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Inter-Blockchain Communication
... [115,116,117] Use blockchain to enhance the security and efficiency of routing in IoT and WSN. [118,119,120] Design routing scheme to support cross-chain communication and routing. ...
... However, it does not consider any consensus algorithm in the framework. Chen et al. in [119] introduce a private token-based inter-blockchain communication scheme to provide crossover communications between different blockchains without any intermediary. The authors utilize a routing algorithm and PBFT as the consensus algorithm. ...
The paths leading to future networks are pointing towards a data-driven paradigm to better cater to the explosive growth of mobile services as well as the increasing heterogeneity of mobile devices, many of which generate and consume large volumes and variety of data. These paths are also hampered by significant challenges in terms of security, privacy, services provisioning, and network management. Blockchain, which is a technology for building distributed ledgers that provide an immutable log of transactions recorded in a distributed network, has become prominent recently as the underlying technology of cryptocurrencies and is revolutionizing data storage and processing in computer network systems. For future data-driven networks (DDNs), blockchain is considered as a promising solution to enable the secure storage, sharing, and analytics of data, privacy protection for users, robust, trustworthy network control, and decentralized routing and resource managements. However, many important challenges and open issues remain to be addressed before blockchain can be deployed widely to enable future DDNs. In this article, we present a survey on the existing research works on the application of blockchain technologies in computer networks, and identify challenges and potential solutions in the applications of blockchains in future DDNs. We identify application scenarios in which future blockchain-empowered DDNs could improve the efficiency and security, and generally the effectiveness of network services.
... This feature allows users to develop and run their own algorithms. The freedom degree of action and the limitations in this area are important features that should be considered at design level [18]. ...
... In general, this parameter includes a set of defined rules and mechanisms within the blockchain that are inherently enforced to it. The most important elements for identifying management that provide secure access to sensitive information for users is discussed in this section [18]. Tow features are identified under this characteristic that involve: control and access layer, and identity layer. ...
The blockchain is an emerging technology which has a web of applications and potentials. A wide range of blockchain platforms has been developed to meet different technical and non-technical requirements and issues. Due to the diverse type of these platforms and the rapid evolution of blockchain technology, it would be necessary to have a big picture of existing blockchain platforms. Determining the characteristics of technology is an important factor to have such a total view and to standardize and expand technology. Despite the research has already been done on blockchain, due to the agile growth, rapid expansion and immaturity of this technology, determining its features is still challenging. In this paper, the results of studying and assessing the current state of blockchain technology from a technical point of view are presented. Furthermore, technical aspects of the blockchain are categorized as a two level taxonomy of characteristics and features.
... Sidechains are discussed in Section VII. Chen et al. [15] give an incomplete idea for a Byzantine Fault Tolerance (BFT)-based ledger-of-ledgers approach, without discussing the other approaches in the field, e.g., ILP and Polkadot. Croman et al. [16] discuss blockchain scalability in general terms and mention sidechains and off-chain transactions as two possible approaches to address scalability. ...
... 14 POA provides developers with the flexibility to code in Ethereum standards while being able to utilize POA Network's solutions, such as the POA Bridge for interoperability between blockchain networks. The POA Bridge is an interoperability protocol where users can transfer value (ERC-20 15 compatible tokens and POA network coins) between permissioned chains that are based on PoA consensus and the Ethereum network. The POA bridge operates by locking POA coins on the POA network side and minting ERC-20 tokens on the Ethereum network. ...
While blockchains and more generally Distributed Ledger Technologies (DLTs) are passing over their hype curve peak, their shortcomings are becoming more apparent. One relatively recent approach to address their performance, scalability, privacy and other problems is to use multiple different DLTs instead of relying on just one. While there are no really established standards for combining several DLTs, a few repeating patterns can be observed. In this paper, we present a survey of interledger approaches, discussing and comparing their underlying mechanisms. A shared motivation for all of the discussed interledger solutions is to move away from the “one chain rules them all” model to one that allows the interconnection of multiple ledgers, with different features and advantages, while also supporting innovation. The interledger approaches discussed in this survey include (i) atomic cross-chain transactions, (ii) transactions across a network of payment channels, (iii) the W3C Interledger Protocol (ILP), (iv) bridging, (v) sidechains, and (vi) ledger-of-ledgers. The approaches are compared according to whether they support the transfer or the exchange of value, their interconnection trust mechanism, complexity, scalability, and transaction cost.
... To mitigate this risk, new privacy-preserving encryption methods are being developed. E.g., homomorphic encryption allows data analytics and computations to be run over encrypted data, keeping the raw data hidden [23] and [24]. ...
... This means that presumably there will be many industry-specific BCs in the future that can communicate and interact with each other. There are plenty of efforts going on within this space, e.g., [24] and [25], and if realized, plethora of novel, potentially disruptive combinations of digital businesses become possible. Large datasets as well as AI can help in finding unique business combinations, but possibly also crowdsourcing of human intelligence in business process development can produce valuable end results. ...
