgic pains.’’
9
In general, a decoction of the cannabis root
4–6
or boiled
water extraction
7,9
administered topically
7,9
is the pre-
ferred method for using cannabis root to target overac-
tive inflammation.
Skin burns
Cannabis root has also been used topically to treat skin
burns. In 1542, Fuchs recorded ‘‘hemp root .the raw
root, pounded and wrapped, is good for the burn.’’
10
In
1640, Parkinson also noted ‘‘hempe is cold and dry—
The decoction, of the roote .it is good to be used,
for any place that hath beene burnt by fire, if the fresh
juycebemixedwithalittleoyleorbutter.’’
5
In 1758,
Marcandier reported that cannabis root ‘‘pounded and
Table 1. Medical History of Cannabis Roots
Medicinal use of
cannabis roots
Methods of
preparation
Methods of
administration
Gout, arthritis,
joint pain
1,5,6,8,10–12
Boiled roots,
8,10–12
decoction
1,5,6
Cataplasm
6,8
Fever Boiled roots
2
Compress
2
Oral?
3
Inflammation
4–9
Boiled roots,
7,9
decoction
4–6
Cataplasm,
7
poultice
9
Skin burns
5,8,10
Raw root,
10
juice or
decoction,
5
mixed
with fat (butter)
5,8
Topical
8
Hard tumors
2,6–8
Boiled roots
2,6,7
Cataplasm,
7
compress
2
Childbirth
Postpartum
hemorrhage
13,14
Juice and decoction
14
Oral
14
Sexually transmitted disease
Gonorrhea
15
(Unknown) Eaten
15
Gastrointestinal activity
To induce
vomiting
16,17
Boiled roots
17
Oral?
16,17
As a stomach tonic
3
Pulverized, mixed
with wine
3
Oral?
3
Infection
Erysipelas
9
Boiled roots
9
Poultice
9
Toxins and
infections
3
Pulverized, mixed
with wine
3
Oral?
3
Vermin
8
Juice and decoction
8
Intrarectal
8
Ryz, et al.; Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 2017, 2.1
http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/can.2017.0028
211
Downloaded by 24.17.15.244 from online.liebertpub.com at 08/14/17. For personal use only.
ground fresh, with butter in a mortar, one applies it to
burns, which it soothes infinitely, provided it is often
renewed.’’
8
Overall, cannabis root has been used topically
to soothe skin burns in a variety of ways, including raw
root,
10
as a juice,
5
and mixed with fat (butter).
5,8
Hard tumors
There are mentions of cannabis root for treating tumors,
however, the term ‘‘tumor’’ may have been used to de-
scribe any kind of ‘‘abscess, sores, ulcers, or swelling,’’
but it is unclear if these tumors included what we con-
sider today to be cancerous tumors. In the 12th century,
Ibn Sina wrote ‘‘the compress with the boiled roots of
cannabis .resolve the indurations if applied on the
hot tumors and hardened places [of the body].’’
2
In
1710, Salmon recorded ‘‘the decoction of the root—it is
said .to help hard tumors or knots in the joints.’’
6
Sim-
ilarly, in 1747, James wrote ‘‘the root boil’d, and applied
by way of cataplasm, discusses tumors, and dissolves
tophaceous Concretions at the Joints.’’
7
Furthermore,
in 1758, Marcandier reported that cannabis root ‘‘re-
solves tumors and callosities of the joints.’’
8
In general,
topical application of boiled cannabis root is used to
help with hard tumors.
2,6,7
Childbirth
In the ancient Chinese pharmacopeia, the Pe
ˆn-ts’ao
Ching, it is stated that the juice of the cannabis root
has been used to assist with the cessation of hemorrhage
after childbirth. ‘‘The juice of the root is thought to have
a beneficial action in retained placenta and postpartum
hemorrhage.’’
13
Similarly, other accounts from China re-
port ‘‘Ma gen, Cannabis Radix, cannabis (hemp) root:
This is the root of the cannabis plant. Ma gen dispels sta-
sis and stanches bleeding. It is used in the treatment of
strangury, flooding and spotting, vaginal discharge, dif-
ficult delivery, retention of the placenta, and knocks and
falls. It is taken orally, either as a decoction or crushed
to extract its juice (in its fresh form).’’
