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1© Springer International Publishing AG 2017
C. Mohan (ed.), Sugarcane Biotechnology: Challenges and Prospects,
DOI10.1007/978-3-319-58946-6_1
Chapter 1
Potential Health Benets ofSugarcane
ChinnarajaChinnadurai
Abstract Sugarcane is a perennial grass belonging to Poaceae family and it has
been cultivated worldwide more than 90 countries because of its economical and
medicinal value of high-yielding products. Rened sugar is obtained as a primary
product from sugarcane juice, an eminent raw material of sugarcane. Other com-
mercial value-added by-products such as brown sugar, molasses, and jaggery are
also obtained during the process in an unrened form. The expensive carnauba wax
is produced from sugarcane wax and utilized in cosmetics and pharmaceutical
applications. Sugarcane juice is widely used in traditional medicine system of sev-
eral countries mainly in India, to treat several health issues such as jaundice, hemor-
rhage, dysuria, anuria, and other urinary diseases. In this chapter, various types of
phytoconstituents and health benets of sugarcane and its valuable products are
summarized. The phytochemistry of sugarcane juice, sugarcane wax, leaves, and its
products also established the occurrence of various fatty acids, alcohol, phytoster-
ols, higher terpenoids, avonoids, -O- and -C-glycosides, and phenolic acids.
Necessity on advanced research for the production of various medicinal products
from sugarcane and its phytopharmacological study has been summarized.
Keywords Medicine • Molasses • Pharmacological properties • Phytochemical
prole • Sugarcane juice
1.1 Introduction
Sugarcane is a tall perennial true grass belonging to the genus Saccharum and tribe
Andropogoneae. It originated in Southeast Asia and is now cultivated in tropical and
subtropical countries throughout the world for sugar and by-products. The genus
Saccharum contains ve important species, viz., Saccharum ofcinarum, Saccharum
sinense, Saccharum barberi, Saccharum robustum, and Saccharum spontaneum.
C. Chinnadurai, Ph.D. (*)
Faculty of Science and Technology, Department of Life Sciences, The University of the West
Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
e-mail: chinnadurai.chinnaraja@sta.uwi.edu
chinnadurai.chinnaraja@sta.uwi.edu
2
The cultivation of S. ofcinarum and its hybrids is mostly used for the production
of sugar and ethanol and other industrial applications in more than 90 countries
around the world. The stems and the by-products of the sugar industry are also used
for feeding livestock. S. ofcinarum was originally grown in Southeast Asia and
Western India. Around 327B.C. it was an important crop in the Indian subcontinent.
It was introduced to Egypt around 647A.D. and about one century later, to Spain
(755A.D.). Since then, the cultivation of sugarcane extended to nearly all tropical
and subtropical regions around the world. Portuguese and Spaniards introduced
sugarcane to the New World early in the sixteenth century. S. ofcinarum L. more
recently is utilized as a replacement of fossil fuel for motor vehicles.
Worldwide, sugarcane inhabits 20.42million ha area with a total production of
1900 million metric tons (FAO 2014). Sugarcane area and productivity differ widely
from country to country. Brazil occupies the highest sugarcane-growing area (5.343
million ha) followed by India, China, Thailand, Pakistan, and Mexico. Sugarcane is
a best example for renewable natural agricultural resource since it provides sugar,
besides biofuel, ber, fertilizer, and a myriad of by-products/coproducts with eco-
logical sustainability. White sugar, brown sugar (Khandsari), jaggery (Gur), and
ethanol are obtained from sugarcane juice and bagasse and molasses are the main
by-products of the sugar industry. Molasses are the chief by-products used as main
raw material for the production of alcohol. Excess bagasse is now being used as raw
material in the paper industry. In addition, cogeneration of power using bagasse as
fuel is considered feasible in most sugar mills.
Sugarcane holds potential health benets and generally most of them are not
aware of it. Sugarcane can be edible in the form of either pieces of stem or juice.
Sugarcane juice extracted from the cane is nutritious and refreshing. It contains
about 15% natural sugar that helps to rehydrate the human body and gives instant
energy. Sugarcane juice is rich in minerals such as phosphorus, potassium, calcium,
iron, and magnesium and vitamins such as vitamin A, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, C, and
E. About 100 mL of sugarcane juice contains 39 calories of energy and 9 g of
carbohydrates.