... As the use of blockchain technology continues to evolve, it is important to address the challenges associated with its implementation to realize its potential benefits fully. An inter-blockchain communication (IBC) technique is being used as a solution to these problems, and the integration of a diverse group of blockchains is known as interblockchain communication [11] [12] [13] [14]. Interoperability in blockchain technology has the potential to bring about a significant shift in open systems, allowing for seamless communication and interaction between devices and users across blockchain platforms. ...
Blockchain technology has ushered in transformative possibilities within the healthcare sector by creating a unified distributed network that streamlines the exchange of patient data among various stakeholders. However, the adoption of private or consortium-based blockchain models has raised concerns about the potential isolation and fragmentation of these networks. To address this challenge, blockchain interoperability has emerged as an escalating research area that offers a means for independent blockchains to collaborate across diverse platforms within a federated ecosystem. This study proposed a novel cross-chain communication (CCC) protocol designed to integrate independent blockchains operating on different platforms. By leveraging a global smart-contract triggering mechanism, this protocol establishes a standardized transaction conversion module to ensure transaction compatibility across various blockchain platforms within a federated network. The practical implementation of our CCC protocol was demonstrated through the exchange of electronic health records between the Hyperledger Fabric and Ethereum networks. Extensive experimentation was conducted to assess the performance metrics, revealing critical dependencies between the source and target blockchain networks in terms of the average elapsed time and query processing duration within the target network. The findings of this study underscore the considerable potential of blockchain interoperability within a federation, particularly when applied to the sharing of patient EHRs dispersed across multiple autonomous blockchains.
... The protocol defines a standardized messaging format and a set of rules for validating and verifying transactions between participating blockchains. By implementing the IBC protocol, blockchain networks can establish inter-connectivity, enabling cross-chain transactions, decentralized exchanges, and interoperable DApps [427], [458], [459]. ...
Wearable devices and medical sensors revolutionize health monitoring, raising concerns about data privacy in Machine Learning (ML) for healthcare. This tutorial explores Federated Learning (FL) and Blockchain (BC) integration, offering a secure and privacy-preserving approach to healthcare analytics. FL enables decentralized model training on local devices at healthcare institutions, keeping patient data localized. This facilitates collaborative model development without compromising privacy. However, FL introduces vulnerabilities. BC, with its tamper-proof ledger and smart contracts, provides a robust framework for secure collaborative learning in FL. After presenting a taxonomy for the various types of data used in ML in medical applications, and a concise review of ML techniques for healthcare use cases, this tutorial explores three integration architectures for balancing decentralization, scalability, and reliability in healthcare data. Furthermore, it investigates how Blockchain-based Federated Learning (BCFL) enhances data security and collaboration in disease prediction, medical image analysis, patient monitoring, and drug discovery. By providing a tutorial on FL, blockchain, and their integration, along with a review of BCFL applications, this paper serves as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners seeking to leverage these technologies for secure and privacy-preserving healthcare ML. It aims to accelerate advancements in secure and collaborative healthcare analytics, ultimately improving patient outcomes.
... Any blockchain, whether it has permissions or not, can be Parachain [38]. The DOT token is used by relay networks to conduct all management tasks using the proof of stake consensus mechanism [41]. ...
With the emerging employment of blockchains in different fields a need for blockchain intercommunication has arisen but there is no set standard yet for
blockchain development, adoption and implementation due to which its interoperability has become a challenge. Interoperability refers to the mechanism of
exchange and utilization of information between two software or computer systems etc. In blockchain, interoperability is the process of data creation, transfer
and storage between two blockchains or blockchain applications. Blockchain interoperability is complex as every blockchain may have a different
implementation platform and protocol for consensus mechanism. Bringing together two different blockchains and enabling communication between them
without modifying their underlying implementation structure is a challenge today. There has been ongoing research in this domain to achieve interoperability
in blockchains effectively. Its importance is evident from the fact that blockchain interoperability is vital for promoting scalability which is another research
challenge presently. Apart from this, blockchain interoperability also promotes data privacy, application flexibility and portability and provides new
opportunities in business. In this paper we have discussed in detail the three approaches and the solutions they provide for implementing blockchain
interoperability. An empirical based analysis has been used to strengthen our methodology, which takes into consideration the selection of known & established
blockchain network with state-of-the-art tools and technology. In order to have seamless communication across different chains, light clients (representing the
respective chain) have been enabled to store each other’s information such as protocol version etc. In this way, the handshake between both the chain has
resulted in a successful IBC (Inter Blockchain Communication) inside the Cosmos environment. It is concluded that although blockchain interoperability is
being implemented today, this implementation is highly restricted to specific organizations or software tools. Moreover interoperability between two different
blockchains is still an ongoing challenge. This study will assist the future work in the domain of blockchain interoperability as it makes the understanding and
implementation of blockchain interoperability easier.
... The paper also introduced a unified packet for the transaction and routing among multiple blockchains. Reference [19] proposed interchain as a framework for inter-communication among any pair of blockchains. The proposed framework comprises subchain, interchain, validating, and gateway nodes. ...