14
Interestingly,
to assist with difficult childbirth, cannabis root is admin-
istered orally, either as juice or decoction.
14
Sexually transmitted disease
There is a report of cannabis root being used to help
treat the sexually transmitted disease gonorrhea.
15
In
the 17th century, a German-born botanist employed
by the Dutch East India Company in what is now
known as eastern Indonesia noted ‘‘in Hitu [Ambon
Island, Indonesia] the Moors took the root of the
male or flower-bearing plant (which in European herb-
als are not readily distinguished) from my garden, and
gave it to eat to those who were held fast by unclean
Gonnorhaea.’’
15
It is unclear from this account how
the cannabis root was prepared to eat.
Gastrointestinal activity
Cannabis root has been used to protect against vomit-
ing (antiemetic) in Re
´union, a French island in the In-
dian Ocean: ‘‘boiled roots were used to reduce infants’
vomiting.’’.
16,17
In Chile, hemp roots have also been
used to induce vomiting (purgative).
17
In Argentina,
hemp root was recommended, ‘‘the bark should be col-
lected in the early spring, when it is also a good tonic,
successfully administered pulverized and mixed with
wine for weakness and pains of the stomach. It tones
at the same time the entire digestive apparatus, removes
toxins and infections caused by the weakness of them.
Its same fruits [seeds] can replace the root.’’
3
Infection
There are several mentions of cannabis root for treat-
ing infection. In the Persian medical text Makhzan-
al-Adwiya, ‘‘a poultice of the boiled root and leaves
for .cure of erysipelas,’’
9
which is a bacterial infection
of the upper skin layer. In modern Argentina, hemp
root was recommended ‘‘to remove toxins and infec-
tions.’’
3
Marcandier also noted in 1758 that ‘‘its juice
and decoction placed in the buttocks [anus] of horses,
in fact, also brings out the vermin.’’
8
To assist with in-
fection, cannabis root has been administered topically,
9
orally,
3
and intrarectally.
8
Active Compounds in Cannabis Roots
Cannabis roots contain many different active com-
pounds, including triterpenoids, friedelin and epi-
friedelanol (Table 2).
18–21
Friedelin is found in many
plants, including Aesculus,Cannabis,Citrus,Diospyros,
Quercus,Rhododendron, and Vaccinium, as well as
algae, lichen, mosses, peat, coal, and mineral wax.
22
Epifriedelanol is also abundant in nature.
23
The con-
centration of friedelin and epifriedelanol in cannabis
root samples from Mexico, calculated by Slatkin et al.,
was 12.8 and 21.3 mg/kg, respectively.
18
There is cur-
rently no research available about the activity of
friedelin or epifriedelanol specifically isolated from
cannabis roots.
Sethi et al.
20
collected wild cannabis roots from
Jammy,India.Fromaninitial2kgsampleofdriedpow-
dered roots, the extraction assay revealed 15 mg of friede-
lin, 29 mg epifriedelanol, and 30 mg of beta-sitosterol.
24
Interestingly, the researchers also isolated a 2.3 g oil
Ryz, et al.; Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 2017, 2.1
http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/can.2017.0028
212
Downloaded by 24.17.15.244 from online.liebertpub.com at 08/14/17. For personal use only.
fraction (extracted with n-hexane) from the root extract
and noted a characteristic odor. The oil fraction was
identified by gas liquid chromatography as containing
77.7% carvone and 23.3% dihydrocarvone.
24
Carvone
and dihydrocarvone are monoterpenes found in Mentha
spicata (spearmint) and Anethum graveolens (dill) and
are responsible for its distinctive minty aroma.
Other compounds identified in cannabis roots include
cannabisativine (2.5 mg/kg)
18,25–27
and anhydrocannabi-
sativine (0.3 mg/kg),
24
surprisingly, no pharmacological
information is available on either alkaloid. Canna-
bis roots contain various sterols, including sitosterol
(1.5%), campesterol (0.78%), and stigmasterol (0.56%).
