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Microencapsulation of Gaultheria procumbens essential oil using chitosan-cinnamic acid microgel: Improvement of antimicrobial activity, stability and mode of action
Abstract
The present study was undertaken to investigate the efficacy of chitosan-cinnamic acid based microencapsulated Gaultheria procumbens L. essential oil (GPEO) against Aspergillus flavus (EC-03), aflatoxin B1 secretion and its mode of action. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and particle size analyzer analysis revealed that the microencapsulated GPEO exhibited an even spherical shape and particle size ranged between 7.00 and 90.0 μm. During chemical characterization (GC-MS), methyl salicylate (96.25%) was identified as the major component of GPEO. Microencapsulated GPEO exhibited strong antifungal and aflatoxin B1 suppressor activity than the uncapsulated GPEO and completely inhibited growth and toxin production at 1.00 μL/mL. The mode of action of microencapsulated GPEO was elucidated targeting ergosterol content in the cell membrane, the release of cellular ion contents and morphological alteration in A. flavus. The results demonstrate the potential of chitosan-based encapsulating material for the improvement of the antimicrobial efficacy as well as stability of GPEO.
... The addition of cedarwood EO and CuO nanoparticles to a chitosan coating improved the antifungal activity against P. italicum and P. digitatum (Wardana, Kingwascharapong, Tanaka, & Tanaka, 2021). Kujur, Kiran, Dubey, and Prakash (2017) revealed that chitosan-cinnamic acid-based microencapsulated Gaultheria procumbens EO could strongly inhibit the growth of Aspergillus flavus and the production of the toxin aflatoxin B1 (Kujur et al., 2017). ...
... The addition of cedarwood EO and CuO nanoparticles to a chitosan coating improved the antifungal activity against P. italicum and P. digitatum (Wardana, Kingwascharapong, Tanaka, & Tanaka, 2021). Kujur, Kiran, Dubey, and Prakash (2017) revealed that chitosan-cinnamic acid-based microencapsulated Gaultheria procumbens EO could strongly inhibit the growth of Aspergillus flavus and the production of the toxin aflatoxin B1 (Kujur et al., 2017). ...
... Moreover, the hyphae of G. citri-aurantii AY-1 showed severe suspected vacuolization after treatment with KSE 3 (Fig. 6). These results suggested that Syringa EO and KSE could inhibit spore production and that the plasma membrane might be one of the prime target sites of the volatiles in Syringa EO (Ghannoum & Rice, 1999;Kujur et al., 2017). ...
Citrus fruits have suffered serious losses in postharvest storage and transportation. A novel approach, fragmentedkonjac glucomannan-based Syringa essential oil (KSE) films, was used to maintain the quality of citrus fruits instorage. The KSE film was successfully prepared by using the encapsulating method via coacervation, with anencapsulation efficiency of 18.3% and loading capacity of 11.4%. GC–MS showed that eugenol, caryophyllene,and humulene were the main constituents of Syringa EO. SEM showed that EO drops or volatiles distributed in theKGM molecular matrix produced a concave structure during film formation. FTIR indicated no interaction ormodification between KGM and Syringa EO, and EO was successfully encapsulated into the KGM films. Thefragmented KSE films showed significant antifungal activity against Penicillium italicum, Penicillium digitatum, andGeotrichum citri-aurantii, inhibiting spore germination and mycelium elongation, resulting in suspected indentation, plasmolysis, and vacuolization. In storage, the fragmented KSE film packed in a non-woven bag apparently maintained the quality of citrus fruits, including sustaining fruit firmness and reducing vitamin C (VC),total soluble solids (TSS), and titratable acid (TA) loss. One of the modes of action for the quality maintenance ofcitrus fruits might be induced systemic resistance. This study might convey stronger impact in postharvest bynewly developed packaging materials.
... For this reason, they are not widely used on a large scale in the industry, as research in these directions is still being developed. Only the pharmaceutical industry in drug development, the food and cosmetics industries will make the greatest contribution in this direction so far [10,[54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64]. ...
... used on a large scale in the industry, as research in these directions is still being developed. Only the pharmaceutical industry in drug development, the food and cosmetics industries will make the greatest contribution in this direction so far [10,[54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62][63][64]. ...
This article reviews the use of fluids under supercritical conditions in processes related to the modern and innovative polymer industry. The most important processes using supercritical fluids are: extraction, particle formation, micronization, encapsulation, impregnation, polymerization and foaming. This review article briefly describes and characterizes the individual processes, with a focus on extraction, micronization, particle formation and encapsulation. The methods mentioned focus on modifications in the scope of conducting processes in a more ecological manner and showing higher quality efficiency. Nowadays, due to the growing trend of ecological solutions in the chemical industry, we see more and more advanced technological solutions. Less toxic fluids under supercritical conditions can be used as an ecological alternative to organic solvents widely used in the polymer industry. The use of supercritical conditions to conduct these processes creates new opportunities for obtaining materials and products with specialized applications, in particular in the medical, pharmacological, cosmetic and food industries, based on substances of natural sources. The considerations contained in this article are intended to increase the awareness of the need to change the existing techniques. In particular, the importance of using supercritical fluids in more industrial methods and for the development of already known processes, as well as creating new solutions with their use, should be emphasized.
... Currently, a range of encapsulating wall materials such as chitosan, cyclodextrin, albumin, globulin, maltodextrin, and starch have been used for the protection of volatile antimicrobial agent in the food systems (Bonilla, Poloni, Lourenço, & Sobral, 2018;Lee, Kim, & Park, 2018;Xu et al., 2018). Among all, chitosan has received significant attention to industries as wall material due to its high viscosity, mucoadhesivity, biodegradability, antimicrobial activity, excellent film formation properties, and nontoxicity (Almeida et al., 2018;Bertolino, Cavallaro, Lazzara, Milioto, & Parisi, 2018;Kujur, Kiran, Dubey, & Prakash, 2017;Naumenko, Guryanov, Yendluri, Lvov, & Fakhrullin, 2016). ...
... The PGEO was extracted from the aerial part using a Clevenger hydro-distillation apparatus (Kujur et al., 2017). A voucher specimen (Ger./Pel-048/2017) has been deposited in the herbarium of the Laboratory of Herbal Pesticides, Department of Botany, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh, India. ...
... Cinnamon essential oil encapsulated in gelatin hydrogels offers a constant release over a long period while it maintains a high antimicrobial capacity against S. aureus and E. coli [26]. Also, the microgels obtained from chitosan maintain the biological activity of the essential oil of Gaultheria procumbens against the secretion of aflatoxins from A. flavus [27]. The cryogels offer advantages due to high load capacity and encapsulation efficiency. ...
This study evaluated cryogels from albumin (ALB) and albumin-pectin (ALB:PEC) as carriers for pink pepper (Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi) essential oil. Cryogels were evaluated through infrared spectrophotometry, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, thermogravimetric analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry. The bioactivity of the cryogels was analyzed by measuring their encapsulation efficiency (EE%), the antimicrobial activity of the encapsulated oil against S. aureus, E. coli, and B. cereus using the agar diffusion method; total phenolic content and antioxidant activity were analyzed by UV-vis spectrophotometry. The EE% varied between 59.61% and 77.41%. The cryogel with only ALB had the highest total phenolic content with 2.802 mg GAE/g, while the cryogel with the 30:70 ratio (ALB:PEC) presented a value of 0.822 mg GAE/g. A higher proportion of PEC resulted in a more significant inhibitory activity against S. aureus, reaching an inhibition zone of 18.67 mm. The cryogels with ALB and 70:30 ratio (ALB:PEC) presented fusion endotherms at 137.16 • C and 134.15 • C, respectively, and semicrystalline structures. The interaction between ALB and PEC increased with their concentration, as evidenced by the decreased intensity of the O-H stretching peak, leading to lower encapsulation efficiency. The cryogels obtained can be considered a suitable matrix for encapsulating pink pepper oil.