1.2 Health Benets ofSugarcane
Sugarcane juice is used to cure several types of human diseases in different parts of
the world. It has been used in Ayurveda and Unani systems of medicine in India
since time immemorial either as single drug or in combination with other plant
products. Sugarcane extracts were established with a wide range of biological
effects such as immunostimulation (El-Abasy etal. 2002), anti-thrombosis activity,
anti-inammatory activity, vaccine adjuvant, modulation of acetylcholine release
(Barocci etal. 1999), and anti-stress effects. Sugarcane juice has broad biological
effects on raising innate immunity to infections (Lo etal. 2005).
Jaundice patients and people having liver-related disorders have been encour-
aged to consume sugarcane extract in traditional system of medicine in curing
C. Chinnadurai
chinnadurai.chinnaraja@sta.uwi.edu
3
diseases. Sugarcane juice is also used as aphrodisiac, laxative, demulcent, antisep-
tic, and tonic (Xu etal. 2005). According to the Unani system of medicine in India,
sugarcane juice is considered benecial for the liver by regulating the bilirubin lev-
els and it is recommended that consumption of large amount of sugarcane juice
helps for an immediate relief from jaundice. These assumptions have also been
supported by modern pharmacological studies, which revealed that sugarcane con-
tains various bioactivities like anti-inammatory, analgesic, antihyperglycemic,
diuretic, and hepatoprotective effects. Although apigenin, tricin, and luteoline gly-
cosides like orientin, vitexin, schaftoside, and swertisin were reported as the main
constituents in sugarcane juice, various policosanols and steroids were also reported
in different parts of S. ofcinarum. Based on these bioactivities and chemical con-
stituents of sugarcane, great attention has been given for the investigation of some
lead molecules of this cheapest crop for various diseases.
Sugarcane juice regulates natural immunity of host cells against different micro-
bial infections such as viral, bacterial, and protozoan having effects on the levels of
macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer cells (El-Abasy etal. 2002, 2003; Lo
etal. 2005). A wide range of biological activities are observed with by-products of
sugarcane juice including antioxidant activities (Tanaki et al. 2003), prophylactic
activities, and other physiological functions (Takara etal. 2002).
Sugarcane juice is a rich source of antioxidants. Free radicals have been con-
cerned in the etiology of several human ailments and many antioxidants are being
considered as potential therapeutic agents (Sies 1996; Spiteller 2001). The mecha-
nism involved in many human diseases such as hepatotoxicities, hepatocarcinogen-
esis, diabetes, malaria, acute myocardial infarction, and skin cancer includes lipid
peroxidation as a main source of membrane damage (Yoshikava et al. 2000).
Antioxidants are molecules capable of terminating the chain reaction of free radi-
cals before vital molecules are damaged. Supplementation of these antioxidants
became an attractive therapeutic strategy for reducing the risk of diseases caused by
free radicals (Brash and Harve 2002). Recent studies on the role of phenolic com-
pounds from foods and beverages against free radical-mediated diseases became
more signicant due to the nding of association between lipid peroxidation of
LDL and arthrosclerosis. Antioxidant properties of phenolic compounds can be
attributed to a wide range of pharmacological activities. These compounds in gen-
eral act by quenching free radicals, inhibiting the activation of pro-carcinogens, or
binding carcinogens to macromolecules. The phenolic and avonoid contents of
sugarcane juice were found with equal proportion of antioxidant effects
(Krishnaswamy 1996).
The polyphenols in sugarcane juice also induce metabolism and help keep weight
gain during pregnancy and its low glycemic index helps to maintain energy levels.
A glass of sugarcane juice with a dash of ginger helps to reduce morning sickness
of pregnant women. Small doses of sugarcane juice more than twice a day are rec-
ommended for morning sickness, a common complaint among pregnant women.
Since sugarcane juice is a rich source of calcium, magnesium, and iron, regular
consumption can help boost immunity and keep mineral deciency at bay during
pregnancy. Constipation is also an issue with pregnancy. The juice can also be used
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to boost digestion and treat constipation due to the presence of potassium. It helps
in proper functioning of digestive system and prevents stomach infections.
Sugarcane juice has been recommended for its diuretic property (Karthikeyan
and Simipillai 2010; Cáceres etal. 1987). Regular use of sugarcane juice leads to
clear urinary ow since it aids kidneys to perform their function properly. With
addition of lime juice and coconut water, sugarcane juice helps in reducing burning
sensation which is commonly associated with urinary tract infections, sexually
transmitted diseases, kidney stones, and prostatitis.