28
Cannabis roots have also been shown to contain N-( p-
hydroxy-b-phenylethyl)-p-hydroxy-trans-cinnamamide
at calculated concentration of 1.6 mg/kg.
18
Cannabis
roots also reportedly contain choline.
29
Interestingly, cannabis roots do not contain a
significant amount of cannabinoids.
30–32
The D
9
-
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) content of dried seeds,
roots, stems, leaves, and flowers was found to be
0.0%, 0.0%, 0.3%, 0.8%, and 15.2% w/w, respectively.
30
Cannabinoids, including THC, are formed from the
short-chain fatty acyl-coenzyme A (CoA) precursor
hexanoyl-CoA. The quantity of hexanoyl-CoA content
of roots, stems, leaves, and flowers was found to be
1.5, 2.2, 4.0, and 15.5 pmol/g, respectively.
31
This pattern
was similarfor the accumulation of the end product can-
nabinoid, cannabidiolic (CBA) acid, and levels in the
roots, stems, leaves, and flowers were found to be
0.004, 0.05, 0.5, and 2.4 pmol/g, respectively.
31
Modern Studies on Biochemical Activity
of Compounds Found in Cannabis Roots
Inflammation, fever, and pain
There are several compounds in cannabis root with
potential anti-inflammatory activity, including alka-
loids,
33,34
phytosterols,
35
N-( p-hydroxy-b-phenylethyl)-
p-hydroxy-trans-cinnamamide,
18
and friedelin.
36
Friede-
lin isolated from Azima tetracantha Lam. was previously
investigated in murine models for its anti-inflammatory,
antipyretic, and analgesic effects.
36
In adult Wistar al-
bino rats, friedelin showed potent anti-inflammatory
activity in numerous in vivo tests: (1) friedelin mark-
edly reduced carrageenan-induced hind paw edema,
persisting for 6 h; effects of friedelin at 40 mg/kg
dose were comparable with indomethacin 10 mg/kg,
(2) friedelin at doses of 2 or 4 mg markedly reduced
ear edema after croton oil administration, (3) friedelin
inhibited peritoneal capillary permeability after acetic
acid administration in a dose-related manner, (4) frie-
delin inhibited granuloma formation after placement
of cotton pellets subcutaneously in the axilla, and (5)
friedelin significantly ( p<0.05) inhibited paw swelling
after Freund’s adjuvant injection.
36
Friedelin may also
help with fever: friedelin administered orally showed
significant reduction in rectal temperature ( p<0.05)
after yeast injection in adult Wistar albino rats. Results
were comparable with the antipyretic effect of parace-
tamol (acetaminophen).
36
Friedelin significantly ( p<
0.05) reduced abdominal constrictions and stretching
after acetic acid injection in adult Wistar albino rats.
The effect was less on first phase (0–5 min) neurogenic
pain than on second phase (20–30 min) inflammatory
pain. However, friedelin showed no significant effect
versus control on pain threshold in the hot plate test
in adult Wistar albino rats.
36
Cannabis roots have also been shown to contain N-( p-
hydroxy-b-phenylethyl)-p-hydroxy-trans-cinnamamide,
at calculated concentration of 1.6 mg/kg, with analge-
sic activity in the mouse tail flick test at 25, 50, and
100 mg/kg via subcutaneous injection.
18
Carvone, as
identified in cannabis root from India by Sethi et al.,
20
also has antinociceptive activity.
37,38
In the acetic acid-
induced writhing test, carvone-treated mice exhibited a
significant decrease in the number of writhes when
100 and 200 mg/kg were administered through intraper-
itoneal (IP) injection. It was also demonstrated that car-
vone inhibited the licking response of the injected paw
when 100 and 200 mg/kg were administered through
IP injection to mice in the first and second phases of
the formalin test.