... Most essential oils demonstrate a wide range of antimicrobial activity against bacteria and fungi [78] due to the hydrophobicity and hydrophilic functional groups (hydroxyl groups of phenolic compounds) in the chemical structure of compounds, which can disrupt the metabolism of microorganisms [79][80][81]. Also, essential oils have antioxidant properties [82] due to terpenes and phenols such as thymol, carvacrol and eugenol, phenolic acids (rosemary acid) and monocyclic hydrocarbons such as terpinolene and γ-terpinene [83-87]. ...
The global trend towards conscious consumption plays an important role in consumer preferences regarding both the composition and quality of food and packaging materials, including sustainable ones. The development of biodegradable active packaging materials could reduce both the negative impact on the environment due to a decrease in the use of oil-based plastics and the amount of synthetic preservatives. This review discusses relevant functional additives for improving the bioactivity of biopolymer-based films. Addition of plant, microbial, animal and organic nanoparticles into bio-based films is discussed. Changes in mechanical, transparency, water and oxygen barrier properties are reviewed. Since microbial and oxidative deterioration are the main causes of food spoilage, antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of natural additives are discussed, including perspective ones for the development of biodegradable active packaging.
... However, it could also be due to the amount of chitosan used for their preparation compared to the one in our study. In a study by Kujur et al. (2017), Gaultheria procumbens essential oil was encapsulated in microgels with chitosan and cinnamic acid to evaluate antifungal activity on A. flavus. Results demonstrated that the microgels are related to alterations in the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway, which is an important component of the integrity and fluidity of the cell membrane. ...
In recent years, the study of essential oils as antifungal alternatives and their encapsulation to increase their properties for greater effects has been tested. In this work, nanoparticles of chitosan–Schinus molle L. essential oil (CS-PEO-Np) with a size of 260 ± 31.1 nm were obtained by ionic gelation and evaluated in some growth phases of Aspergillus flavus, a toxigenic fungus. At a concentration of 250 μg/mL of CS-PEO-Np, the A. flavus mycelial growth was inhibited at 97.1% with respect to control, at 96 h of incubation; the germination and viability of spores were inhibited at 74.8 and 40%, respectively, after exposure to 500 μg/mL of these nanomaterials, at 12 h of incubation. The fluorescence images of stained spores with DAPI showed the affectations caused by nanoparticles in the cell membrane, vacuoles and vacuolar content, cell wall, and nucleic acids. For both nanoparticles, CS-Np and CS-PEO-Np, no mutagenic effect was observed in Salmonella Typhimurium; also, the phytotoxic assay showed low-to-moderate toxicity toward seeds, which was dependent on the nanoparticle’s concentration. The acute toxicity of CS-PEO-Np to A. salina nauplii was considered low in comparison to CS-Np (control), which indicates that the incorporation of Schinus molle essential oil into nanoparticles of chitosan is a strategy to reduce the toxicity commonly associated with nanostructured materials. The nanoparticulated systems of CS-PEO-Np represent an effective and non-toxic alternative for the control of toxigenic fungi such as A. flavus by delaying the initial growth stage.
... Some nanomaterials are used as carrier agents, such as chitosan, cellulose, dextran, starch, cyclodextrin and alginate, but these also possess antimicrobial activity. They achieve this by disrupting membrane potential, generating reactive oxygen species, along with altering metabolic reactions (Kujur et al., 2017;Chen et al., 2023). Nanoemulsions, due to their tiny size and large surface area per unit volume, allow efficient transport through porin proteins in the outer membrane. ...
The Editorial on the Research Topic Green and Sustainable Extraction Techniques for Bioactives in Food, Plants,
More recently, there has been a significant surge in green and sustainable analytical approaches for the analysis of bioactive phytochemicals in various sectors including food, plants, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. The concept of "Green Analytical Chemistry" was initially introduced by de la Guardia and Ruzicka in 1995 with the primary objective of downsizing analytical procedures while minimizing the use of reagents and chemicals.Moreover, key principles such as miniaturization, automation, utilization of sustainable solvents, and reduction in energy consumption are fundamental for achieving green analytical chemistry objectives. To ensure the overall greenness of the analytical process, it is imperative to consider the reduction and/or replacement of existing extraction techniques with environmentally sustainable alternatives. This transition is pivotal in mitigating environmental impact. A critical component in attaining this objective involves choosing an appropriate solvent for extraction processes, as the type of solvent utilized can significantly impact the effectiveness of isolating bioactive/nutrient components, energy consumption, and emissions. Therefore, the development of eco-friendly and sustainable extraction methodologies is currently a prominent research focus within the multidisciplinary field of applied chemistry, such as food science, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and beyond. Hence, three primary strategies have been identified for designing and implementing green extraction methods on both laboratory and industrial scales, with the aim of optimizing the utilization of raw materials, solvents, and energy: (1) improving and optimization of existing processes; (2) using non-dedicated equipment; and (3) innovation in processes and procedures but also in discovering alternative solvents.
... It had a retention 6 time (RT) of 10.09 min (Figure 1), and was identified as being methyl salicylate. Others also found that methyl salicylate was the main compound in oil extracted from the Gaultheria species [22,23]. According to the Ibáñez and Blázquez [24] analysis, wintergreen essential oil (G. ...
The chemical composition of wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens L.) essential oil (WEO) was identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and evaluated for its biological activities. Methyl salicylate (100%) was the main compound in the wintergreen essential oil. The herbicidal efficacy of the WEO was confirmed by germination inhibition, radical and shoot length reduction, and phytotoxicity assessment with Echinochloa crus-galli and Amaranthus tricolor seedlings. The WEO significantly reduced the germination and seedling growth of both weeds. It showed highly significant inhibition of seed germination (93.37%) and seedling growth of A. tricolor at the highest dose (6 µL/petri dish) assayed. The WEO was formulated as an emulsifiable concentrate (EC-EO) for post-emergence application, and was applied at a range of concentrations from 10 to 80 mL/L. Both treated plant leaves appeared wilted and slightly discolored within 1 day of application (DAA). The visible weed control efficacy was most remarkable at 80 mL/L treatment, which was a level that ultimately killed the seedlings of both species at 3 DAA, suggesting promising herbicidal potential for the WEO. The WEO showed weak scavenging activity with a high IC50 value (IC50 >2×10 4 and >5×10 4 ppm) for DPPH scavenging and metal chelating assays, respectively. The WEO showed moderate antibacterial activity, and its zones of inhibition against bacterial test strains were 7.90±0.8 mm and 23.9±0.9 mm for Escherichia coli TISTR 780 and Staphylococcus aureus TISTR 1466, respectively. Therefore, the results suggest the possibility of using WEO as an active ingredient to produce natural herbicides. Keywords essential oil; EC-EO; Gaultheria procumbens; bioactivity; herbicidal activity; antibacterial activity; antioxidant activity Curr. Appl. Sci. Technol. Vol. 23 No. 5 S. Jintanasirinurak et al. 2
... Some nanomaterials are used as carrier agents, such as chitosan, cellulose, dextran, starch, cyclodextrin and alginate, but these also possess antimicrobial activity. They achieve this by disrupting membrane potential, generating reactive oxygen species, along with altering metabolic reactions (Kujur et al., 2017;Chen et al., 2023). Nanoemulsions, due to their tiny size and large surface area per unit volume, allow efficient transport through porin proteins in the outer membrane. ...
