ArticleLiterature Review

Evidence-Based Rabbit Housing and Nutrition

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Abstract

Because most research on rabbit husbandry, welfare, and nutrition was performed on production animals, evidence for best practices in pet rabbits is scarce, and guidelines must be based on transfer of results, deduction, and common sense. Rabbits benefit from being kept with at least one conspecific; from large enclosures and multistory hutches; from drinking water offered ad libitum in open dish drinker systems; and from receiving hay ad libitum, with restricted amounts of fresh grass, herbs, or green leafy vegetables, and a high-fiber complete diet. Offering hay ad libitum bears several advantages and should be considered a matter of course.

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... There is a large body of literature on the husbandry and nutrition of rabbits used in commercial meat production systems and laboratory settings, with more limited information directly gained on pet rabbits [75]. Indeed, if they are socialized properly with humans while young, they are very friendly [76]. ...
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Milk thistle, Silybum marianum, is a medicinal plant grown for its bioactive compounds with well-documented antioxidant and hepatoprotective properties. Milk thistle has a well-established pharmacological reputation for treatments of human liver disease, but it is also used in animals. This review summarizes the experimental evidence of milk thistleʼs effects on animals when administered as silymarin extract (feed additive) or a feed ingredient, if administered as seed or expeller/cake with the seed residue still containing the bioactive components. The use as a feed additive or feed ingredient is motivated by the complexity of silymarin registration as a veterinary drug. In farm animals, the drug improves the animalsʼ performance and product quality and oxidative stability, supports liver function during the productive life-cycle, improves gut-health and morphology, and can reduce intestinal pathogens. In dogs and cats, the treatment is focused on acute and chronic liver diseases including the detoxification processes and support of drug treatments including chemotherapy. In equine athletes, milk seed cake showed positive effects and a faster return of cortisol to the resting values before exercise occurred. In aquaculture, it confirms its usefulness in supporting animal health and performance. In certain studies it is not clear what has been administered, and the composition and doses are not always clearly reported. A few studies reported no effects, but none reported problems connected to milk thistle administration. However, the overall picture shows that the use of milk thistle results in improved or restored health parameters or better animal performance.
... According to most scientists, the most effective way of preventing metabolic disorders in rabbits is use of complex preparations, and therefore the search for them still continues. Rabbits' diet, balanced by such microelements as zinc, cuprum, selenium, manganese, cobalt, iron, promotes correct functioning of protecting mechanisms of the rabbit organism (Ebeid et al., 2013;Abd El-Rahim, 2017;Clauss & Hatt, 2017). Elokil et al. (2019) determined a positive effect of supplementing the diet of rabbits with zinc and cuprum on antioxidant properties of the organism of animals and development of essential aminoacids. ...
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Impaired metabolism of mineral substances in the conditions of industrial rabbit breeding may cause decrease in increment of live mass, reduction of immunity, mass morbidity and death of animals. In our experiment, we studied the efficiency of using a mineral mixture to prevent the disorders in the metabolism of rabbits according to changes in morphologic, biochemical parameters and antioxidant status of blood, chemical composition of blood plasma and increments in body weight compared to the control group of animals. For the studies, we formed four groups of white New Zealand rabbits, each comprising six individuals aged 70 days with mean body weight equaling 1.99 kg. In group I, the rabbits received an aqueous form of a mixture of glauconite, succinic acid, humic and fulvic acids and lactates of zinc, manganese, cuprum, cobalt and iron with water, rabbits of group II were given a dry form of a mixture of glauconite, succinic acid, humic and fulvic acids and lactates of zinc, manganese, cuprum, cobalt and iron with fodder, and the rabbits of group III were intramuscularly injected with butanol fraction of humic acids. The experiment lasted for 21 days. The results of the experiment indicate that the most effective prophylaxis of malfunctions of mineral metabolism in white New Zealand rabbits aged 70–95 was dry mixture of glauconite, succinic acid, humic and fulvic acids and lactates of zinc, manganese, cuprum, cobalt and iron with fodder (group II), which was given once a day for 21-day period. We determined a positive effect of biologically active supplement on the parameters of hematopoiesis(1.25 times significantly higher level of hemoglobin and 1.14 times higher number of erythrocytes), metabolism of proteins (1.54 times significantly higher content of albumins), mineral substances (significantly higher content of inorganic phosphorus – by 1.17 times, calcium by 2.18 times, manganese by 1.39 times, zinc by 1.50 times, iron by 1.39 times and cuprum by 1.49 times), functional condition of the liver (2.04 times lower activity of gamma-glutamyltransferase), the state of the antioxidant system (lowest catalase activity) and energy of rabbits’ growth (1.20-fold increment in body weight). The results of our study indicate that using a dry form of the mixture of glauconite, succinic acid, humic and fulvic acids and lactates of zinc, manganese, cuprum, cobalt and iron with fodder is an efficient method of preventing malfunctioning of mineral metabolism in rabbits.