37
M. spicata (spearmint) oil contains
Table 2. Active Compounds in Cannabis Roots
Active compounds in cannabis root Amount/concentration
Triterpenoids
Friedelin
18,20
7.5–12.8 mg/kg
18,20
Epifriedelanol
18,20
14.5–21.3 mg/kg
18,20
Monoterpenes From initial 2 kg sample of
dried powdered roots,
2.3 g oil fraction (extracted
with n-hexane) from the
root extract was identified
as 77.7% carvone and
23.3% dihydrocarvone.
24
Carvone
24
Dihydrocarvone
24
Alkaloids
Cannabisativine
18,25–27
2.5 mg/kg
18,25–27
Anhydrocannabisativine
24
0.3 mg/kg
24
Sterols
Sitosterol
28
1.5%
28
Campesterol
28
0.78%
28
Stigmasterol
28
0.56%
28
N-( p-hydroxy-b-phenylethyl)-
p-hydroxy-trans-cinnamamide
18
1.6 mg/kg
18
Choline
29
Ryz, et al.; Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 2017, 2.1
http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/can.2017.0028
213
Downloaded by 24.17.15.244 from online.liebertpub.com at 08/14/17. For personal use only.
up to 60–70% carvone and is being investigated as a
treatment for osteoarthritis.
39
Estrogenic activity
Friedelin may have estrogenic activity. Cissus quadran-
gularis (Vitaceae) is an edible plant found in hotter
parts of India, Sri Lanka, Malaya, Java, and West
Africa. The plant has been documented in Ayurveda
for its medicinal uses in gout, syphilis, venereal disease,
and as an aphrodisiac.
40
A friedelin-rich fraction iso-
lated from C. quadrangularis has been shown to have
estrogenic activity in ovariectomized female Wistar
rats.
40
Treating rats with the friedelin-rich fraction
(75 and 100 mg/kg per os) improved sexual behavior
parameters and estrogenic activity as indicated by vag-
inal cornification, increase in uterine weight, and rise in
serum estrogen.
40
Maytenus ilicifolia also contains frie-
delin
41
and is reported to have estrogenic activity.
42
Antioxidant, liver protectant, and anticancer activity
Friedelin isolated from A. tetracantha Lam. leaves
showed strong antioxidant activity in vitro and liver
protectant properties in vivo, and pretreatment with
40 mg/kg friedelin reduced carbon tetrachloride (CCl
4
)-
induced liver function elevations due to hepatic damage
(p<0.005), comparable with silymarin extract of Sily-
bum marianum (milk thistle).
43
It should be noted that
friedelin isolated from the leaves of M. ilicifolia did not
decrease gastric ulcers when tested on indometacine-
induced ulcer model in rats.
41
Friedelin from the stem
bark of Mesua daphnifolia had weak cytotoxic activity
against four cancer cell lines, including MDA-MB-231
(human estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer),
HeLa (human cervical carcinoma), CEM-SS (human
T-lymphoblastic leukemia), and CaOV3 (human ovar-
ian cancer).
44
Friedelin and epifriedelanol isolated from
the stem bark of Elaeocarpus floribundus also had weak
anticancer activity against CEM-SS and HeLa cell lines.
45
However, friedelin and epifriedelanol isolated from var-
ious other plants had no activity against a variety of can-
cer cell lines.
46–50
Cardiac activity?
Throughout history, the ancients did not record any car-
diac activity of cannabis roots. In 1971, Rodger pub-
lished an account in the Journal of the American
Medical Associated (JAMA), recollecting his physician
uncle using Indian hemp roots to treat dropsy
(edema) in 1931.
51
This prompted an investigation by
Ham Ten, who infused cannabis roots with whiskey
into guinea pig hearts with resultant bradycardia—the
heart rates dropped from 240 to 60 beats/min. A quick
recovery was seen when administration was stopped.
52
Similarly, Mole et al. tested cardiac activities of cannabis
root and showed minimal bradycardia.
53
It should
be noted that in 1939, Indian hemp was the common
name applied to Apocynum cannabinum, a known car-
diotoxin, used to treat dropsy in folk medicine (p. 346)
54
and also by the Meskwaki Native Americans of the Mid-
west.