Introduction: Nanoemulsion and nanoencapsulation are attractive novel methods that can be used for incorporating active plant extracts in food preparations and pharmaceutical formulations. In the current study, we aimed to investigate the anticancer and antibacterial effects of hydroethanolic extracts of Nettle (NE), Wormwood (WE), and the combination of the two plants (CNWE), as well as their nanoemulsion forms (NN, NW, CNNW) and nanoencapsulation forms (CN, CW, and CCNW).
Methods: The morphology and structure of the nanoemulsion and nanoencapsulation preparations were assessed utilizing dynamic light scattering (DLS) along with transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The antibacterial activity of the prepared formulations were assessed by determining minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), zone of inhibition diameter, minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), along with biofilm growth inhibition against Salmonaella typhimurium and Klebsiella. pneumoniae. The anticancer activity was evaluated via a MTT assay in the colon cancer cell line (HCT116).
Results: The nanoemulsion and nanoencapsulation particle size varied between 10 and 50 nm and 60 and 110 nm, respectively. The MIC values were between 11.25 and 95 µg/mL along with MBC values between 11.25 and 190 µg/mL. The highest inhibition of biofilm formation was observed with CCNW against K. pneumoniae (∼78.5%) and S. typhimurium (∼73%). In descending order, the inhibition of biofilm formation was CCNW > CW > CN > CNNW > NN > NW > CNWE > NE > WE against the tested bacteria. The IC50 values for NE, WE, CNWE, NN, NW, CNNW, CN, CW, and CCNW were determined as 250, 170, 560, 380, 312, 370, 250, 420, and 700 µg/mL, respectively. Exposure to a high concentration of NW resulted in a significantly lower HCT116 viability compared to other groups. Taken together, CNNW, and CCNW showed the highest antibacterial and anticancer activitiy.
Discussion: Nanoemulsion and nanoencapsulation were effective ways to increase the antibacterial and anticancer activity of the extracts and could be used in the food and pharmaceutical industries.
... the normal microbial metabolism, leading to cell death (Calo, Crandall, O'Bryan, & Ricke, 2015;Donsì et al., 2012;Kujur, Kiran, Dubey, & Prakash, 2017). The encapsulation of EOs within carrier wall materials such as chitosan, cellulose, dextran, starch, alginate, and cyclodextrin may impart stronger overall antimicrobial properties given the inherent biocidal activities of these bioactive ingredients (Álvarez-Paino, Muñoz-Bonilla, & Fernández-García, 2017). ...
This review focuses on the role of nanotechnology, specifically nanoencapsulation, in enhancing food safety through antimicrobial effectiveness. Food safety is a critical global concern, and nanotechnology has emerged as a promising solution to prevent or reduce microbial growth in food products. Nanoencapsulation involves enclosing hydrophobic molecules, such as essential oils (EOs), within a protective coating, improving their stability and controlled release. The review discusses recent advancements in nanoencapsulation technology, exploring various wall materials and methods that contribute to better delivery and increased activity of anti-microbials. The physical and chemical properties of coating materials and EOs are examined, highlighting their impact on release characteristics and the resulting antibacterial and antifungal properties against foodborne pathogens. Key findings reveal that the selection of appropriate encapsulation methods and wall materials significantly influences the protection and controlled release of EOs, enhancing their antimicrobial activity. Encapsulated EOs have demonstrated amplified effectiveness by disrupting vital microbial functions such as ergosterol biosynthesis, essential ion leakage, and bacterial membrane integrity. Once within microbial cells, these EOs or their bioactive components hinder DNA synthesis or bacterial ribosomal activity, ultimately impeding protein metabolism. Despite the promising potential of nanoencapsulated EOs across diverse applications , their toxicological profiles and organ-specific targeting remain insufficiently explored. Several challenges contribute to this research gap, including the intricate nature of nanoencapsulated EOs, limited in-vivo studies, species-specific variations, diverse administration routes, absence of standardized protocols, regulatory complexities, and resource constraints. Overcoming these hurdles is vital for ensuring the safe and effective use of nanoencapsulated EOs. Overall, this review provides valuable insights into the fundamental principles of antimicrobial nanocarriers and colloidal systems with tunable bactericidal properties. By understanding the underlying mechanisms of nanoencapsulation and its effects on antimicrobial activity, researchers can develop more effective strategies to combat foodborne pathogens and improve food preservation methods.
... As a result, natural antimicrobial agents are becoming increasingly popular in the medical and environmental fields. Herbal plants are a source of essential oils (EO), with flavour and antibacterial properties, have many industrial applications; food, biomedical, pharmaceutical, and cosmetics [23][24][25]. ...
There is increased interest in developing new eco-friendly materials with antibacterial and antioxidant properties for various technological applications. This study prepared a new chitosan phenolic derivative with a hydroxyl group via a click reaction between chitosan (Ch) and vanillylidene acetone to form the corresponding vanillylidene acetonyl chitosan Schiff base (Va.Ch.SB). Detailed structural characterization was carried out using FTIR, UV–Vis, and 1H-NMR spectroscopy. The substitution degree calculated as 8.81%, according to 1H-NMR analysis. The obtained results confirm the formulation of imine Schiff base bond between chitosan amino groups react and vanillylidene acetone. Furthermore, the thermo-gravimetric analysis indicates that the decomposition behaviour of both chitosan and its vanillylidene acetonyl chitosan Schiff base derivative is nearly identical, with a slight enhancement of the SB derivative. The Va.Ch.SB exhibited duple antioxidant activity of the Va.Ch.SB. The comparative analysis reveals that the antimicrobial properties exhibited efficacy against two strains of gram-positive bacteria, namely Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus haemolyticus, as three strains of gram-negative bacteria, namely Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Klebsiella pneumoniae. These findings suggest that the Va.Ch.SB has the capability to apply in different medical and environmental contexts.
Graphical abstract
... Protects sacha inchi oil against oxidation [265] Flaxseed Oil -Improves oxidative stability [266] Sichuan Pepper Essential Oil (SPEO) -Responds to SPEO problems such as poor stability and low water solubility [267] Lycopene (Tetraterpene) -Enhances stability [268] Gaultheria Procumbens L. Essential Oil (GPEO) -Improves antimicrobial and antiaflatoxigenic activity and the stability [269] ...
Microbiological risk associated with abiotic surfaces is one of the most important issues worldwide. Surface contaminations by pathogenic bacterial biofilms or adherent cells affect a number of sectors, including medical services, food industries, human services, and the environment. There is a need to synthesize or to set up novel biosource-based antimicrobials. Terpenes such as limonene carvacrol are usually found in essential oils and have potent antimicrobial activities. However, the direct use of these molecules is often inefficient due to their low water solubility, loss of volatile compounds, thermal degradation, oxidation, and toxicity. The organic synthesis of stable metal complexes based on terpene ligands seems to be a promising issue, since it can allow for and promote the use of terpenes and challenge the drawbacks of these molecules. Spray drying could be the most suitable method for encapsulating metal complexes based on terpene ligands to protect and enhance their activity against bacterial biofilms. The goal of this review is to discuss the microbiological risk associated with pathogenic bacterial biofilm and the organic synthesis of novel antimicrobial complexes based on terpene ligands. In addition, this review explores how to improve their bioactivities and characteristics using a formulation based on encapsulation.