Intake of sugarcane juice is recommended for diabetic patients. It comprises
natural sugar which has low glycemic index that prevents steep rise in blood glucose
levels in diabetics. Noni fruit juice was mixed with sugarcane juice and kukui nuts
(Aleurites moluccana (L.) Wild, Euphorbiaceae) to be used as purgative, or diluted
with spring water to treat diabetes and high blood pressure or prevent intoxication
from kava (McClatchey 2002; Chun 1994). However, type 2 diabetes patients are
recommended to consume it in moderate levels after doctor consultation.
Cancer cannot survive in an alkaline environment. Sugarcane juice comprises
high concentration of calcium, magnesium, potassium, iron, and manganese since it
is proven that regular consumption of sugarcane juice is effectively ghting against
cancer, especially prostate and breast cancer.
Studies established that sugarcane juice protects against tooth decay and bad
breath due to its high mineral content. Deciency of nutrients in the body can easily
be recovered by including sugarcane juice in our diet. Febrile disorder is quite com-
mon in infants and children resulting in fevers, which can lead to seizures and loss
of proteins in the body. Sugarcane juice helps in compensating the lost protein and
helps in recovery.
Alpha hydroxy acids help ght acne, reduce blemishes, prevent ageing, and keep
the skin hydrated. One of the most effective alpha hydroxy acids is glycolic acid and
is present in sugarcane and considered as one of its few natural sources. Even though
sugarcane juice has many advantages, it is also important to consume the juice as
soon as it is extracted because it tends to get oxidized within 15min. As it is rich
with medicinal values, sugarcane juice is considered as a miracle drink.
1.3 Phytochemical Prole ofSugarcane andIts By-products
1.3.1 Sugarcane Leaves
Sugarcane leaves are naturally coated with waxes which are considered as an impor-
tant source of various policosanols and D-003. In addition, various avones -O- and
-C- glycosides were isolated from methanolic extracts of sugarcane leaves through
HPLC microfractionation techniques.
C. Chinnadurai
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1.3.2 Sugarcane Wax
Sugarcane wax deposits on the surface of stalks and leaves seem whitish to dark
yellow in color and are extracted from the sugarcane lter residue, the so-called
bagasse, during sugar production and utilized for industrial, cosmetic, and pharma-
ceutical applications (Hoepfner and Botha 2004). It is one of the important com-
mercial sources of long-chain fatty alcohols, acids, esters, aldehydes, and ketones.
Apart from that policosanols and D-003, some steroids and terpenoids have also
been isolated as by-products from sugarcane wax. Policosanols range from 2.5 to
80% and are a blend of long-chain primary aliphatic alcohols. Octacosanol consti-
tutes 50–80% of the total policosanols (Awika and Rooney 2004). Other active com-
ponents of sugarcane wax are long-chain aliphatic fatty acids that occur at lower
concentrations. The blend of these acids is known as D-003 (Mas 2004). Several
phytosterols, steroids, and higher terpenoids were also reported (Georges et al.
2006; Bryce etal. 1967) apart from the major constituents of fatty acid and fatty
alcohol in sugarcane wax (Goswami etal. 1984). The quantity of wax derived from
sugarcane is between the range of 0.1 and 0.3% and it differs from variety to variety
(Laguna Granja etal. 1999). The sugarcane wax is considered as a possible substi-
tute for the expensive carnauba wax.
1.3.3 Sugarcane Juice
Sugarcane juice is extracted by grinding the sugarcane stems for the production of
white/brown sugar, jaggery, and molasses. Sugarcane juice holds water (70–75%),
sucrose (13–15%), and ber (10–15%). Several color components with chlorogenic
acid, cinnamic acid, and avones were identied from sugarcane juice during 1971
(Farber etal. 1971). Further, all the colored components were categorized into four
major classes: plant pigments, polyphenolic compounds, caramels, and degradation
products of sugars condensed with amino derivatives.
The presence of phenolic acids such as hydroxycinnamic acid, sinapic acid, and
caffeic acid, along with avones such as apigenin, luteolin, and tricin, was also
identied in high-performance liquid chromatography with diode array detection
(HPLC-DAD) analysis of phenolic compounds from sugarcane juice. In that, tricin
derivatives were obtained with highest concentration (Maurício Duarte-Almeida
et al. 2006). Further, detailed chromatographic and spectroscopic studies estab-
lished the presence of various -O- and -C- glycosides of the above-mentioned a-
vones (Vila et al. 2008). Apart from that few minor avones swertisin,
tricin-7-O-neohesperoside-4′-O-rhamnoside, tricin-7-O-methylglucuronate-4′-O-
rhamnoside, and tricin-7-O-methylglucuronide (Colombo et al. 2009) and some
novel acylated avone glycosides, such as tricin-7-O-β-(6′-methoxycinnamic)-
glucoside, luteolin-8-C-rhamnosyl glucoside, and
1 Potential Health Benets ofSugarcane
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tricin-4′-O-(erthroguaicylglyceryl)-ether, were isolated, along with orientin, from
sugarcane juice (Duarte-Almeida etal. 2007).