... The mainstays of treatment include rehydration, supplemental feeding, analgesia, and treatment of underlying disease processes [5]. Supplemental syringe feeding a semiliquid diet for herbivores may not provide adequate fiber intake longterm and can be time-consuming and stressful for both the rabbit and owner [3,6,7]. Analgesic drugs, especially opioids, may result in a decreased gastrointestinal transit time in healthy rabbits [8,9]. ...
Article
Background One of the most common presenting complaints in rabbits is decreased food intake and/or fecal output. This can occur as a clinical consequence of pain, anesthesia and systemic or gastrointestinal disease. In conjunction with diagnosing and treating the underlying condition, veterinary care should aim to normalize food intake and fecal output. Mirtazapine is a tetracyclic antidepressant that has appetite stimulating effects in other species. However, studies in rabbits are currently lacking. Methods Nine six-month old, intact (4 male, 5 female) New Zealand white rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) were used in a randomized, blinded, controlled, complete cross-over experiment. Each rabbit received a low-dose of mirtazapine (1 mg/kg), high-dose (3 mg/kg) and control treatment orally once a day for a total of two sequential days with a five day washout period between treatment groups. Fecal output, food intake and body weight were measured before, during and after treatment. Results Fecal output was 25% higher (95% CI: 6.3% to 46.9%, p = 0.01) on treatment days following high-dose mirtazapine treatment. Body weight was 1.5% higher (95% CI: 0. 5% to 2.6%, p = 0.006) for all groups on the two days following treatment compared to baseline. Body weight was reduced by 2.1% (95% CI: -3.6% to -0. 6%, p = 0.011) the week following high-dose mirtazapine treatment. Mirtazapine did not have a statistically significant effect on food intake. Conclusions and Clinical Relevance Oral administration of mirtazapine at 3 mg/kg once a day resulted in increased fecal output but not a concurrent increase in food intake. Overall, mirtazapine is well tolerated and may be a useful treatment to increase fecal output in rabbits. However, due to a mild reduction in weight following treatment, clinical monitoring is warranted.
... relevant conditions such as dental disease but also enteritis, gastrointestinal stasis, obesity resulting in pododermatitis and/or behavioural disorders (Clauss & Hatt, 2017). A low forage and consequently low abrasive diet requiring little chewing can cause a dysregulation in the wear/growth interaction of the rabbits' hypselodont dentition (Meredith et al., 2015). ...
Article
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This book is comprised of 17 chapters focusing on rabbit nutrition and feeding. The first 12 chapters discuss the digestive system of the rabbit, digestion of sugars and starch, protein, fat and fibre digestion, energy and protein metabolism and requirements, minerals, vitamins and additives, feed evaluation, influence of diet on rabbit meat quality, nutrition and feeding strategy and its interactions with pathology and feed manufacturing and formulation. The last 5 chapters cover the feeding behaviour of rabbits, feeding systems for intensive production, nutrition and climatic environment, nutritional recommendations and feeding management of Angora rabbits and pet rabbit feeding and nutrition.
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1. Pelleted formulated diets are characterized by a moderate digestibility of the organic matter (VQoS = 63 %) and a low energy density due to the higher crude fiber content compared to mixed feeds based on native ingredients (partly added with high digestible products in a special produced form). 2. When dwarf rabbits are kept without bedding material the ad libitum feeding of commercial feed mixtures for a long term led to adipositas. The energy oversupply results on one hand from a high feed intake (pelleted diet) and on the other hand from the high energy density of the feed (low crude fiber-, but high crude fat content), which is forced by a selective ingesting behaviour. 3. The addition of hay or components for chewing or gnawing (gnawing wood or limestone) is insufficient to reduce the energy oversupply without a restricted offer of concentrates. Under those conditions dry matter intake varies between 2.5 (mixed feed + gnawing wood) and 3.2 % of body mass (mixed feed + limestone). 4. The offer of green fodder leads to the lowest fat content in body composition although in this group the feedstuff was offered ad libitum and the dwarf rabbits ingested remarkable dry matter and energy (0.48 MJ DE) values. Due to the higher proportion of bacterial digestion in the hind gut, the characterization of energy intake in form of digestible energy (DE) leads probably to an overestimation (energy losses caused by fermentation). 5. Green fodder led to the highest water intakes (5:1), whereas in the other groups relations of 2 ml water per 1 g dry matter intake were measured. 6. In a long term the formulation of a mixed feed is necessary, which is characterized by a lower energy density due to a higher crude fiber content with a sufficient amount of rough and structured ingredients, that force dwarf rabbits to a longer duration of feed intake, that means to a higher use (and attrition) of their teeth.