... El TPC del extracto de hojas de Gaultheria glomerata concuerda con lo reportado con Oré9 quien determinó un TPC de 359,4 mg GAE/g y una actividad antioxidante de 48,9 %, evaluado por el método de DPPH. Los resultados tienen relación con las evidencias en el género Gaultheria, por ejemplo, Gaultheria procumbens y Gaultheria fragrantissima que son conocidas por la producción de "aceite de gaulteria" a partir de sus hojas y presentan propiedades antimicrobianas y antioxidantes 10 . Otra especie de especial interés es Mutisia mathewsii, cuyo extracto hidroalcohólico de las hojas presentó mayor TFC, lo cual se contrasta con lo determinado por Condoli 11 , quien además reportó una elevada actividad antioxidante. ...
El objetivo de esta investigación fue realizar el tamizaje fitoquímico, determinar el contenido de compuestos fenólicos y evaluar el potencial antioxidante de trece plantas medicinales de los afloramientos rocosos del Bosque de Piedras de Huaraca en Perú. Los metabolitos secundarios se identificaron mediante el tamizaje fitoquímico y el contenido de compuestos fenólicos incluyó la cuantificación de fenoles totales (TPC), flavonoides (TFC) y antocianinas (TAC). El potencial antioxidante en el extracto hidroalcohólico, expresado como concentración media inhibitoria (CI50), evaluada a 100 µg/mL, se realizó mediante el ensayo del 2,2-difenil- 1-picrilhidracilo (DPPH). Los resultados evidencian que los flavonoides, fenoles y/o taninos estuvieron presentes en las trece especies. El extracto de hojas de Brachyotum naudinii presentó mayor TPC (386,3 ± 9,7 mg GAE/g) y elevado potencial antioxidante (CI50: 42,9± 1,2 µg/mL), aunque estadísticamente diferente al Trolox (36,6 ± 0,4 µg/mL). El extracto de hojas de Mutisia mathewsii reportó mayor TFC (175,6 ± 0,7 mg RUE/g) y el extracto de frutos de Gaultheria glomerata presentó mayor TAC (2340,0 ± 2,26 mg/g). Se concluye que las trece plantas medicinales poseen mayoritariamente flavonoides, fenoles y/o taninos y presentan potencial antioxidante directamente proporcional al contenido de fenoles totales.
... As nanoemulsions, lime essential oils encapsulated with chitosan showed enhanced antibacterial activity against S. aureus, L. monocytogenes, Shigilla dysenterias, and E. coli [143,144]. Aspergillus parasiticus and Schinus Moller use chitosan [145,146], lipid phase, and orecirol as solid lipid nanoparticles against Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus ochraceus, Alternaria solani, Rhizopus stolonifer, and Rhizoctonia solani [147]. Furthermore, chitosan with cardamom essential oil as nanoencapsulation against S. aureus and E. coli [148], chitosan with cardamom essential oil as nanocomposites against S. aureus and E. coli [149], and Siparuna guianensis with chitosan as nanoencapsulation against Aedes aegypti as nanoencapsulation [150]. ...
In the present scenario, resistance to antibiotics is one of the crucial issues related to public health. Earlier, such resistance to antibiotics was limited to nosocomial infections, but it has now become a common phenomenon. Several factors, like extensive development, overexploitation of antibiotics, excessive application of broad-spectrum drugs, and a shortage of target-oriented antimicrobial drugs, could be attributed to this condition. Nowadays, there is a rise in the occurrence of these drug-resistant pathogens due to the availability of a small number of effective antimicrobial agents. It has been estimated that if new novel drugs are not discovered or formulated, there would be no effective antibiotic available to treat these deadly resistant pathogens by 2050. For this reason, we have to look for the formulation of some new novel drugs or other options or substitutes to treat such multidrug-resistant microorganisms (MDR). The current review focuses on the evolution of the most common multidrug-resistant bacteria and discusses how these bacteria escape the effects of targeted antibiotics and become multidrug resistant. In addition, we also discuss some alternative mechanisms to prevent their infection as well.
... The essential oils microencapsulation can be conducted by several methodologies, as coacervation, lyophilization, extrusion, molecular inclusion, ionic gelation, casting, microfluidization, and spray-drying (Salvia-trujillo et al. 2015;Kujur et al. 2017;Lucía et al. 2017;Riquelme et al. 2017;Nascimento et al. 2019). The process of spray-drying microencapsulation consists of transforming a solution, suspension, or emulsion from a liquid state to a solid state and then creating a protective coating around the substance of interest. ...
Recent growing concerns about health promotion through quality foods have changed the eating habits of consumers as well as they have driven the food industries to replace synthetic conservatives and artificial aromas in their products with natural compounds or plant-based derivatives with similar activities. Essential oils contain a high variety of compounds with antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, as well as less toxicity when compared to the currently applied synthetic compounds. However, compounds from essential oils are volatile, lipophilic, characterized by intense aroma, and also susceptible to oxidation when exposed to light, oxygen, and moisture. These drawbacks can compromise the biological activity associated with essential oil and its chemical components. The microencapsulation of essential oils has been proposed as an alternative to these drawbacks due to its action in the protection of volatile constituents of essential oil from external factors, reduction of volatilization loss, and the controlling release of chemical constituents. This chapter presents a review of recent studies using essential oils microencapsulated by spray drying as an alternative to control microbial growth and discusses the influences of these microcapsules on food conservation.KeywordsMicroencapsulation Spray-drying Essential oils Food preservative Antifungal Antibacterial Phenolic molecules Food packing Shelf-life Natural products
... As an example from the literature, chitosan was used to encapsulate Citrus and Gaultheria procumbens L. essential oils through emulsion polymerization and spray drying processes, respectively. 175,176 Despite the great potentials of chitosan, its poor long-term stability, poor mechanical and thermal properties, and rapid in vivo degradation rate are substantial limitations of the scaling-up of chitosan applications. 177,178 Namely, the storage conditions of chitosan may affect its functionalities and alter its functional groups. ...
The fabrication of simple and core-shell polymer microparticles is of great importance due to their wide range of industrial applications, such as the food industry, cosmetics, and drug delivery. Regardless of their outstanding advantages, the vast majority of the targeted microparticles are produced using fossil raw materials whose depletion is inevitable, and there is an urgent need to develop innovative classes of sustainable microparticles from renewable resources. Several reviews discussed the common techniques to synthesize polymer microparticles for diverse real-life applications. Nonetheless, no reports were found on the sustainability evaluation of the diverse production methods or the microparticle raw materials and solvents used. In this critical review, the state of the art of polymer microparticles is first described. Next, the sustainability of the common production techniques, including microfluidics, is evaluated based on selected criteria, including waste generation, use of green solvents, atom- and energy efficiency. Furthermore, the challenges of achieving green production are discussed based on three elements: green production process, green raw material, and green solvents. Finally, room for improvement is discussed with highlights on future perspectives, including further investigations that should be accomplished to find renewable substitutes and green up the existing production strategies for better lives for future generations.
... The small size of nanoparticles allows them to pass through different biological barriers in order to deliver drugs to various levels . Relative to microencapsulation (Suganya & Anuradha, 2017;Paulo and Santos, 2017;Mohammadi Gheisar et al., 2015;Castro-Rosas et al., 2017;Sun et al., 2019;Kujur et al., 2017), nanoencapsulation has been shown to have greater potential in terms of bioavailability, controlled release, and precision targeting of bioactive compounds (Suganya & Anuradha, 2017;Ezhilarasi et al., 2013). Indeed, the smaller the size of a particle, the greater the specific surface, the reactivity and the bioavailability of the entrapped drug, resulting in an enhanced functionality of the bioactive, such as antimicrobial efficacy (Basavegowda et al., 2020;Ezhilarasi et al., 2013). ...