55,56
It appears that Rodger may have mistaken the
Cannabis sativa root for Indian hemp, that is, A. canna-
binum. As such, Rodger’s report is likely spurious and
has no relationship to actual toxicity of cannabis roots.
This sort of confusion is totally avoidable through ap-
propriate utilization of Latin binomials and voucher
specimens for authentication of the samples.
Summary and Future Directions
There is renewed interest in pharmacotherapy with
cannabis flowers and their extracts, stems, and leaves.
The roots, however, are still largely ignored in scholar-
ship and in medical practice, where historically, they
were valued as medicinal agents for treating a vari-
ety of conditions, including fever,
2,3
inflammation,
4–9
gout, arthritis, and joint pain.
1,5,6,8,10–12
The phytocan-
nabinoids, including THC and CBD, have been the
major focus of attention for medicine and are found
in the glandular resin heads, which are most con-
centrated in flowers and bracts, and also contain
terpenes such as limonene, alpha-pinene, and beta-
caryophyllene.
57
Interestingly, cannabis roots are not
a significant source of cannabinoids or the aforemen-
tioned terpenes, but are rich in other compounds,
including the triterpenoids, friedelin and epifriedela-
nol
18
; alkaloids, cannabisativine
18,25–27
and anhydro-
cannabisativine
24
; and other compounds that may
have therapeutic applications. It is important to note
that past studies have included analysis of roots of C.
sativa from various regions of the world, including
Mexico
24,25,29
and India.
20
The plant genus Cannabis
is a member of the family Cannabaceae, and while
some botanists argue for cannabis as a single species,
others describe up to four, including C. sativa,Canna-
bis indica,Cannabis ruderalis, and Cannabis afghanica
(or kafiristanica).
58,59
It is clear there are many dif-
ferent chemotypes of cannabis, including THC pre-
dominant, CBD predominant, and mixed types.
60
Future research should compare the phytochemistry
of hemp roots with those from various drug chemo-
vars to determine if there are differences in active
Ryz, et al.; Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 2017, 2.1
http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/can.2017.0028
214
Downloaded by 24.17.15.244 from online.liebertpub.com at 08/14/17. For personal use only.
compounds. Furthermore, reports of carvone and
dihydrocarvone in significant amounts
20
and other
potential monoterpenes in cannabis roots must be
confirmed. Modern studies using the same terpe-
noids found in cannabis roots have shown anti-
inflammatory and pain-relieving activities.
36
However,
there is no pharmacological information available
about the alkaloids found in cannabis roots. Further
research is required to study the active compounds
in cannabis roots and explore their potential thera-
peutic applications.
There are various traditional methods of preparing
cannabis root for therapeutic use. The raw cannabis
roots can be prepared by pounding and crushing the
fresh root to extract its juices.
10,13,14
There are numerous
mentions of cannabis root preparations in water, espe-
cially boiling water,
1,2,4–6,8,14
which suggest that early
formulators were attempting to extract the water-soluble
compounds in the roots. Throughout the 17th and 18th
centuries, there are also many mentions of using canna-
bis root decoctions.
4–6,14
The fresh ground root, juice, or
cannabis root decoction has also been mixed with fat (oil
or butter).
5,8
There is also an account of mixing pulver-
ized cannabis root with wine.
3
Interestingly, topical ap-
plications of cannabis root-based preparations are most
often described.
1,2,4–6,8,14
Modern cannabis dispensaries
in the United States now stock preparations made from
hemp and cannabis root, including body lotions, salves,
lip balms, massage oil, and pet sprays.
61
It should be
noted, if cannabis roots are being used therapeutically,
the source of the roots must be carefully considered
since cannabis roots can be used for phytoremediation
and can accumulate heavy metals from the soil, includ-
ing iron, chromium, and cadmium.
62
Future studies will
also have to determine the best methods of preparing
cannabis roots and best methods to administer cannabis
roots for various conditions.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.
References
1. Pliny (the Elder). The natural history of Pliny, Volume 4; Bohn’s classical
library The natural history of Pliny. Translated by John Bostock, Henry
Thomas Riley. H.G. Bohn: 1856;XX;298.