Article
1. Rabbits and chinchilla have similar developments of teeth length. Compared with lower incisors the upper incisors show a higher growth, whereas the incisors of rats are characterized by a higher growth in the lower than the upper jaw. 2. The attrition of upper incisors mainly depends on growth of the antagonist in the lower jaw. Feeding hay or carrots exclusively high (rabbits, chinchillas) or highest (rats) rates respectively of attrition are observed. It shows that hardness of feedstuffs has not the importance as be supposed. 3. Minimum increases of teeth length, that are the lowest differences between growth and attrition, were observed on upper incisors of rabbits and chinchillas fed with hay or carrots and on lower incisors when fed concentrates (complete pelleted feed or mixed feed with native components). 4. Compared to animals with usual development of teeth length, the reason of disturbances of teeth health in form of "elephant teeth" is lower an overgrowth than a decreased attrition (because faulty conformations of teeth reduce the attrition on each other). Offering hay or carrots in clinic manifestations have only a small effect.
Article
While in laboratories and in meat production primarily larger breeds of rabbits are used smaller ones (e.g. dwarf rabbits) are predominantly kept as pets. At the same time, data on nutrition physiology and digestive capacity generally gathered for larger rabbit breeds are sometimes indiscriminately applied to dwarf rabbits. However, in feeding studies on digestibility in different rabbits breeds (smaller and greater ones) dwarf rabbits showed a higher digestibility rate than New Zealand White or Belgian Giants. Therefore, this study was conducted to illustrate physiological parameters in the intestinal tract and possible breed-related peculiarities. The experiment was carried out with 5 adult female rabbits each of the breeds Belgian Giant (BG; Ø BW 7.27 ± 0.18 kg), New Zealand White (NZ; Ø BW 4.36 ± 0.60 kg), and Dwarf rabbit (DR; Ø BW 1.82 ± 0.30 kg), that were fed a pelleted complete diet on the basis of green meal. After an adaptation of 10 days the rabbits fasted about 24 hours. On the next day they get 1 g diet per 100 g BW. Chyme of distinct individual compartments (stomach, duodenum, caecum, proximal/distal colon, rectum) was analysed 6 h ppr. using standard analyses methods (nutrients, pH, NH3, FFA, lipopolysaccharides). Particle sizes in chyme and faeces were determined via wet sieve analysis. It can be concluded, that dwarf rabbits are more similar to New Zeeland white than to German Giants. In dwarfs as well as in New Zealand white a higher chewing activity of the offered diets could be observed, measured by the proportion of the particle sizes in chyme and faeces. A higher proportion of finely ground particles, that was microbially degraded after a reflux into the caecum, led in a higher extent to caecotrophia and therefore to a higher digestibility of nutrients in dwarfs and new zeeland white compared to German Giants. All in all it could not be decided if a faster passage rate of the chyme from the gastric via duodenum into the caecum - as it could be observed in the dwarfs - led to higher digestibility rates by a longer rentention time and a higher hydrolysis of the feed in the caecum.
Article
Dietary composition and presentation impacts on the behaviour of animals, and failure to provide a suitable diet can lead to reduced welfare through the development of poor health, the inability to express normal behaviours and the development of abnormal behaviours. This study assessed the effects of two commonly fed pet rabbit diets (extruded nuggets with hay (EH) and muesli with hay (MH)) alongside hay only (HO) and muesli only (MO) on the behaviour of 32 Dutch rabbits observed over 17 months. Increased time spent feeding was observed in the groups fed ad libitum hay (HO, EH, MH) compared to the MO group (P < 0.05). A corresponding high level of inactivity was observed in the MO group compared to rabbits receiving hay (P < 0.05). In the groups provided with hay a preference to consume hay in a natural grazing posture was observed. The higher activity levels and absence of abnormal behaviours when hay was fed support recommendations that forage should form a significant portion of the diet for domestic rabbits.