This review provides a synthesis of the last ten years of research on nanodelivery systems used for the delivery of essential oils (EOs), as well as their potential as a viable alternative to antibiotics in human and veterinary therapy. The use of essential oils alone in therapy is not always possible due to several limitations but nanodelivery systems seem to be able to overcome these issues. The choice of the essential oil, as well as the choice of the nanodelivery system influences the therapeutic efficacy obtained. While several studies on the characterization of EOs exist, this review assesses the characteristics of the nanomaterials used for the delivery of essential oils, as well as impact on the functionality of nanodelivered essential oils, and successful applications. Two classes of delivery systems stand out: polymeric nanoparticles (NPs) including chitosan, cellulose, zein, sodium alginate, and poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA), and lipidic NPs including nanostructured lipid carriers, solid lipid NPs, nanoemulsions, liposomes, and niosomes. While the advantages and disadvantages of these delivery systems and information on stability, release, and efficacy of the nanodelivered EOs are covered in the literature as presented in this review, essential information, such as the speed of emergence of a potential bacteria resistance to these new systems, or dosages for each type of infection and for each animal species or humans is still missing today. Therefore, more quantitative and in vivo studies should be conducted before the adoption of EOs loaded NPs as an alternative to antibiotics, where appropriate.
... CH is one of the most popular polysaccharides used as raw material to encapsulate active compounds such as essential oils, terpenes, and several drugs into nanoparticles due to its structureforming, biocompatibility and high stability [19,20]. Moreover, due to its high antimicrobial properties, CH is the raw material of election for many formulations to improve the antimicrobial activity of several essential oils such as clove essential oil [16], mentha [21] and wintergreen [22] among others. In the cosmetic industry, CH is widely applied in CPs as an antioxidant, emulsifying agent and skin protective agent in chitosan form or different chitosan forms such as carboxymethyl chitosan [23]. ...
The current status of controversy regarding the use of certain preservatives in cosmetic products makes it necessary to seek new ecological alternatives that are free of adverse effects on users. In our study, two different natural terpenes Carvacrol and Eugenol were encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles in different ratios of Chitosan:terpene. The nanoparticles were characterized by DLS and TEM showing a maximum particle size of 100 nm. The chemical structure, thermal properties, and release profile of terpenes were evaluated showing a successful protection of terpene in Chitosan matrix. Two different release profile were observed showing a faster release profile in the case of Eugenol. Antimicrobial properties of nanoparticles were evaluated against typical microbial contaminants found in cosmetic products, showing higher antimicrobial properties with chitosan encapsulation of terpenes. Furthermore, natural moisturizing cream inoculated with beforementioned microorganisms was formulated with Carvacrol-chitosan nanoparticles and Eugenol-chitosan nanoparticles to evaluate the preservative efficiency, indicating a highest preservative efficiency with the use of Eugenol-chitosan nanoparticles.
... Essential oils usually interact with the cell membrane of microorganisms, leading to dysfunction of the cell membrane. This results in the leakage of cytoplasm, enzymes, and proteins within the membrane, disrupting the normal metabolic process of the bacterium and leading to its death [64,65]. The changes in bacterial morphology, as well as cell membrane permeability, show that EONE can still interact with microbial cell membranes after treatment with digestive solution. ...
Eucalyptus oil (EO) is a natural and effective antimicrobial agent; however, it has disadvantages such as poor water solubility and instability. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of process vessels and preparation process parameters on the particle size of the emulsion droplets using ultrasonic technique and response surface methodology to prepare eucalyptus oil nanoemulsion (EONE). The optimal sonication process parameters in conical centrifuge tubes were confirmed: sonication distance of 0.9 cm, sonication amplitude of 18%, and sonication time of 2 min. Under these conditions, the particle size of EONE was 18.96 ± 4.66 nm, the polydispersity index was 0.39 ± 0.09, and the zeta potential was -31.17 ± 2.15 mV. In addition, the changes in particle size, potential, micromorphology, and anti-Escherichia coli activity of EONE during digestion were investigated by in vitro simulated digestion. The emulsion was stable in simulated salivary fluid, tended to aggregate in simulated gastric fluid, and increased in particle size and potential value in simulated intestinal fluid. EONE showed higher anti-E. coli activity than EO by simulated digestion. These results provide a useful reference for the in vivo antimicrobial application of the essential oil.
... For instance, several essential oils and their bioactive compounds have been certified as a safe additive for food applications (U.S. Code of Federal Regulations, 2016). Despite the remarkable in vitro activity of essential oils against a variety of food pathogens, these are often proved insufficient in the complex food materials by several intrinsic hindrances such as solubility, volatility, and stability (Kujur, Kiran, Dubey, & Prakash, 2017). Furthermore, a strong aroma and taste of essential oil was also reported to adversely alter the sensory behavior of food, which has led to dissatisfaction in consumers (Noori, Zeynali, & Almasi, 2018). ...
A sesquiterpene quinone, ilimaquinone, was accessed for its cellular antioxidant efficacy and possible antimicrobial mechanism of action against foodborne pathogens (Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli) in vitro and in vivo. Ilimaquinone was found to be protective against H2O2-induced oxidative stress as validated by the reduction in the ROS levels, including increasing expression of SOD1 and SOD2 enzymes. Furthermore, ilimaquinone evoked MIC against S. aureus and E. coli within the range of 125-250 µg/mL. Ilimaquinone established its antimicrobial mode of action against both tested pathogens as evident by bacterial membrane depolarization, loss of nuclear genetic material, potassium ion, and release of extracellular ATP, as well as compromised membrane permeabilization and cellular component damage. Also, ilimaquinone showed no teratogenic effect against zebrafish, suggesting its nontoxic nature. Moreover, ilimaquinone significantly reduced the S. aureus count without affecting the sensory properties and color values of cold-storaged ground chicken meat even under temperature abuse condition.
... Challenges contributing to declining the use of plant EOs as food preservatives Although various kinds of EOs and their naturally active compounds have successfully been permitted by regulators such as the EC and FDA for intentional consumption being therapeutic agents in food products (Hyldgaard et al. 2012), and, despite the enormous effectiveness of antimicrobials in the laboratory, most EOs fail to exercise their full potential in the food system because of some major intrinsic obstacles such as bioavailability, the low solubility of water, stability, and volatility (Kujur et al. 2017;Prakash et al. 2018b). In contrast, high cost and t threat of biodiversity loss, shortage of raw materials, inconsistent efficiency, chemical variation, the negative impact on the food matrix, and the absence of a molecular mechanism of action are some of the major challenges facing to EOs that limit their application in the broad spectrum (Prakash and Kiran 2016). ...
The production of safe foods with little or no artificial preservatives is one of the foremost leading challenges for food manufacturing industries because synthetic antimicrobial agents and chemical food additives can cause severe negative effects on human health. However, there is an ever-increasing interest by consumers towards natural sources that have been aroused recently, and this increased consumer demand for safe food products has forced the food industries to use natural herbal and plant origins preservatives instead of synthetic preservatives for the production of safe foods. Traditionally, essential oils (EOs) obtained from numerous plant sources have been extensively encouraged for their putative health-promoting biological activities. The EOs are composed of complex mixtures encompassing copious individual compounds, which have been extracted by many methods. These diverse compounds display significant biological activities such as antioxidant and antimicrobial through different mechanisms. Nevertheless, their poor solubility in water, oxidation susceptibility, and volatility limit their use. To overcome these constraints, encapsulation is one of the best approaches to preserve the biological activities of EOs and minimize their effects on food sensory qualities. Herein, we have comprehensively enlightened the micro/nanoemulsion loaded with EOs to improve the physical—chemical and microbiological stability of various EOs, and further application of these EOs loaded systems in the food systems. This review confers the importance of EOs in terms of their main components, chemical and biological properties, including mode of action, effectiveness, synergistic effects as antimicrobials, and potential applications in the food system as a preservative.