With the growing utility of blockchain technology, the desire for reciprocal interactions among different blockchains is growing. However, most operational blockchain networks currently operate in a standalone setting. This fragmentation in the form of isolated blockchains creates interoperability difficulties, inhibiting the adoption of blockchains in various ecosystems. Interoperability is a key factor in the healthcare domain for sharing EHRs of patients registered in independent blockchain networks. Each blockchain network could have its own rules and regulations, obstructing the exchange of EHRs for improving diagnosis and treatments. Examples include patients being treated by healthcare providers in different countries or regions, or within one country but with a different set of rules per state or emirate. By contrast, a federation of blockchain networks can
provide better communication and service to stakeholders in healthcare. Thus, solutions for facilitating inter-blockchain communication in such a blockchain federation are needed. However, this possibility has not been fully explored, and further investigations are still being conducted. Hence, the present study proposes a transaction-based smart contract triggering system for inter-blockchain communication, enabling EHR sharing among independent blockchains. We use local and global smart contracts that will be executed once a transaction is created in the blockchain. Local smart contracts are used for EHR sharing within the blockchain, whereas global smart contracts are used for EHR sharing among independent blockchains. The experimental setup is conducted using the Hyperledger Fabric blockchain platform. Inter-blockchain communication between two independent
fabric networks is conducted through a global smart contract using Hyperledger Cactus for EHR sharing in a health federation setup. To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to implement an inter-blockchain communication model in the healthcare domain.
... ChainSure is platform independent and can be deployed on multiple blockchain platforms. Multi blockchain communication is handled by ChainSure Inter Blockchain communication protocol (Chen et al., 2017). Once the smart contract is deployed, a user can buy the insurance policy via CPA and the users unique id is generated and stored on the specific policy smart contract. ...
... The paper also introduced a unified packet for the transaction and routing among multiple blockchains. Reference [19] proposed interchain as a framework for inter-communication among any pair of blockchains. The proposed framework comprises subchain, interchain, validating, and gateway nodes. ...
With the growing utility of blockchain technology, the desire for reciprocal interactions among different blockchains is growing. However, most operational blockchain networks currently operate in a standalone setting. This fragmentation in the form of isolated blockchains creates interoperability difficulties, inhibiting the adoption of blockchains in various ecosystems. Interoperability is a key factor in the healthcare domain for sharing EHRs of patients registered in independent blockchain networks. Each blockchain network could have its own rules and regulations, obstructing the exchange of EHRs for improving diagnosis and treatments. Examples include patients being treated by healthcare providers in different countries or regions, or within one country but with a different set of rules per state or emirate. By contrast, a federation of blockchain networks can provide better communication and service to stakeholders in healthcare. Thus, solutions for facilitating inter-blockchain communication in such a blockchain federation are needed. However, this possibility has not been fully explored, and further investigations are still being conducted. Hence, the present study proposes a transaction-based smart contract triggering system for inter-blockchain communication, enabling EHR sharing among independent blockchains. We use local and global smart contracts that will be executed once a transaction is created in the blockchain. Local smart contracts are used for EHR sharing within the blockchain, whereas global smart contracts are used for EHR sharing among independent blockchains. The experimental setup is conducted using the Hyperledger Fabric blockchain platform. Inter-blockchain communication between two independent fabric networks is conducted through a global smart contract using Hyperledger Cactus for EHR sharing in a health federation setup. To the best of our knowledge, our study is the first to implement an inter-blockchain communication model in the healthcare domain.
... ChainSure is platform independent and can be deployed on multiple blockchain platforms. Multi blockchain communication is handled by ChainSure Inter Blockchain communication protocol (Chen et al., 2017). Once the smart contract is deployed, a user can buy the insurance policy via CPA and the users unique id is generated and stored on the specific policy smart contract. ...
The health insurance industry requires a secure data management architecture characterized by reliable information processing and fast response. Classical health insurance management system runs on a manually controlled centralized architecture which leverages a vulnerable single point failure and requires frequent human intervention. This makes the model prone to human errors and security attacks. The existing system also lacks the flexibility to choose appropriate health insurance policies for different consumers. To this end, we propose an Ethereum blockchain-based framework, ChainSure, to address this problem. With the power of TOPSIS and smart contracts, ChainSure provides an automated, tamperproof, transparent, scalable system that takes care of all the major functional blocks in a medical insurance environment. We have used the TOPSIS method in this proposed model to help the users to find an insurance policy that best suits their needs. ChainSure works in a decentralized environment and provides an interactive interface for the user. The proposed model is implemented on the Ethereum test network and its performance has been compared empirically with other state-of-art models. ChainSure is found to outperform others in terms of service integrity, latency and cost.
... The transaction interface is used to define a unified transaction standard so that the data consistency is met after the cross-chain transmission. Data transfer is done via the IBC protocol [43] but requires complete verification by a consensus mechanism. The cross-chain consistency protocol guarantees the completion of the data exchange between the two chains during the transaction. ...