2. Ibn Sina A. Kanun fi at-Tibb (Canon of medicine) [in Arabic]. 2nd vol.
Manuscript from the collection of the Institute of Manuscripts: Baku,
Azerbaijan, copied 1143.
3. Manfred L. Siete mil recetas botanicas a base de mil trescientas
plantas medicinales. Editorial Kier S.A.: Buenos Aires, Argentina,
2008.
4. Culpeper N. Culpeper’s complete herbal: consisting of a comprehensive
description of nearly all herbs with their medicinal properties and di-
rections for compounding the medicines extracted from them. W. Foul-
sham: London, 1994;xii:430.
5. Parkinson J. Theatrum botanicum: The theater of plants; or, an herball of a
large extent.distributed into sundry classes or tribes, for the more easie
knowledge of the many herbes of one nature and property, with the
chiefe notes of Dr. Lobel, Dr. Bonham, and others inserted therein. Tho.
Cotes: London, 1640.
6. Salmon W. Botanologia. The English herbal: or, history of plants. I.
Dawkes: London, 1710.
7. James R. Pharmacopoeia universalis: or, A new universal English dispen-
satory. Hodges & Wood: London, 1747;31:836.
8. Marcandier M. [Hemp Treaty]. In French. Chez Nyon: Paris, 1758;138.
9. O’Shaughnessy WB. On the preparations of the Indian hemp, or Gunjah:
Cannabis indica their effects on the animal system in health, and their
utility in the treatment of tetanus and other convulsive diseases. Prov
Med J Retrosp Med Sci. 1843;5:363–369.
10. Meyer FG, Trueblood EWE, Heller JL, et al. The great herbal of Leonhart
Fuchs: De historia stirpium commentarii insignes, 1542 [notable commen-
taries on the history of plants]. Stanford University Press: Stanford, CA, 1999.
11. Rabelais F. Gargantua and Pantagruel, 1st ed. Norton: New York,
1990;xi:623.
12. Syrenski S. Zielnik herbarzem z je˛zyka 1acin
´skiego zowia˛. Translation by
Bogna Ignatowska-Jankowska. Bazyli Skalski: Krakow, Poland, 1613.
13. Smith FP, Stuart GA. Chinese materia medica; vegetable kingdom.
American Presbyterian Mission Press: Shanghai, China, 1911.
14. Brand E, Wiseman N. Concise Chinese Materia Medica. Paradigm Publi-
cations: Taos, NM, 2008.
15. Rumpf GE, Beekman EM. The poison tree: selected writings of Rumphius
on the natural history of the Indies. University of Massachusetts Press:
Amherst, MA, 1981:xii.
16. Benoist J. Re
´union: cannabis in a pluricultural and polyethnic society. In:
Cannabis and culture. Rubin V (ed.). Mouton Publishers: The Hague,
1975:227–234.
17. Forster E. History of hemp in Chile. J Int Hemp Assoc. 1996;3:72–77.
18. Slatkin DJ, Doorenbos NJ, Harris LS, et al. Chemical constituents of
Cannabis sativa L. root. J Pharm Sci. 1971;60:1891–1892.
19. Russo EB, Marcu J. Cannabis pharmacology: the usual suspects and a
few promising leads. Adv Pharmacol. 2017;79:68.
20. Sethi VK, Jain MP, Thakur RS. Chemical investigation of wild Cannabis
sativa L. roots. Planta Med. 1977;32:378–379.
21. Andre CM, Hausman JF, Guerriero G. Cannabis sativa: the plant of the
thousand and one molecules. Front Plant Sci. 2016;7:19.
22. Chandler RF, Hooper SN. Friedelin and associated triterpenoids.
Phytochemistry. 1979;18:711–724.
23. Sainsbury. Friedelin and epifriedelinol from the bark of Prunus turfosa and
a review of their natural distribution. Phytochemistry. 1970;9:2209–2215.