... To date, there are mainly two synthetic methods of CA grafted CS products reported in the previous works. One is a chemical modification using 1-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC) and N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) [39,40,43], and the other is enzymatic modification. Yang et al. ...
In this study, cinnamic acid (CA) conjugated hydroxypropyl chitosan (HPCS) derivatives (HPCS-CA) with different degrees of substitution (DS) were successfully synthesized. The reaction was divided into two steps: the first step was to modify chitosan (CS) to HPCS, and the second step was to graft CA onto HPCS. Structural characterization and properties were carried out employing elemental analysis, FT-IR, UV–vis, 1H NMR, XRD, and TGA. The solubility test revealed the better water solubility of derivatives than CS. In addition, in vitro antibacterial and antibiofilm tests were performed. As expected, HPCS-CA derivatives exhibited good antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Escherichia coli (E. coli). The MIC and MBC of HPCS-CA derivatives could reach 256 μg/mL and 512 μg/mL, respectively. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) analysis proved the inhibitory effect of HPCS-CA derivatives on S. aureus and E. coli biofilms by disrupting the formation of biofilms, reducing the thickness of biofilms, and the number of live bacteria. These results suggest the potential applicability of HPCS-CA derivatives in the treatment of biofilm-associated infections and provide a practical strategy for the design of novel chitosan antibacterial materials.
... These findings are in accordance with earlier studies [17,31]. The adhesion of a high percentage of the volatile oil on the surface of the nanogel capsule could be the possible reason for the burst release effect, as it has been reported that the dissolution rate of the exterior layer of polymer is higher than the interior region [42]. ...
One of the most important trends in chemotherapy is the development of green chemotropic drugs with maximal activity and minimal side effects. The nanoencapsulation of phytochemical oils with natural polymers has been documented as a promising approach to producing nanodrugs with sustainable bioactivity and prolonged stability. In this context, Syzygium aromaticum essential oil (SAEO) and ultrasound-assisted deacetylated chitosan (UCS3) were successfully extracted from clove buds and squid pens, respectively. Grafting of UCS3 by ρ-coumaric acid (ρCA) has been performed to fabricate the ρCACS nanogel which was used for nanoencapsulation of SAEO to yield SAEO-loaded nanogel (ρ[email protected]). The findings of spectral, thermal, and morphological analyses have confirmed the success of the formation of new materials and SAEO encapsulation, as well. Based on the findings of the in vitro antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer studies, the nanoencapsulation of SAEO by ρCACS has significantly boosted its chemotherapeutic effects, compared to unencapsulated oil. Therefore, ρ[email protected] nanogel could be considered as a multifunctional chemotherapeutic/chemopreventive agent for prevention or therapy of pathologies induced by oxidative stress, microbial infection, and breast and skin cancer.
... Literatürde yapılan çalışmalarda, esansiyel yağların mikroenkapsülasyonunda kitosan-sinnamik asit [17], karragenan [18], maltodekstrin [19], aljinat [18,20], jelatin [21,22], Arap zamkı [19,23] vb. doğal polimerlerin kullanıldığı görülmektedir. ...
Mikroenkapsülasyon, günümüzde gıda, ilaç, tarım, tekstil, kozmetik, biyomedikal gibi endüstrilerde aktif bileşen stabilitesinin ve biyoaktif özelliklerinin korunması için sıklıkla başvurulan, aktif maddelerin etrafını bir ya da birden çok kaplama maddesi ile sarılmasını sağlayan bir teknolojidir. Ülkemiz için ticari öneme sahip olan ve anti-kanser, antioksidan, antiseptik, hipolipidemik, antidiyabetik, antimikrobiyal ve antibakteriyel özellikleri nedeniyle geniş uygulama alanı bulabilecek gül yağı, oda sıcaklığında hidrokarbon grubu bileşen oranının artmasıyla katılaşmaya başlamakta ve karakteristik özelliklerini kaybetmektedir. Bu nedenle yapılan bu çalışma ile, duvar materyali olarak jelatin ve aljinat kullanılarak, kompleks koaservasyon metodu ile gül yağının mikroenkapsüle edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Sentez sırasında farklı oranlarda jelatin/aljinat içeren mikrokapsüller (3J/2A/GY, 4J/2A/GY, 5J/2A/GY, 6J/2A/GY) elde edilmiş olup, jelatin/aljinat oranının mikrokapsülleme verimi, % yüzey yağı, % toplam yağ miktarı ve enkapsülasyon etkinliği üzerine etkileri araştırılmıştır. 6J/2A/GY mikrokapsüllerinin % 85,5 mikrokapsülleme verimi, 50,1 % toplam yağ, % 88,0 enkapsülasyon etkinliği ile en yüksek özelliklere sahip olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. Mikrokapsüllerin morfolojileri ve oluşumları taramalı elektron mikroskobu (SEM) ile incelenmiş olup, kaplama materyal oranının mikrokapsüllerin oluşumlarında önemli etkiye sahip olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca, mikrokapsüllerin termal kararlılıkları diferansiyel termal analiz ve termogravimetrik (DTA-TG) analiz ile incelenmiş olup, mikrokapsüllerin yüksek sıcaklıklarda bile termal kararlılıklarını koruduğunu gözlemlenmiştir. Bu çalışma ile elde edilen sonuçlara göre gül yağı içeren mikrokapsüllerin; parfümeri, kozmetik, sağlık ve tekstil sektöründe önemli kullanım alanları bulabileceği düşünülmektedir.
... The leaf essential oil of G. procumbens was obtained in 4.25% yield and the major component was methyl salicylate (91.1%) ( Table 3). Methyl salicylate is the dominating component in G. procumbens essential oil regardless of geographical location of cultivation, ranging in concentration from 61.14% to 99.96% [8][9][10][50][51][52]. Enantiomeric Distribution (+):(-) Menthone 0:100 Pulegone 100:0 (E)-β-Caryophyllene 100:0 Germacrene D 100:0 RI calc = retention indices calculated with respect to a homologous series of n-alkanes on a ZB-5 column. ...
As part of our evaluation of essential oils derived from Native American medicinal plants, we have obtained the essential oils of Agastache foeniculum (Pursch) Kuntze (Lamiaceae), Gaultheria procumbens L. (Ericaceae), Heliopsis helianthoides (L.) Sweet (Asteraceae), Liatris spicata (L.) Willd. (Asteraceae), Pycnanthemum incanum (L.) Michx. (Lamiaceae), Smallanthus uvedalia (L.) Mack. ex Mack. (Asteraceae), and Verbena hastata L. (Verbenaceae) by hydrodistillation. The essential oils were analyzed by gas chromatographic techniques. The essential oil of A. foeniculum was dominated by estragole (88–93%), while methyl salicylate (91%) dominated the G. procumbens essential oil. Germacrene D was the major component in H. helianthoides (42%) and L. spicata (24%). 1,8-Cineole (31%) and α-terpineol (17%) were the main compounds in P. incanum essential oil. The essential oil of S. uvedalia showed α-pinene (24%), perillene (15%), and β-caryophyllene (17%) as major components. Verbena hastata essential oil was rich in 1-octen-3-ol (up to 29%) and palmitic acid (up to 22%). Four of these essential oils, H. helianthoides, L. spicata, P. incanum, and V. hastata, are reported for the first time. Additionally, the enantiomeric distributions of several terpenoid components have been determined.