The tourism industry can significantly benefit from the blockchain since its implementation can build trust among stakeholders and improve customer satisfaction. However, most of the existing tourism-specified blockchain platforms are single-chains that provide business support for enterprises without guaranteeing transaction information privacy. Besides, these platforms are specified to a single use case and lack interoperability with other platforms to support heterogenous tourism services. This paper aims to address this issue by introducing a multi-chain architecture that utilizes multiple blockchains to enhance processing capability and provide various business services for the tourism industry. The proposed multi-chain architecture improves the interoperability between the activities in different chains by providing functional requirements in practical applications and supports the inter-ledger application. In addition, the private blockchain will be made available to allow users to access the network through central authorization. It also increases the transaction processing capability by distributing multiple tasks across the chains for large-scale applications. To demonstrate the usability and efficiency of the developed approach, a case study on hotel booking is conducted using the blockchain frameworks Winding Tree and Hyperledger Fabric. A comprehensive evaluation experiment is conducted, and the results show the significance of the proposed system.
... Blockchain nodes serve as routers for transmitting requests between various blockchain networks in the blockchain router method [28]. While many studies have been conducted involving this concept, including Wang et al. [36], Kan et al. [20], Anlink Blockchain [35], Ding et al. [14] and Chen et al. [13], none of them have yet implemented a blockchain router solution in a practical case study. Many of industrial solutions verify transactions and nodes through a trusted validator or collection of trusted entities (validators) [28]. ...
Blockchain technology is growing rapidly, and a large number of blockchain platforms and decentralized applications have come to play a vital role in many fields. However, the majority of blockchain networks operate in environments that are isolated and disconnected from each other. This has raised issues such as connectivity and scalability in the current blockchain platforms and has also limited blockchain adoption in some industry ecosystems. This chapter focuses on designing and implementing inter-blockchain communication between Hyperledger Fabric networks. Inter-blockchain architecture can enable many possible applications such as healthcare data sharing, supply chains, food traceability solutions, etc. Moreover, this chapter presents the performance evaluation of the proposed scheme in terms of execution time, throughput, and latency. The results show that the proposed solution reduces the overall level of performance of Hyperledger Fabric across all measured metrics. However, the overall proposed solution performance is acceptable, given the achieved interoperability and connectivity.KeywordsBlockchainScalabilityInteroperabilityInter-BlockchainCross-blockchain CommunicationHyperledger fabricSmart contracts
... 随着区块链底层技术的快速突破和发展，越 来越多的企业积极结合其业务需求，加速融入区 块链生态，并逐步在跨境支付、供应链金融、电 子医疗、物联网、防伪溯源等场景展开落地与应 用 [1][2][3][4][5] 。然而，大多数的区块链应用项目是由不同 的企业根据自身的需求开发，这些异构区块链网 络之间无法进行互联互通，位于不同区块链上的 服务缺乏通信机制，因此逐渐产生对不同区块链 的跨链需求 [6] 。跨链技术的关键在于保障跨链交 易的真实性、有效性和原子性，现有主流跨链技 术主要分为公证人机制、中继/侧链模式、哈希锁 定和分布式密钥控制。表 1 对这 4 种跨链机制的 实现原理和优缺点进行了简要比较。 公证人机制是一种弱中心化的跨链项目解决 方案 [7] 。公证人是交易双方选举一个或一组具有 较高可信度的节点，对不同区块链上的交易事务 进行证明和验证。公证人机制最大的优点是实现 原理简单且无须复杂工作量证明，但存在中心化 公证人机制的缺点。目前，有学者提出了多重签 名公证人机制，在交易时随机选取一部分公证人 利用密码学技术进行集体签名，从而弱化中心化 风险。公证人机制的代表方案主要有 Ripple 团队 提出的 Interledger 项目。 Interledger 协议允许两个 不同的区块链系统通过第三方"连接器"来实现 双方的价值、信息的交互和资产的转移。Wang 等 [8] 提出了区块链路由器的概念，该路由器可根 据通信协议动态分析并传输通信请求，维护区块 链网络拓扑结构，实现链间通信。文献 [9]建立了 一种由数据层、网络层、共识层、契约层和应用 层构成的新型体系结构，提供对多个异构区块链 之间的互操作性。 中继(侧链)模式采用第三方媒介充当客户 链的中继器，将跨链子交易的区块中继至相应的 区块链上。中继模式与公证人模式的区别在于在 该模式下，第三方媒介仅负责数据收集，而交易 的确认和验证由目标链负责，Cosmos、Polkadot、 BTC-Relay 等是该机制的代表项目。Cosmos [10] 提出了区块链间通信协议，通过在区块链内集成 该协议， 即可向目标链发送最新的区块头部信息、 交易信息及其 Merkle 证明，从而达到链间通信 的目的。Polkadot [11] 提供中继链作为众多异构区 块链系统链接的桥梁，中继链的作用类似于一个 网 关 ， 统 一 管 理 共 识 安 全 和 数 据 交 互 。 BTC-Realy [12] 是一种以以太坊为侧链、比特币为 主链，并通过智能合约实现比特币与以太坊连接 的技术。此外，Kan 等 [13] 以及 Chen 等 [14] 提出了 交互式多区块链架构及跨链协议，该架构通过创 建多链动态网络实现跨链通信，该协议可为交易 提供原子性和一致性保证。叶少杰等 [15] Figure 3 Process of transaction successfully committed Figure 4 Process of transaction retransmission(Timer=1) ...