1.3.4 Sugarcane Products
Brown sugar, molasses, syrups, and non-centrifugal sugar are the several important
by-products of sugarcane (Balasundaram etal. 2006). Apart from some identied
compounds of sugarcane juice, three new avonoid glycosides, tricin7-(2′-
rhamnosyl)-α-galacturonide, orientin-7,3′-dimethyl ether, and iso-orientin-7,3′-O-
dimethyl ether, were isolated from mill syrups (Mabry etal. 1984). Along with the
already stated isoorientin-7 and 3′-O-dimethyl ether, a novel O-glycoside and
dehydroconiferylalcohol-9′-O-β--glucopyranoside were also isolated from sugar-
cane molasses and have been validated as antibacterial compounds (Takara etal.
2007). Through liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis of
aqueous and dichloromethane extracts of brown sugars, the presence of various
phenolic acids and eight major volatile constituents has been described.
1.4 Pharmacological Properties ofSugarcane andIts
By-products
Various phytochemicals including phenolic compounds, plant sterols, and polico-
sanols are present in sugarcane and help in defense against pest and diseases. Several
studies have proven the biological activities of sugarcane products including anti-
oxidant activity, cholesterol-lowering properties, and other potential health
benets.
1.4.1 Antithrombotic Activity
Antithrombotic activity was examined with policosanols and D-003 for their plate-
let aggregation and in rats. Plasma level of 6 keto-PGF1-α (a stable metabolite of
prostacyclin PGI) was signicantly increased with oral administration of D-003 at a
single dose of 200mg/kg and policosanols at a concentration of 25mg/kg in rats,
compared to control. In addition, D-003 signicantly reduced the thromboxane
plasma levels and weight of venous thrombus in collagen-stimulated whole blood of
rats (Molina etal. 2002). Also, the pharmacokinetic study established that the effect
of D-003 was detected after 30min of dosing and the maximal effect exhibited after
1–2h of treatment (Molina etal. 2000).
C. Chinnadurai
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1.4.2 Diuretic Activity
Intragastric application of ethanol extracts (50%) of fresh leaves to rats at a dose of
40mL/kg was found with diuretic activity, while its decoction was not found with
any diuretic activity (Ribeiro Rde etal. 1986; Cáceres etal. 1987).
1.4.3 Analgesic andAntihepatotoxic Activity
Ethanol extracts (95%) from sugarcane leaves and shoots were recorded with anal-
gesic activity in mice with intragastric application at a dose of 1g/kg. The ethanol
extract of sugarcane shoots was found active only against the tail-ick method while
leaf extracts were active against benzoyl peroxide-induced writhing and tail-ick
response (Costa etal. 1989).
Intraperitoneal application of aqueous extract of dried stems to mice, at a dose of
25mg/kg, was found active against chloroform-induced hepatotoxicity (Jin et al.
1981).
1.4.4 Antihypercholesterolemic Effect
Oral administration of sugarcane policosanols (5–200mg/kg) on normocholesterol-
emic New Zealand rabbits revealed a signicant decrease in the level of total cho-
lesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) in a dose-dependent
manner. It also reduced the level of serum triglyceride, but it was not found as dose
dependent. However, the high-density lipoprotein levels remained unchanged
(Arruzazabala etal. 1994).
Policosanols also prevented atherosclerosis in male New Zealand rabbits fed on
a cholesterol-rich diet for 60days at doses of 25 or 200mg/kg. Interestingly, hyper-
cholesterolemia was not found in policosanol-treated rabbits and the intima thick-
ness was also found signicantly less compared to control animals (Arruzazabala
etal. 2000).
1.4.5 Antihyperglycemic Activity
Intragastrical application of ethanol extract of leaves at a dose of 1g/kg and 60mg/
animal, respectively, produced weak activity against alloxan-induced hyperglyce-
mia (Arruzazabala etal. 1994). Further, intraperitoneal application of juice of dried
stems exhibited hypoglycemic activity at a dose of 200mg/kg (Takahashi et al.