Article
It is generally assumed that animal species differ in physiological characteristics of their digestive tract. Because investigating digestive processes is often labour-intensive, requiring lengthy adaptation and collection periods, comparisons are often made on the basis of data collated from different studies. We added a new data set on dietary crude fibre (CF) and macromineral (Na, K, Ca, P, Mg) composition and apparent digestibility (aD) of organic matter (OM) and macrominerals in rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus; a total of 180 measurements with 12 individuals and 10 different diets) to a literature data collection for rodents and domestic horses (Equus caballus). Significant negative relationships between dietary CF and aD OM were obtained, but the significant difference in digestive efficiency between rabbits and guinea pigs (Cavia porcellus) reported from studies where both species had been investigated under identical conditions were not detectable in the larger data collection. However, the 95% confidence interval of the negative slope of the CF-aD OM relationship did not overlap between domestic horses on the one hand, and rabbits and guinea pigs on the other hand, indicating a less depressing effect of CF in horses. Akaike's information criterion indicated that aD of a macromineral did not only depend on its concentration in the diet, but also on the individual and various other diet characteristics and the presence of other macrominerals, indicating complex interactions. The data indicate similar mechanisms in the absorption of macrominerals amongst rabbits, rodents and horses, with the exception of Na and K in guinea pigs and Ca in chinchillas (Chinchilla laniger) that should be further corroborated. In particular, the occurrence of high aD Ca in hindgut fermenters, regardless of whether they employ a digestive strategy of coprophagy or whether they have fossorial habits, suggests that this peculiarity might represent an adaptation to hindgut fermentation in general. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition © 2015 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.
Article
To assess the impact of four rabbit diets (hay only; extruded diet with hay; muesli with hay; muesli only) on length and curvature of cheek teeth and eruption and attrition rates of incisors. Thirty-two Dutch rabbits, randomly divided into four diet groups, had length and saggital plane curvature of the first cheek teeth measured radiographically at 1, 9 and 17 months. Eruption/attrition of the left upper incisor was directly measured at weeks 30, 32 and 35. Eruption rates matched attrition rates in all groups, but were higher in the hay only group than in both groups fed muesli. By month 9, a greater degree of tooth curvature was present in rabbits fed muesli only than in those fed hay only and extruded diet with hay. After 17 months, rabbits fed muesli only and muesli with hay had longer lower first cheek teeth and larger interdental spaces between the first two molars than rabbits fed extruded diet and hay and hay only. Three rabbits fed muesli only developed evidence of dental disease. Presence of increased tooth length, curvature and interdental spaces indicated early dental pathology in rabbits fed muesli. Muesli diets cannot be recommended for pet rabbits. © 2015 British Small Animal Veterinary Association.
Article
The aim of this study was to assess the effects of four diet regimes (extruded diet with ad lib hay, muesli with ad lib hay, ad lib hay only, ad lib muesli only) on bodyweight and body condition score in rabbits. Thirty-two Dutch rabbits were studied over 9 months. Bodyweight and body condition score were recorded weekly. All groups gained weight with age, but relative to the ad lib hay only group (mean, 1 · 77 ± 0 · 13 kg), after 9 months rabbits in the ad lib muesli only group were 146% heavier (2 · 59 ± 0 · 32 kg); extruded diet with ad lib hay group 125% heavier (2 · 21 ± 0 · 10 kg); and muesli with ad lib hay group 123% heavier (2 · 18 ± 0 · 13 kg). Median body condition score of the ad lib muesli only group was obese (4 · 5) and was higher than that in both the extruded diet with ad lib hay and muesli with ad lib hay (median = 3 · 5) groups (P < 0 · 001). Both the extruded diet with ad lib hay and muesli with ad lib hay groups had above-ideal body condition score despite having bodyweights within the breed standard range. The ad lib hay only group had a median body condition score of 3 (ideal). There was an overall positive correlation between body condition score and weight (qs = 0 · 814, P < 0 · 001). The feeding of muesli without hay should be avoided, to prevent obesity. © 2014 British Small Animal Veterinary Association.