... As a result, one of the trends in the food industry is the application of natural antimicrobial agents. Essential oils, obtained from herbal plants, are recognized for their natural flavor and antimicrobial properties and they have various applications in the food, biomedical, pharmaceutical and cosmetics industries (Chen, Ren, et al., 2017;Hu, Wang, Xiao, & Bi, 2015;Kujur, Kiran, Dubey, & Prakash, 2017). Studies have been conducted on combining chitosan or COS with the essential oils component. ...
The novel chitosan oligosaccharide derivatives modified with cinnamyl onto the NH2 position were synthesized through a one-step reaction and their in vitro antibacterial activities were ascertained. The structural characterization and properties of derivatives were verified by UV-vis, FT-IR, ¹H, ¹³C NMR, TGA, XRD, and elemental analysis. The degrees of substitution (DS) of derivatives were from 0.255 to 0.366 with yields up to 82%. The in vitro antibacterial activities for the novel chitosan oligosaccharide derivatives against Escherichia coli (E. coli) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) were greatly improved compared to COS, sodium benzoate, and potassium sorbate. Moreover, their antibacterial activities were DS-dependent and more sensitive to S. aureus than E. coli. This study demonstrated that the new derivatives were expected to be a promising potential antimicrobial agent in the food industry.
... Examining the coatings containing EOs is very important because the presence of essential oils in the polymer matrix must be ensured. Wall composition, type, and concentration of EO can affect the nanostructure surface properties of materials with nano-coating [47]. The morphology of the prepared samples was characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM) (KYKY-EM3200). ...
In this study, the antioxidant activity of Bunium persicum essential oil (EO) at different concentrations of 1%, 1.5%, and 2% (W/V) was evaluated. Also, antibacterial effect of three types of nano-coatings, i.e., basil seed gum (BSG), Lepidium perfoliatum seed gum (LPSG), and their combination (1:1 ratio), was examined for extending the shelf life of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fillets for 16 days at 4 °C. The amount of phenolic compounds for Bunium persicum was 133.81 ± 2.74 mg/g. The antioxidant activity of EO was assessed by two methods of DPPH and beta-carotene at different concentrations (200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000 mg/L). The size of the prepared nano-coatings ranged from 265.17 to 454.66 nm and the zeta potential was negative for all of them. In order to study the effect of nanocomposite coating on the shelf life, 10 treatments including control, BSG, LPSG, and their combination with EO (at 1, 1.5, and 2%) were prepared and peroxide value, thiobarbituric acid, as well as pH, total volatile nitrogen, total viable count, total psychrotrophic count were measured in 4-day intervals. The results showed that the nano-coatings containing EO had antioxidant and antimicrobial properties and were able to improve the above-mentioned properties. The data obtained from this study revealed that the nano-coatings containing EO could delay the oxidation process and microbial spoilage of the treatments (p < 0.05); by increasing the concentration of EO, better results were observed. According to the results, BSG-LPSG containing 2% EO can be used as a proper substitute for artificial and chemical food preservatives.
... Encapsulation procedure involves various chemical, physicochemical, and mechanical methods (viz., spray drying, complex coacervation, liposomes, ionic gelation, and emulsion extrusion technique) to entrap the bioactive compounds as the core material inside the capsule wall (Gibbs et al. 1999). A range of natural and synthetic polymers are currently being used as encapsulating wall material viz., starch, cellulose, chitin, chitosan, dextran, alginate, albumin, casein, gelatine, polylactate, polyglycolate, polyesters, and polyamines (Nitta and Numata, 2013;Kujur et al. 2017). Chitosan (produced by deacetylation of chitin) has been used as a coating material of bioactive compounds due to its inherent antimicrobial, biodegradable, biocompatible, low mammalian toxicity, mucoadhesive, and better film-forming properties (Alvarez et al. 2013;Alishahi and Aïder 2012;Lee et al. 2018;Cota-Arriola et al. 2013;Tavares et al. 2019). ...
The present study investigated the antifungal and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) inhibitory efficacy of Jasmine essential oil-loaded in the chitosan nanoparticle (JEO-NP) with probable antifungal and anti-aflatoxin B1 mode of action against Aspergillus flavus. The prepared JEO-NP was characterized through FTIR and XRD. The maximum percent encapsulation efficiency (75.51% w/w) and loading capacity (5.65% w/w) were found at the 1:1 ratio of chitosan: JEO. The results of thermogravimetric analysis exhibited an increase in thermal stability of JEO-NP compared to the free JEO. The antifungal and AFB1 inhibitory concentration of JEO-NP was found to be 2.5 μL/mL against A. flavus, which was lower than free form JEO (3.0 μL/mL). Biochemical and in silico approaches revealed the antifungal mechanisms of action of JEO-NP were related to the inhibition in ergosterol biosynthesis, leakage of vital ions (Ca+2, Mg+2, and K+), impairment in carbon substrate utilization, and functioning of the AFB1 regulatory genes (ver-1 and omt A (in silico)) of A. flavus. JEO-NP exhibited free radical scavenging activity through DPPH assay (IC50 1.31 μL/mL). The in situ results showed that JEO-NP significantly protects the maize seed samples from A. flavus growth, AFB1 contamination and also preserved its nutritional quality. The absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity (ADMET) profiling revealed the JEO major components are non-mutagenic, non-hepatotoxic, non-carcinogenic, non-tumorigenic, biodegradable nature, and predicted toxicity (LD50 mg/kg rat) were ranged 3107.01 to 3960.22 mg/kg. The findings revealed that the nanoencapsulation technique could be used to enhance the antifungal efficacy of plant essential oil in the food system.
... In the myriad groups of materials, used to modify chitosan, such as alginate (Zeng & Huang, 2018), cinnamic acid (Kujur, Kiran, Dubey, & Prakash, 2017), hyaluronic acid (Sanad & Abdel-Bar, 2017), honey (Movaffagh et al., 2019), polyethylene glycol (Masood et al., 2019), genipin (Yao, Chen, Cheng, Chen, & Huang, 2020), glutaraldehyde (Liu et al., 2019), amino acids are recently used in combination with the mentioned polysaccharide for biomedical purposes. (Abd El-Ghaffar, Akl, Kamel, & Hashem, 2017;Medeiros Borsagli, Carvalho, & Mansur, 2018). ...
Chitosan, a well-known biopolymer due to its unique properties, has received considerable attention as a result of the amine group activity that locates on the backbone of chitosan. To improve the mechanical and antibacterial characteristics of chitosan, various modifications have been used. Amino acids, the monomeric units of proteins, among all other compounds have been chosen to discuss as promising materials for wound healing in combination with chitosan. This review aims to provide an up-to-date overview of the methods used for modification of chitosan and the potential biomedical application, in particular wound healing, described in the literature during the last five years.
... Since 100% inhibition was observed at concentrations of 0.5 μL mL −1 for OE and 0.3 μL mL −1 for the encapsulated EO [54]. This same fungus also had its growth and the production of aflatoxin B1 100% inhibited by the EO of Gaultheria procumbens L. in the concentration of 1.50 μL mL −1 after encapsulation by the chitosan-cinnamic acid micro-gel, this same percentage of inhibition was achieved with the concentration 1.00 μL mL −1 of the material [55]. These results demonstrate that the encapsulation process of EOs contributes to the increase of antifungal activity presented by the resulting materials. ...