1985).
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1.4.6 Anti-inammatory Effect
Oral administration of the mixture of fatty acids isolated from sugarcane wax
showed anti-inammatory activity in the cotton pellet granuloma assay and in the
carrageenan-induced pleurisy test, both in rats and in the peritoneal capillary perme-
ability test in mice (Ledón etal. 2003).
1.4.7 Acetylcholine Release
The study on the effect of policosanols on the release of acetylcholine (ACh) at the
neuromuscular junction in mice revealed that policosanols enhanced a slight extent
of either the spontaneous or the evoked ACh release. Additionally, it was found that
increment in the level of conformational changes induced at the nicotinic receptor
channel complex, which established the release of Ach (Re etal. 1999).
1.5 Toxicity Prole ofSugarcane Juice
Incomplete combustion of the organic matter develops polycyclic aromatic hydro-
carbons (PAHs) in sugarcane juice at harvesting season and their presence origi-
nates mainly from processing and cooking of food. The presence of four PAHs,
benz(a)anthracene, benzo(b)uoranthene, benzo(k)uoranthene, and benzo(a)
pyrene, was conrmed in HPLC analysis of sugarcane juice collected during differ-
ent harvesting period (Silvia Tfouni etal. 2009).
1.6 Conclusion andFuture Perspectives
This chapter provides a detailed analysis on health benets of sugarcane, its phyto-
chemical prole, and pharmacological applications. Sugarcane extract is utilized as
a regular nutritional drink in several Asian countries since it comprises signicant
amount of minerals, vitamins, and hydrophilic compounds with essential biological
activities. The presence of pharmacological activities is proven in sugarcane juice
and its unrened products such as brown sugar, molasses, and jaggery are consid-
ered as richest sources of phenolic compounds, such as phenolic acids, avonoids,
and different glycosides. The lipophilic compounds including various policosanols,
D-003, and phytosterols are the important components of sugarcane wax present in
sugarcane leaves and shoots are observed with several pharmacological effects such
as sympathomimetic, antihypercholesterolemic, and antithrombotic activities.
C. Chinnadurai
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9
Further there is a wide scope for investigation to identify the presence of new
compounds with more activities in S. ofcinarum and its products. Even though the
presence of carcinogenic compounds such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons was
reported in S. ofcinarum, yet advanced research associated with recent technolo-
gies has to be made. Further, a detailed examination has to be made in future in
sugarcane and its products since there is a lack of comprehensive investigation on
the large number of identied compounds and their pharmacological activities.
Although the chemical composition is known for several compounds of sugarcane,
future research has to be made to understand the metabolic pathways of these com-
pounds. Additional verication is needed to understand the phytochemistry of sug-
arcane products such as jaggery and thermostable chemical components of
sugarcane juice.
There is a need for further improvement on sugarcane production since there is a
product diversication and sugarcane has the potential to supply high-value niche
markets with a variety of products (Hildebrand 2002). Hence, recent researches
have been made to achieve cane improvement and industry diversication through
the application of biotechnology to make more protable sugarcane production.
Such new approaches to plant improvement might enable the cane plant to store
higher levels of sucrose or to produce and store new products with wider markets
than sugar.
Transgenic plants have been developed with new genes incorporated by genetic
engineering for the improvement of yield and enhance resistance to pests, diseases,
and herbicides and production of value-added traits (James 2011; Potrykus 2001).
In case of sugarcane, the rst successful transformation of sugarcane with reporter
genes using particle inow gun appeared in 1992 (Bower and Birch 1992). Later,
there has been several reports of genetically engineered sugarcane plants using par-
ticle gun and agrobacterium-mediated gene transformation methods including with
improved disease, pest and herbicide resistance to sugarcane mosaic virus (Joyce
etal. 1998), leaf scald (Zhang etal. 1999), stalk borers (Arencibia etal. 1999), and
herbicide resistance (Enriquez-Obregon etal. 1998; Manickavasagam etal. 2004)
were produced.
Transgenic sugarcane plants with altered metabolic pathways were developed
with a view to improve sucrose accumulation (Botha etal. 2001), sugar characteris-
tics (Vickers etal. 2005), as well as novel sugars (Basnayake etal. 2012) but none
are commercially available. Nevertheless, transgenic canes could have a key role in
industrial applications and in crop improvement.
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1 Potential Health Benets ofSugarcane
chinnadurai.chinnaraja@sta.uwi.edu