Article
Although patterns of tooth wear are crucial in palaeo-reconstructions, and dental wear abnormalities are important in veterinary medicine, experimental investigations on the relationship between diet abrasiveness and tooth wear are rare. Here, we investigated the effect of four different pelleted diets of increasing abrasiveness (due to both internal [phytoliths] and external abrasives [sand]) or whole grass hay fed for 2 weeks each in random order to 16 rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) on incisor and premolar growth and wear, and incisor and cheek tooth length. Wear and tooth length differed between diets, with significant effects of both internal and external abrasives. While diet abrasiveness was linked to tooth length for all tooth positions, whole forage had an additional effect on upper incisor length only. Tooth growth was strongly related to tooth wear and differed correspondingly between diets and tooth positions. At 1.4–3.2 mm/week, the growth of cheek teeth measured in this study was higher than previously reported for rabbits. Dental abnormalities were most distinct on the diet with sand. This study demonstrates that concepts of constant tooth growth in rabbits requiring consistent wear are inappropriate, and that diet form (whole vs. pelleted) does not necessarily affect cheek teeth. Irrespective of the strong effect of external abrasives, internal abrasives have the potential to induce wear and hence exert selective pressure in evolution. Detailed differences in wear effects between tooth positions allow inferences about the mastication process. Elucidating feedback mechanisms that link growth to tooth-specific wear represents a promising area of future research. J. Exp. Zool. 9999A: XX–XX, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Article
Pododermatitis, often called 'sore hocks', is a chronic, granulomatous, ulcerative dermatitis which most commonly affects the plantar aspect of the caudal metatarsal and tarsal areas. Pododermatitis is a common clinical finding in the pet rabbit population, but no data is available regarding the actual prevalence of this condition in the UK pet rabbit population or possible husbandry-related factors which may predispose pet rabbits to development of this condition. It was the aim of this study to determine the prevalence of pododermatitis within a sample pet rabbit population, and study possible correlations with husbandry, sex, breed and origin of the rabbits. Findings suggested that young rabbits are at a lower risk of pododermatitis compared with older rabbits; female domestic rabbits are more predisposed to pododermatitis than males; and 100 per cent of the neutered females examined showed clinical evidence of pododermatitis. The effect that different types of bedding may have on the prevalence of pododermatitis was also investigated. This study also produced a scoring system which can be used to score clinical cases. Our study is of clinical importance because it helps to recognise many of the factors which predispose pet rabbits to pododermatitis, representing the first step towards increased awareness of this extremely common problem.
Article
Diet plays an important role in maintaining rabbit health. Feeding an incorrect diet, particularly a low fibre diet, has been linked with digestive, dental and urinary tract disease. However, food intake and dietary requirements have been poorly studied in pet rabbits. This study assessed the effects of two commonly fed pet rabbit diets [extruded nuggets with hay (EH) and muesli with hay (MH)] alongside hay only (HO) and muesli only (MO) on food and water intake in 32 Dutch rabbits. Dry matter (DM) intake was greater in the HO group and lower in the MO group than in the EH and MH groups (p < 0.001). The portion of the diet made of hay was greater in the EH group than in the MH group (p < 0.001). Water intake was positively correlated with DM intake and was greatest in the HO group (p < 0.001). Selective feeding occurred in all rabbit groups fed muesli, whether or not hay was also available. Pellets were rejected, and grains and extrudates selected. The presence of selective feeding in all rabbits fed muesli leads to the consumption of an unbalanced diet. In addition, hay intake and water intake were lower when muesli was fed. Conclusions drawn from this study are based on general recommendations for pet rabbits, and clinical disease may have developed by feeding the study diets over a longer time period, as many diet-related conditions typically present in older rabbits. However, the study demonstrates that the feeding of muesli diets cannot be recommended.
Article
The aim of this review is to compare group and individual housing systems for rabbit does, focusing on production and some welfare aspects. Some information about the benefits and costs of group-living European wild rabbits is also provided. Group-housing of does, independently of the larger area for moving and social contact, contravenes the welfare recommendations often resulting in chronic stress, aggressiveness and injuries, higher risk of diseases and mortality, etc., reproductive performance is lower, and the costs of production are higher. These housing systems do not fully meet the needs of the animals and they negatively impact the rabbits' well-being. For European wild rabbits, living in groups has several negative aspects which are similar to group-housing of domestic rabbit does. The most important benefit is decreasing predation risk which is not a real problem in rabbit farms. In individual cages, the rabbits have less space to move and less opportunity for social interactions. Some alternative housing systems (plastic mesh floor, elevated platform, larger cages, foot mats for the does, etc.) increase the production costs, but also improve the welfare of animals (larger area for activity and incidence of behavioural stereotypes). These alternatives increase the cost of production and may have a negative effect on the demand for rabbit meat. Concerning all aspects of housing systems, it can be concluded that individual housing of does in enlarged and enriched cages currently best meets the demands of rabbits, farmers and consumers.