24. Elsohly MA, Turner CE, Phoebe CH, Jr, et al. Anhydrocannabisativine, a
new alkaloid from Cannabis sativa L. J Pharm Sci. 1978;67:124.
25. Turner CE, Hsu MH, Knapp JE, et al. Isolation of cannabisativine, an
alkaloid, from Cannabis sativa L. root. J Pharm Sci. 1976;65:1084–1085.
26. Lotter HL, Abraham DJ, Turner CE, et al. Cannabisativine, a new alkaloid
from Cannabis sativa L. root. Tetrahedron Lett. 1975;16:2815–2818.
27. Kuethe JT, Comins DL. Asymmetric total synthesis of (+)-cannabisativine.
J Org Chem. 2004;69:5219–5231.
28. Slatkin DJ, Knapp JE, Schiff PL, et al. Steroids of Cannabis sativa root.
Phytochemistry. 1975;14:580–581.
29. Mole ML, Jr, Turner CE. Phytochemical screening of Cannabis sativa L. II.
Choline and neurine in the roots of a Mexican variant. Acta Pharm Jugosl.
1973;23:203–205.
30. Potter DJ. The propagation, characterisation and optimisation of Canna-
bis sativa L. as a phytopharmaceutical. King’s College: London, 2009.
31. Stout JM, Boubakir Z, Ambrose SJ, et al. The hexanoyl-CoA precursor for
cannabinoid biosynthesis is formed by an acyl-activating enzyme in
Cannabis sativa trichomes. Plant J. 2012;71:353–365.
32. Lawrence RH, Waller GR. Glandular structures of Cannabis sativa L. and
cannabinoid production. Plant Physiol. 1974;53:5–13.
33. Guo X, Harada C, Namekata K, et al. Spermidine alleviates severity of
murine experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Invest Ophthalmol
Vis Sci. 2011;52:2696–2703.
34. Yang Q, Zheng C, Cao J, et al. Spermidine alleviates experimental auto-
immune encephalomyelitis through inducing inhibitory macrophages.
Cell Death Differ. 2016;23:1850–1861.
Ryz, et al.; Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 2017, 2.1
http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/can.2017.0028
215
Downloaded by 24.17.15.244 from online.liebertpub.com at 08/14/17. For personal use only.
35. Bouic PJ. The role of phytosterols and phytosterolins in immune modu-
lation: a review of the past 10 years. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care.
2001;4:471–475.
36. Antonisamy P, Duraipandiyan V, Ignacimuthu S, et al. Anti-diarrhoeal
activity of friedelin isolated from Azima tetracantha Lam. in Wistar rats.
South Ind J Biol Sci. 2015;1:34–37.
37. Goncalves JC, Oliveira Fde S, Benedito RB, et al. Antinociceptive activity
of (-)-carvone: evidence of association with decreased peripheral nerve
excitability. Biol Pharm Bull. 2008;31:1017–1020.
38. de Sousa DP, de Farias Nobrega FF, de Almeida RN. Influence of the
chirality of (R)-(-)- and (S)-(+)-carvone in the central nervous system: a
comparative study. Chirality. 2007;19:264–268.
39. Mahboubi M. Mentha spicata as natural analgesia for treatment of
pain in osteoarthritis patients. Complement Ther Clin Pract.
2017;26:1–4.
40. Aswar UM, Bhaskaran S, Mohan V, et al. Estrogenic activity of frie-
delinrichfraction(IND-HE)separatedfromCissus quadrangularis and
its effect on female sexual function. Pharmacognosy Res. 2010;2:
138–145.
41. Queiroga CL, Silva GF, Dias PC, et al. Evaluation of the antiulcerogenic
activity of friedelan-3beta-ol and friedelin isolated from Maytenus ilicifolia
(Celastraceae). J Ethnopharmacol. 2000;72:465–468.
42. Montanari T, Bevilacqua E. Effect of Maytenus ilicifolia Mart. on pregnant
mice. Contraception. 2002;65:171–175.