Due to the lack of communication mechanism between inter-blockchain services, it is difficult to formulate effective interconnection between different blockchain. Under the smart services ecosystem, two parties of the transaction not only execute the single transaction of data assets, but also extend the scope of their services to cover a wider range of digital assets transfer scenarios. An inter-blockchain communication(IBC) framework for smart service transaction is designed. With component-based and modular design, it makes flexible for the subject and object application of smart service transaction to access IBC framework and thus promote inter-blockchain scalability. Finally, a three-phrase inter-blockchain communication protocol for smart service transaction is proposed to ensure the atomicity and consistency of inter-blockchain ecosystem.
... To overcome the limitations of blockchain services targeting the world, studies to develop blockchains with locality and to exchange information among various blockchains have been conducted [14]. In other words, to utilize the multi-blockchain, a communication scheme between two blockchains has been created, demonstrating the possibility of connecting several blockchains using protocol design [15]. A system that connects several blockchains with the routers of blockchain has also been proposed [16]. ...
As a representative example for the construction of a smart city, a smart parking system has been developed in past research and implemented through IoT and cloud technologies. However, the initial installation cost of IoT sensor devices is preventing the spread of this technology, and thus as an alternative, a crowdsensing-based system, operating through data from publicly owned mobile devices, has been proposed. In this paper, we propose a multi-blockchain structure (i.e., constructed with public chain and private chain) in a crowdsensing-based smart parking system. In this structure, many sensing data contributors participate through the opened public blockchain, to transparently provide sensing information and to claim corresponding rewards. The private blockchain provides an environment for sharing the collected information among service providers in real time and for providing parking information to users. The bridge node performs an information relay role between the two blockchains. Performance analysis and security analysis on the implemented proposed system show the feasibility of our proposed system.
... However, the paper didn't include any consensus algorithm to support the framework. Chen et al. [14] introduced a private token-based inter-Blockchain communication to support cross communication between separate blockchain without any intermediaries. Chen et al. used a routing algorithm and PBFT as the consensus algorithm. ...
Blockchain technology is growing massively where the number of blockchain platforms and decentralized applications are increasing rapidly in the last years. However, most of the existing blockchain networks are operating in a standalone environment isolated from each other, which increases scalability and connectivity issues in the current blockchain platforms as well as limiting the blockchain adoption in industry ecosystems. In the current phase, different blockchain networks don't have mutual trust where they cannot interact with each other and their capacity level has only reached a level similar to LAN. Due to the high barriers between the independent isolated blockchain platforms, researchers have started to focus on the concept of Blockchain interoperability. Blockchain interoperability is the ability of connecting multiple blockchain networks together, which significantly increases and solves scalability and connectivity issues in the blockchain platforms. Given the potential of blockchain interoperability and cross blockchain communication, many researchers are working on finding the optimal cross blockchain communication solution. As blockchain interoperability is emerging as an essential blockchain feature, the number of proposed blockchain interoperability solutions have been increasing within the last few years. In this paper, a survey of all the available cross blockchain communication solutions are discussed with a comparison of the proposed architectures.
... Firstly, the global states are protected by a Merkel tree where root hash is stored in the block header. Furthermore, the block history is also protected through a chain of cryptographic hash pointers [39], [80]. Hashing is also used in encryption of transactions. ...
The emergence of Internet protocol suites and packet-switching technologies tend to considerations of security, privacy, scalability, and reliability in layered Internet service architectures. The existing service systems allow us to access big data, but few studies focus on the fundamental security and stability in these systems, especially when they involve large-scale networks with overloaded private information. In this research, we explored the blockchain-based mechanism that aims to improve the critical features of traditional Internet services, including autonomous and decentralized processing, smart contractual enforcement of goals, and traceable trustworthiness in tamper-proof transactions. Furthermore, we provide a comprehensive review to conceptualize the blockchain-based framework to develop decentralized protocols for the extensive number of Internet services. This comprehensive survey aims to address blockchain integration to secure Internet services and identify the critical requirements of developing a decentralized trustworthy Internet service. Additionally, we present a case study of block-chain based IoT for neuro-informatics to illustrate the potential applications of blockchain architectures. Finally, we summarize the trends and challenges of blockchain architectures that benefit a multitude of disciplines across all internet service fields of interest.
... It allows inflow, outflow, and exchange of data between different blockchains. 66 We identify three possible layouts for Intraoperability: ...