Article
The recommended diets of pet rabbits and herbivorous rodents are often based on hays (dried forages) as the staple diet item. The rationale for this recommendation is a combination of logistical factors (i.e., hays are more readily available than a constant supply of fresh forage) and health concerns (i.e., using hays rather than fruits, nonleafy vegetables, and grain products apparently circumvents several health problems). Offering a variety of hays is a feeding concept that has so far received little attention. The choice of hays should be based primarily on a hygienic evaluation. Although hays have to be of impeccable hygienic quality, they need not necessarily be of high nutritive quality. A high proportion of stems and high-fiber material may be adequate for the maintenance of herbivores, and hays of higher nutritional quality can be used as dietary supplements in animals with increased energy requirements. Educating pet owners about the use of multiple hay combinations and the appreciation of the nutritive variety of hays may represent an opportunity for channeling interest and engagement in their animal while concurrently providing a preventive health measure.
Article
Obesity is an emerging problem in domesticated rabbits, and an easy-to-use measure of adipose tissue mass is needed. The current study aimed to develop a zoometric ratio, capable of estimating body condition in rabbits. Body weight (BW), body condition score (BCS), and zoometric measures (distal forelimb length, DFL; vertebral length, VL were measured in 150 pet rabbits. Zoometric formulae were created, combining BW with a zoometric measure, and these were tested for their ability to predict adipose tissue mass judged by BCS. Seventy-five (50 per cent) of the rabbits were in ideal condition (BCS 2.5-3.5), 52 (35 per cent) were overweight (BCS>3.5), and 23 (15 per cent) were underweight (BCS<2.5). Median (range) DFL and VL measurements were 12.1 (8.8-16.4 cm) and 34.0 (26.5-50.5 cm), respectively. In rabbits of medium breed size, the BW/DFL ratio was most strongly associated with BCS (Kendall's τ 0.80, P<0.001). Using BW/DFL limits for optimum body condition (eg, minimum 0.16; maximum 0.21), all underweight and overweight rabbits were correctly classified, while only 2/61 (3 per cent) rabbits with an optimum BCS were incorrectly classified as overweight. This study provides preliminary evidence that the BW/DFL might be a useful indirect measure of adipose tissue mass in rabbits of medium breed size.
Article
The primary goal of environmental enrichment should be the avoidance of abnormal behaviors in laboratory animals such as rodents, lagomorphs, dogs, cats, and nonhuman primates. A total of 13 male single-housed New Zealand White rabbits were offered 3 different toys, and the time spent chewing on the toys instead of on the cage was evaluated. Each rabbit was offered each of the toys for 2 separate 1-week periods. Each rabbit was monitored for 15 minutes 4 times a week for a total of total 1 hour per week. Observations included, 1-hour of baseline data before the toys were offered, for a total of 2 and 2 hours of observation per rabbit per toy. Having a toy available had a significant effect on the behavior of New Zealand White rabbits. Rabbits with toys spent significantly more time chewing than the rabbits without toys. They did not develop a preference between the offered toys and did not show stereotypies. This study highlights the importance of environmental enrichment to improve the welfare of laboratory animals.
Article
This study describes the diet of two populations of European wild rabbits inhabiting a maritime sand dune system and a scrubland, in Central Portugal. Histological analyses were applied to 11 monthly samples of rabbit droppings from each study site. Results obtained were compared and an evaluation of the quantitative and qualitative similarity of the food consumed by both populations was carried out. In the sand dune habitat grasses formed the bulk of the diet throughout the year (53%), three species accounting for about 40% of the yearly diet : Dactylis glomerata, Holcus lanatus and Ammophila arenaria, characteristically coastal species. By contrast, in the scrubland, although grasses represented a substantial part of the diet (38%), dicotyledon species were the most widely eaten (48%), particularly Cistus salvifolius, Cistus crispus and Ulex parviflorus. The diet of rabbits at the sand dune habitat was more varied in winter and summer, but in the scrubland, a more diversified diet was found in winter and spring. The differences between the food choices of the two populations are discussed on the basis of the preferences of rabbit and the availability of particular food items, especially regarding endemic or rare plant species.
Article
The domestic rabbit, Oryctolagus cuniculus, is descended from the European rabbit, which lives in large social groups and digs extensive warrens. Behavior problems include urine spraying, failure to use the litter box, fear of humans and human-directed aggression, intraspecies aggression, destructive digging and chewing, and infanticide. These problems are best prevented and treated by understanding their origin in both species-specific behavior and learning. Urine spraying is primarily a problem of intact males. Litter box use results from both rabbits’ species-specific tendency to use particular sites for elimination and from training. Rabbits may become fearful of humans because of painful or frightening experiences with them. Rabbits will become comfortable with humans if they have numerous positive interactions with them. Fearful or aggressive rabbits may be treated by repeatedly exposing them to pleasant associations with humans. Rabbits are territorial and may aggressively reject new rabbits that are not members of the group. Introduction of a new rabbit must be gradual, allowing rabbits to become familiar with each other and preventing them from fighting. Digging and chewing are natural, species-specific behaviors. Giving rabbits acceptable objects to chew prevents them from destroying household items. Infanticide originates, in part, from intense competition between wild females for safe nesting sites. Housing birthing does separately may prevent infanticide.