43. Sunil C, Duraipandiyan V, Ignacimuthu S, et al. Antioxidant, free radical
scavenging and liver protective effects of friedelin isolated from Azima
tetracantha Lam. leaves. Food Chem. 2013;139:860–865.
44. EeGC,LimCK,RahmatA,etal.Cytotoxicactivitiesofchemical
constituents from Mesua daphnifolia. Trop Biomed. 2005;22:
99–102.
45. Utami R, Khalid N, Sukari MA, et al. Phenolic contents, antioxidant and
cytotoxic activities of Elaeocarpus floribundus Blume. Pak J Pharm Sci.
2013;26:245–250.
46. Wang D, Xia M, Cui Z. New triterpenoids isolated from the root bark of
Ulmus pumila L. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2006;54:775–778.
47. Setzer WN, Shen X, Bates RB, et al. A phytochemical investigation of
Alchornea latifolia. Fitoterapia. 2000;71:195–198.
48. Zheng GQ. Cytotoxic terpenoids and flavonoids from Artemisia annua.
Planta Med. 1994;60:54–57.
49. Thao NT, Hung TM, Lee MK, et al. Triterpenoids from Camellia japonica
and their cytotoxic activity. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo). 2010;58:
121–124.
50. Somwong P, Suttisri R, Buakeaw A. New sesquiterpenes and phenolic
compound from Ficus foveolata. Fitoterapia. 2013;85:1–7.
51. Rodger JR. Cannabis roots. JAMA. 1971;217:1705–1706.
52. Ham Ten M, Fokkens J, Lousberg RJ, et al. Effects of Cannabis roots on the
heart. JAMA. 1973;225:525.
53. Mole ML, Buelke J, Turner CE. Letter: Preliminary observations on car-
diac activities of Cannabis sativa L. root extracts. J Pharm Sci. 1974;63:
1169–1170.
54. Kloss J. Back to Eden: American herbs for pleasure and health: natural
nutrition with recipes and instruction for living the Edenic life. Lifeline
Books: Santa Barbara, CA, 1975.
55. Smith HH. Ethnobotany of the Meskwaki Indians. Bulletin of the Public
Museum of the City of Milwaukee, 1928;4:175–326.
56. Moerman DE. Native American ethnobotany. Timber Press: Portland, OR,
1998.
57. Russo EB. Taming THC: potential cannabis synergy and
phytocannabinoid-terpenoid entourage effects. Br J Pharmacol.
2011;163:1344–1364.
58. Clarke RC, Merlin MD. Cannabis: evolution and ethnobotany. University of
California Press: Berkely, 2013.
59. Small E. Evolution and classification of Cannabis sativa (marijuana, hemp)
in relation to human utilization. Botanical Reviews 2015;81:189–294.
60. Piomelli D, Russo EB. The Cannabis sativa versus Cannabis indica debate:
an interview with Ethan Russo, MD. Cannabis Cannabinoid Res.
2016;1:44–46.
61. HempEaZe Body Care. Original therapy cream. http://tierrasolfarm.com/
(accessed May 31, 2017).
62. Irshad M, Ahmad S, Pervez A, et al. Phytoaccumulation of heavy metals in
natural plants thriving on wastewater effluent at Hattar industrial estate,
Pakistan. Int J Phytoremediation. 2015;17:154–158.
Cite this article as: Ryz NR, Remillard DJ, Russo EB (2017) Cannabis
roots: a traditional therapy with future potential for treating inflam-
mation and pain, Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 2:1, 210–216,
DOI: 10.1089/can.2017.0028.
Abbreviations Used
CBD ¼cannabidiol
CoA ¼coenzyme A
IP ¼intraperitoneal
THC ¼D
9
-tetrahydrocannabinol
Publish in Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research
-Immediate, unrestricted online access
-Rigorous peer review
-Compliance with open access mandates
-Authors retain copyright
-Highly indexed
-Targeted email marketing
liebertpub.com/can
Ryz, et al.; Cannabis and Cannabinoid Research 2017, 2.1
http://online.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/can.2017.0028
216
Downloaded by 24.17.15.244 from online.liebertpub.com at 08/14/17. For personal use only.