A comparative study across the most widely known blockchain technologies is conducted with a bottom-up approach. Blockchains are deconstructed into their building blocks. Each building block is then hierarchically classified into main and subcomponents. Then, varieties of the subcomponents are identified and compared. A taxonomy tree is used to summarise the study and provide a navigation tool across different blockchain architectural configurations.
... However, the Lightning Network does exist some drawbacks. For example, it puts the transaction off-chain and the result on-chain after several transactions completed, which causes a great hidden trouble when the transaction funds are identified to be invalid, then all the transactions in this channel completed before will become invalid [15]. In addition, if either party of the transaction does not close the channel, both of their funds will be locked in the channel [16]. ...
Blockchain is distributed ledger with the advantage of high security, tamper resistant and traceability. However, in the process of the growth of Blockchain, network isolation hinders the cooperative operation among different Blockchains and greatly restricts the development of Blockchain. There is an urgent need to break the barriers among Blockchains[1], thus cross-chain communication become a new trend of the Blockchain technology[2]. In this paper, we propose CVEM, a value exchange mechanism which supports different kind of tokens transfer cross-chain. First, we put the main exchange process execute off-chain and the final result on-chain. Then, we combine Revocable Sequence Maturity Contract (RSMC) with the idea of cross-token exchange of Blockchain, and use the mechanism of multi-signatures address to constrain the users' behaviors. In addition, we introduce the Simple Payment Verification Proof (SPV Proof) to verify transactions. Our work, to some degree, shortens the transaction process delay and also ensures the security and scalability of the value exchange.
... Based on trusted data set provided by blockchain, prospecting and sorting algorithms can be used for further tuning of business processes in a Blockchain Marketplace for the energy industry. To mitigate general privacy risk of the blockchain technology related to gathering extensive data sets new secure privacypreserving encryption methods are being developed, such as [43] and [44]. ...
This paper tackles today’s unprecedented challenges of enabling and stimulating multiple energy stakeholders to have a more active participation in the smart grid electricity market. The research extends the existing four archetypes of orchestrator-driven business models for the electricity market and proposes a fifth type of electricity market, the Blockchain Marketplace. The key novelty of the paper is to expand the electricity market architecture and design from centralization and pseudo-decentralization to full decentralization, enabled by the blockchain. The study not only broadens the smart grid and electricity market literature but also contributes to the theoretical development of the business model and organization study domains with a systemic approach.
Swarm learning (SL) is a novel decentralized machine learning paradigm that provides a privacy-preserving approach based on permissioned blockchain without the need for a centralized coordinator. However, the various architectures and design characteristics of blockchains make it difficult to employ applications on heterogeneous blockchains, which limits the scalability, efficiency, and interoperability of blockchains ecology and restricts the application of SL. To solve this problem, first, we propose a Blockchain Twin mechanism consisting of multichains to enable model sharing between heterogeneous blockchains without single central relay-chain. Next, to encourage roles in Blockchain Twin to actively and honestly participate in consensus phase, we design a multileader multifollower Stackelberg game-based incentive mechanism. Additionally, we prove that a unique Stackelberg equilibrium exists in the game and propose an alternating direction method of multipliers (ADMM)-based algorithm to obtain the optimal solution. Finally, we evaluate the performance of twin-chain interactions regarding average delay and throughput. We also conduct numerical simulation on the proposed incentive mechanism, and the results show that our mechanism can jointly maximize the reward of every participant roles in Blockchain Twin.
Blockchain technology is evolving rapidly; it has proved to be capable of solving many of the issues encountered by industries such as banking, supply chain management, and healthcare. However, several challenges must be overcome for it to reach its full potential and be adopted on a large scale. In a blockchain context, interoperability is the ability to connect multiple networks, thus enabling the exchange of assets, the invocation of smart contracts, and the verification of data, all while ensuring consistency between systems. In reality, most of the existing blockchain networks operate in a stand-alone environment, isolated from other blockchain networks. This causes a lack of communication that further leads to restrictions imposed on data, i.e., preventing it from transmitting freely to and from various blockchains regardless of the underlying infrastructure. Given the potential of blockchain interoperability, researchers have proposed many protocols over the last few years, and the solutions being offered are on the rise. In this chapter, we will discuss the methodologies used in the available solutions and compare several of their characteristics, including throughput, average block confirmation time, and consensus mechanism. Furthermore, we will present the projects currently implementing these protocols and their future directions.KeywordsInteroperabilityInter-blockchain communicationData exchange
The paths leading to future networks are pointing towards a data-driven paradigm to better cater to the explosive growth of mobile services as well as the increasing heterogeneity of mobile devices, many of which generate and consume large volumes and variety of data. These paths are also hampered by significant challenges in terms of security, privacy, services provisioning, and network management. Blockchain, which is a technology for building distributed ledgers that provide an immutable log of transactions recorded in a distributed network, has become prominent recently as the underlying technology of cryptocurrencies and is revolutionizing data storage and processing in computer network systems. For future data-driven networks (DDNs), blockchain is considered as a promising solution to enable the secure storage, sharing, and analytics of data, privacy protection for users, robust, trustworthy network control, and decentralized routing and resource managements. However, many important challenges and open issues remain to be addressed before blockchain can be deployed widely to enable future DDNs. In this article, we present a survey on the existing research works on the application of blockchain technologies in computer networks and identify challenges and potential solutions in the applications of blockchains in future DDNs. We identify application scenarios in which future blockchain-empowered DDNs could improve the efficiency and security, and generally the effectiveness of network services.