Article
Gastrointestinal disease is the most common reason that pet rabbits are presented for veterinary evaluation and treatment. Most of the problems affecting a house rabbit's gastrointestinal health are caused by hereditary or husbandry factors, many of which can be managed with basic veterinary procedures and appropriate diet.
Article
The main aim of the study was to determine to what extent young rabbits kept on wire-floor cages would be attracted by straw bedding and how would access to straw modify their behaviour, health and performance. A total of 384 hybrid commercial breed rabbits (Hycol®) were assigned to 16 pens of 1.6 m2 (15 rabbits/m2). Eight pens used as controls had an all-wire floor, while in eight other pens, rabbits could choose between a wire floor or a deep litter topped up once a week and completely replaced once during the course of the 40-day-long study. Behaviour was recorded by video camera between 7 and 10 weeks of age through 24 h observations consisting of 24 sequences of 1 min every 60 min. Reactions to a new environment were compared between both treatments through the use of an open-field test. Parasitism was monitored from faeces and growth performance analysed. Time budgets showed resting, 60%; grooming, 19%; and feeding, 19–20%; were poorly influenced either at 7 or 10 weeks of age by type of floor. The most unexpected result was the low attraction of straw. Rabbits in the littered pens spent most of their time on the wire (89% at 7 weeks and 77% at 10 weeks; P
Article
The behavioural effects of providing male laboratory rabbits with one of four objects in their cage as environmental enrichment were investigated. A total of 60 New Zealand White rabbits housed individually in cages were used. The rabbits were assigned to one of 5 treatments by a random procedure; hay in a water bottle, grass-cubes, two gnawing sticks, a box, or nothing (controls). One week after purchase they were given their object and behavioural observations began. These were made by instantaneous recordings at 2 min intervals for one h/day and totaled 16 days. Rabbits given hay interacted more with their object than those given grass-cubes, gnawing sticks or a box (143, 58, 13 and 19 mean no. of rec. resp., p < 0.0001 for each treatment), they showed less abnormal behaviour, such as excessive fur-licking, sham chewing and bar-biting, than the control rabbits (50 vs. 97 mean no. of rec., p < 0.01), and they lay still less often than the control rabbits (179 vs. 256 mean no. of rec., p < 0.05). Rabbits given grass-cubes interacted more often with their object than those given gnawing sticks (p < 0.001) or a box (p < 0.01), and they showed less abnormal behaviour than the control rabbits (p < 0.001). Rabbits given gnawing sticks or a box interacted only rarely with their object, and they showed the same amount of abnormal behaviour as the control rabbits. The weight gain was higher for rabbits given grass-cubes (906 g, p < 0.001), but not for rabbits given hay (650 g), gnawing sticks (611 g) or a box (570 g) compared to the control rabbits (617 g). It is concluded that hay was the most effective of the tested objects in reducing abnormal behaviour and giving the individually housed rabbits some alternative occupation.
Article
Despite their gregarious nature, rabbits used for research are often housed individually due to concerns about aggression and disease transmission. However, conventional laboratory cages restrict movement, and rabbits housed singly in these cages often perform abnormal behaviors, an indication of compromised welfare. Pairing rabbits in double-sized cages could potentially improve welfare by providing both increased space and social stimulation. We compared the behavior of female New Zealand White rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) housed either individually (N=4) in cages measuring 61cm×76cm×41cm or in non-littermate pairs (four pairs) in double-wide cages measuring 122cm×76cm×41cm. The rabbits were kept under a reversed photoperiod (lights on 22:00–12:00h). Each rabbit was observed five times per week for 5 months, using 15-min focal animal samples taken between 08:00–09:00, 12:00–13:00, and 16:00–17:00h. Data were analyzed using a repeated measures General Linear Model (GLM). Over the 5 months, individually housed rabbits showed an increase in the proportion of the total behavioral time budget spent engaged in abnormal behaviors (digging, floor chewing, bar biting), from 0.25 to 1.77%, while pairs remained unchanged at 0.95% (treatment×time interaction, F1,24=4.60; P≤0.0422). Paired rabbits engaged in more locomotor behavior (F1,6=16.49; P≤0.0066) than individual rabbits (average proportions of time budget: 2.71 and 0.70% for paired and individual rabbits, respectively), which may be important because caged rabbits are susceptible to osteoporosis and other bone abnormalities due to the restricted ability to move. Time spent feeding and body weights of dominant and subordinate rabbits in a pair did not differ, indicating that food competition was not a problem, and paired rabbits were often observed in physical contact (26.7% of data records) although the size of the cages allowed physical separation. Aggression between pairmates did not increase significantly during the study. However, one pair did have to be separated at the end of the study due to bite wounds from persistent aggression. Thus, although methods for decreasing injurious aggression require further investigation, the beneficial effects of pair housing in decreasing abnormal behaviors and increasing locomotion suggest that pair housing should be considered as an alternative to individual housing for caged laboratory rabbits.