Within internet of things (IoT) research, there is a growing interest in leveraging the decentralization properties of blockchains, towards developing IoT authentication and authorization mechanisms that do not inherently require centralized third-party intermediaries. This paper presents a framework for sharing IoT data in a decentralized and private-by-design manner in exchange for monetary services. The framework is built on a tiered blockchain architecture, along with InterPlanetary File System for IoT data storage and transfer. The goal is to enable IoT data users to exercise fine-grained control on how much data they share with entities authenticated through blockchains. To highlight how the framework would be used in real-life scenarios, this paper presents two use cases, namely an IoT data marketplace and a decentralized connected vehicle insurance. These examples showcase how the proposed framework can be used for varying smart contract-based applications involving exchanges of IoT data and cryptocurrency. Following the discussion about the use cases, the paper outlines a detailed security analysis performed on the proposed framework, based on multiple attack scenarios. Finally, it presents and discusses extensive evaluations, in terms of various performance metrics obtained from a real-world implementation.
This study proposes a novel solution that provides secure interoperability for blockchains, which improves the overall scalability of the whole blockchain network. In our solution, a cross-chain task will build a one-time cross-blockchain contract. Each blockchain system can follow the contract to complete or this task. The result of tasks is bound with the system, hence can be anchored to all other blockchain systems through the gossip network. This work shows our result can provide linear scalability for the whole system and achieve consistency among honest systems.
Blockchain was originally developed to support decentralized cryptocurrency applications within a single network. However, the proliferation of blockchain technology has led to the need of supporting transactions across multiple networks requiring interoperability. Thus far, minimal analysis has been dedicated to the interoperability scenario and in particular the prevention of double spending attacks across interoperable blockchain networks. In this paper, we propose the use of neutral observers to monitor transactions that span multiple blockchains and design a protocol that obviates the double spending problem across interoperable blockchain networks. We show that the observers, can detect double spending, while remaining honest to the protocol as it is more profitable to them than colluding due to our proposed disincentivization scheme. Leveraging Ethereum's smart-contract functionality, we simulate our proposed disincentivization scheme and show its cost-effectiveness.
Smart grids equipped with bi-directional communication flow are expected to provide more sophisticated consumption monitoring and energy trading. However, the issues related to the security and privacy of consumption and trading data present serious challenges. In this paper we address the problem of providing transaction security in decentralized smart grid energy trading without reliance on trusted third parties.We have implemented a proof-of-concept for decentralized energy trading system using blockchain technology, multi-signatures, and anonymous encrypted messaging streams, enabling peers to anonymously negotiate energy prices and securely perform trading transactions. We conducted case studies to perform security analysis and performance evaluation within the context of the elicited security and privacy requirements.
AADL (Architecture Analysis and Design Language) is often used to model
safety-critical real-time systems. Model transformation is widely used to
extract a formal speci�cation so that AADL models can be veri�ed and analyzed
by existing tools. Timed Abstract State Machine (TASM) is a formalism
not only able to specify behavior and communication but also timing and
resource aspects of the system. To verify functional and nonfunctional properties
of AADL models, this paper presents a methodology for translating
AADL to TASM. Our main contribution is to formally de�ne the translation
rules from an adequate subset of AADL (including thread component, port
communication, behavior annex and mode change) into TASM. Based on
these rules, a tool called AADL2TASM is implemented using Atlas Transformation
Language (ATL). Finally, a case study from an actual data processing
unit of a satellite is provided to validate the transformation and illustrate
the practicality of the approach.
Our growing reliance on online services accessible on the Internet demands highly available systems that provide correct service without interruptions. Software bugs, operator mistakes, and malicious attacks are a major cause of service interruptions and they can cause arbitrary behavior, that is, Byzantine faults. This article describes a new replication algorithm, BFT, that can be used to build highly available systems that tolerate Byzantine faults. BFT can be used in practice to implement real services: it performs well, it is safe in asynchronous environments such as the Internet, it incorporates mechanisms to defend against Byzantine-faulty clients, and it recovers replicas proactively. The recovery mechanism allows the algorithm to tolerate any number of faults over the lifetime of the system provided fewer than 1/3 of the replicas become faulty within a small window of vulnerability. BFT has been implemented as a generic program library with a simple interface. We used the library to implement the first Byzantine-fault-tolerant NFS file system, BFS. The BFT library and BFS perform well because the library incorporates several important optimizations, the most important of which is the use of symmetric cryptography to authenticate messages. The performance results show that BFS performs 2% faster to 24% slower than production implementations of the NFS protocol that are not replicated. This supports our claim that the BFT library can be used to build practical systems that tolerate Byzantine faults.