Article
The aim of this study was to investigate the prevalence of behavioral complaints in rabbits, mustelids, and rodents that were kept as pets, to help veterinary practitioners while counseling prospective owners toward an informed and responsible choice of a pet. A total of 193 owners participated in the study, filling in a questionnaire, for a total of 371 pets (184 rabbits, 59 mustelids, 128 rodents). The prevalence reported by owners of behavioral complaints was 31.3% (29.3%, 52.5%, and 20.3% for rabbits, mustelids, and rodents, respectively; χ2 = 19.6; P < 0.001). Aggression toward people was reported in 13.2% of the sample (13.0%, 30.5%, and 5.5% for rabbits, mustelids, and rodents, respectively; χ2 = 9.4; P = 0.009). Stereotypic behavioral patterns were reported by owners in 26.4% of the cases (28.3%, 16.9%, and 28.1% for rabbits, mustelids, and rodents, respectively). The owners reported that the prevalence of stereotypies was higher in pets housed more restrictively (Fisher’s exact test; P < 0.001). The overall level of satisfaction was quite high (i.e., 8.6 ± 1.84 points out of 10), but was lower in pets declared to have unwanted behavioral patterns (P < 0.05).
Article
Regrouping female rabbits in group-housing systems is common management practice in rabbit breeding, which may, however, induce agonistic interactions resulting in social stress and severe injuries. Here we compared two methods of regrouping female rabbits with respect to their effects on behaviour, stress and injuries. Thus, we introduced two unfamiliar rabbits into a group of rabbits either in the group's familiar pen (HOME) or in a novel disinfected pen (NOVEL), and assessed the effects of these treatments on general activity, number and duration of agonistic interactions, number and severity of injuries and body temperature as a measure of stress. General activities were not affected by the method of regrouping. Also, treatment had no effect on the number and duration of agonistic interactions. However, the numbers of injuries (p=0.030) as well as body temperature on the first day after regrouping (p=0.0036) were increased in rabbits regrouped in a novel clean pen. These findings question the recommendation to introduce unfamiliar does into established groups in a neutral environment and indicate that regrouping in the group's home pen may decrease the risk of severe injuries and social stress.
Article
The aim of this research was to assess the effects of environmental variables (group size, stocking density, floor type, environmental enrichment) on behaviour – as a welfare indicator – of growing rabbits. Two experiments were carried out with Pannon White rabbits. In experiment 1, 5-week-old rabbits (n=112) were placed in cage blocks (2m2) with a stocking density of 16 or 12 rabbits/m2. The cages (0.5m2) differed in the floor type (wire or plastic net) and in the presence or absence of gnawing sticks (white locust). The animals could move freely among the four cages through swing doors. Infrared video recording was performed once a week, the number of rabbits in each cage was counted every half an hour (48times/day) during the 24h video recording. Between ages 5 and 11 weeks the rabbits showed a preference towards the plastic net floor (16 rabbits/m2, 62.5%; 12 rabbits/m2, 76.5%; P
Article
To examine the effect of hay on behaviour of caged rabbits, Oryctolagus cuniculus, a study was carried out on 86 rabbits, kept in wire cages with no access to hay in one period and with access to hay in a second period. As the study was part of a larger experiment analysing the rabbits' behaviour in two different cage systems, the rabbits were equally distributed across two systems: a system with conventional barren wire cages, and an enriched system with boxes and raised height at the back of the wire cages. The rabbits' behaviour was recorded using direct scan sampling during the day and continuous registration based on video recording at night. When hay was available, the rabbits in both cage systems performed significantly less bar gnawing and excessive grooming. This applied especially to the rabbits kept in the conventional cage system which also showed a distinct decrease in their frequency of changing between different behaviours. This suggests that rabbits kept in cages where hay is available are less stressed than those kept in cages where it is not. Enrichment with hay should, therefore, be considered in attempts to improve the welfare of caged rabbits.