The web has enabled free and open information exchange for a vast number of users around the world. However, it has so far failed to do the same for payments. Instead of finding the cheapest route for each payment from a competitive network of providers, we rely on a small number of proprietary operators with global reach.
The work happening at the Web Payments Working Group at W3C is attempting to remove some of the friction in performing payments on the Web by defining a standard payment API and messaging in browsers. This will make payments on the Web easier but not entirely frictionless or integrated.
As active participants in the W3C's Web Payments Working Group we present a browser polyfill of one of the prosed payment APIs and will walk the audience through the goals of the WG and vision of how payments will work on the Web in the future.
Building on this, we will introduce the Interledger Protocol (ILP), a new neutral payments protocol being incubated in the Interledger Payments Community Group, also at the W3C. We will demonstrate how, in the future, the combination of the W3C's Web Payments APIs and the power of ILP payments will not only be frictionless but fully integrated into how we use the Web. Ubiquitous payments in an Internet of Value.
A purely peer-to-peer version of electronic cash would allow online payments to be sent directly from one party to another without going through a financial institution. Digital signatures provide part of the solution, but the main benefits are lost if a trusted third party is still required to prevent double-spending. We propose a solution to the double-spending problem using a peer-to-peer network. The network timestamps transactions by hashing them into an ongoing chain of hash-based proof-of-work, forming a record that cannot be changed without redoing the proof-of-work. The longest chain not only serves as proof of the sequence of events witnessed, but proof that it came from the largest pool of CPU power. As long as a majority of CPU power is controlled by nodes that are not cooperating to attack the network, they'll generate the longest chain and outpace attackers. The network itself requires minimal structure. Messages are broadcast on a best effort basis, and nodes can leave and rejoin the network at will, accepting the longest proof-of-work chain as proof of what happened while they were gone.
The new ARPANET routing algorithm is an improvement over the old procedure in that it uses fewer network resources, operates on more realistic estimates of network conditions, reacts faster to important network changes, and does not suffer from long-term loops or oscillations. In the new procedure, each node in the network maintains a database describing the complete network topology and the delays on all lines, and uses the database describing the network to generate a tree representing the minimum delay paths from a given root node to every other network node. Because the traffic in the network can be quite variable, each node periodically measures the delays along its outgoing lines and forwards this information to all other nodes. The delay information propagates quickly through the network so that all nodes can update their databases and continue to route traffic in a consistent and efficient manner. An extensive series of tests were conducted on the ARPANET, showing that line overhead and CPU overhead are both less than two percent, most nodes learn of an update within 100 ms, and the algorithm detects congestion and routes packets around congested areas.
The network traffic matrix is widely used in network operation and
management. It is therefore of crucial importance to analyze the components and
the structure of the network traffic matrix, for which several mathematical
approaches such as Principal Component Analysis (PCA) were proposed. In this
paper, we first argue that PCA performs poorly for analyzing traffic matrix
that is polluted by large volume anomalies, and then propose a new
decomposition model for the network traffic matrix. According to this model, we
carry out the structural analysis by decomposing the network traffic matrix
into three sub-matrices, namely, the deterministic traffic, the anomaly traffic
and the noise traffic matrix, which is similar to the Robust Principal
Component Analysis (RPCA) problem previously studied in [13]. Based on the
Relaxed Principal Component Pursuit (Relaxed PCP) method and the Accelerated
Proximal Gradient (APG) algorithm, we present an iterative approach for
decomposing a traffic matrix, and demonstrate its efficiency and flexibility by
experimental results. Finally, we further discuss several features of the
deterministic and noise traffic. Our study develops a novel method for the
problem of structural analysis of the traffic matrix, which is robust against
pollution of large volume anomalies.
Reliable computer systems must handle malfunctioning components that give conflicting information to different parts of the system. This situation can be expressed abstractly in terms of a group of generals of the Byzantine army camped with their troops around an enemy city. Communicating only by messenger, the generals must agree upon a common battle plan. However, one of more of them may be traitors who will try to confuse the others. The problem is to find an algorithm to ensure that the loyal generals will reach agreement. It is shown that, using only oral messages, this problem is solvable if and only if more than two-thirds of the generals are loyal; so a single traitor can confound two loyal generals. With unforgeable written messages, the problem is solvable for any number of generals and possible traitors. Applications of the solutions to reliable computer systems are then discussed.
Research on Private Blockchain Based on Crowdfunding
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Chen, Z. Research on Private Blockchain Based on Crowdfunding[J]. Journal of
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MultiChain Private Blockchain-White Paper
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Enabling Blockchain Innovations with Pegged Sidechains. White paper, Blockstream
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Pegged Sidechains. White paper, Blockstream, 2014[J].