Chemical modifications in the chitosan structure may result in obtaining a new material with improved chemical properties, such as an ability to encapsulate lipophilic compounds. This study aimed to synthesize cinnamic acid grafted chitosan nanogel to encapsulate the essential oils of Syzygium aromaticum and Cinnamomum ssp., in order to develop a material to be applied in the control of dermatophytosis caused by the fungus Microsporum canis. The cinnamic acid graft in chitosan was verified by the Attenuated Total Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), Solid State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance of the ¹³C Nucleus (¹³C SSNMR) and Thermal analysis coupled to mass spectrometry (TG-MS) techniques. The nanogel obtained showed affinity for the essential oils of S. aromaticum and Cinnamomum, with encapsulation efficiencies equal to 74% and 89%, respectively. When in an aqueous medium the nanogel with the encapsulated essential oils was able to form stable nanoparticles with average sizes of 176.0 ± 54.3 nm and 263.0 ± 81.4 nm. The cinnamic acid grafted chitosan nanogel showed antifungal activity in vitro against M. canis, inhibiting up to 53.96% of its mycelial growth. Complete inhibition of mycelial growth was achieved by the nanogel with encapsulated essential oils. The results found in this work demonstrated the development of a material with potential application in the control of dermatophytosis caused by the fungus M. canis.
... were subjected to the Clevenger's apparatus for 4-5 h. Thereafter, essential oils were collected in a sterilised glass vial and water traces were removed by adding anhydrous Na 2 SO 4 (Kujur et al., 2017). The chemical characterization of isolated individual EOs and their formulation was performed by GC-MS analysis (PerkinElmer equipped with a Turbo mass Gold mass spectrometer). ...
The aim of the study was to explore the antifungal and aflatoxin B1 inhibitory efficacy of nanoencapsulated antifungal formulation. Mixture design response surface methodology (RSM) was utilized to design the antifungal formulation (SBC 4:1:1) based on the combination of chemically characterized Ocimum sanctum (S), O. basilicum (B), and O. canum (C) against Aspergillus flavus. The SBC was incorporated inside the chitosan nanomatrix (Ne-SBC) using an ultrasonic probe (40 kHz) and interactions were confirmed by SEM, FTIR and XRD analysis. The results showed that the Ne-SBC possessed enhanced antifungal and aflatoxin B1 inhibitory effect over the free form of SBC. The biochemical and in silico results indicate that the antifungal and aflatoxin B1 inhibitory effect was related to perturbance in the plasma membrane function (ergosterol biosynthesis and membrane cation) mitochondrial membrane potential, C-sources utilization, antioxidant defense system, and the targeted gene products Erg 28, cytochrome c oxidase subunit Va, and Nor-1. In-situ observation revealed that Ne-SBC effectively protects the Avena sativa seeds from A. flavus and AFB1 contamination and preserves its sensory profile. The findings suggest that the fabrication of SBC inside the chitosan nano-matrix has promising use in the food industries as an antifungal agent.
... The mode of action of EOs against microbes depends on the biochemical profile and their ratio in crude EOs. Generally, the EOs disrupt the cellular structure of microbes by biochemical interactions with the cell membrane and cytoplasmic content leading to cell death [22,173,174]. Besides this, nanocarrier materials, such as alginate, cellulose, chitosan, cyclodextrin, dextran, and starch, can also alter membrane potential and the metabolic process, along with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) similar to EOs for antimicrobial activity [175]. ...
Citrus is a genus belonging to the Rutaceae family and includes important crops like orange, lemons, pummelos, grapefruits, limes, etc. Citrus essential oils (CEOs) consist of some major biologically active compounds like α-/β-pinene, sabinene, β-myrcene, d-limonene, linalool, α-humulene, and α-terpineol belonging to the monoterpenes, monoterpene aldehyde/alcohol, and sesquiterpenes group, respectively. These compounds possess several health beneficial properties like antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, etc., in addition to antimicrobial properties, which have immense potential for food applications. Therefore, this review focused on the extraction, purification, and detection methods of CEOs along with their applications for food safety, packaging, and preservation. Further, the concerns of optimum dose and safe limits, their interaction effects with various food matrices and packaging materials, and possible allergic reactions associated with the use of CEOs in food applications were briefly discussed, which needs to be addressed in future research along with efficient, affordable, and "green" extraction methods to ensure CEOs as an ecofriendly, cost-effective, and natural alternative to synthetic chemical preservatives.
Essential oils (EOs), such as thyme essential oil (TEO), are widely known for their antimicrobial properties; however, their direct application in food systems is limited due to their poor stability, which affects their efficacy. This study aims to improve the stability and antimicrobial efficacy of TEO by encapsulating it in Pickering emulsions stabilized with cellulose nanocrystals (CNC). Two formulations of Pickering emulsions with 5% and 10% TEO were prepared and compared to traditional surfactant-based emulsions. The stability of the emulsions was assessed over 21 days, and particle size, zeta potential, Raman spectroscopy, and FTIR were used for characterization. The antimicrobial activity was tested against several foodborne pathogens, with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values determined. The 10% TEO Pickering emulsion showed antimicrobial activity, with MIC50 values of 4096 µg/mL against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli, while the 5% TEO formulation had no effect at MIC50 > 8192 µg/mL. The CNC-stabilized Pickering emulsions exhibited superior stability, showing no phase separation over 21 days. The findings suggest that CNC-stabilized Pickering emulsions are effective at improving the stability and antimicrobial performance of TEO, making them a promising natural preservative for food packaging and safety. Further research is recommended to optimize the formulation and broaden TEO’s application in food preservation.
The present study delves into the evolution of traditional Ayurvedic oil preparations through innovative strategies to develop advanced gel formulations, aiming at amplifying their therapeutic efficacy. Ayurvedic oils have a rich historical context in healing practices, yet their conversion into contemporary gel-based formulations represents a revolutionary approach to augment their medicinal potential. The primary objective of this transformation is to leverage scientific advancements and modern pharmaceutical techniques to enhance the application, absorption, and overall therapeutic impact of these traditional remedies. By encapsulating the essential constituents of Ayurvedic oils within gel matrices, these novel strategies endeavor to improve their stability, bioavailability, and targeted delivery mechanisms. This review highlights the fusion of traditional Ayurvedic wisdom with cutting-edge pharmaceutical technology, paving the way for more effective and accessible utilization of these revered remedies in modern healthcare.
Gaultheria procumbens L. is a medicinal plant whose aerial parts (leaves, stems, and fruits) and methyl salicylate-rich essential oil (wintergreen oil) are used in phytotherapy to treat inflammation, muscular pain, and infection-related disorders. This overview summarises the current knowledge about ethnobotany, phytochemistry, pharmacology, molecular mechanisms, biocompatibility, and traditional use of G. procumbens and the wintergreen oil distilled from different plant organs. Over 70 hydrophilic compounds, including methyl salicylate glycosides, flavonoids, procyanidins, free catechins, caffeoylquinic acids, and simple phenolic acids, have been identified in G. procumbens plant parts. Moreover, aliphatic compounds, triterpene acids, and sterols have been revealed in lipophilic fractions. Furthermore, over 130 volatile compounds have been detected in wintergreen oil with dominating methyl salicylate (96.9–100%). The accumulated research indicates that mainly hydrophilic non-volatiles are responsible for the pharmacological effects of G. procumbens, primarily its potent anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and photoprotective activity, with mechanisms verified in vitro and ex vivo in cellular and cell-free assays. The biological effectiveness of the dominant methyl salicylate glycoside—gaultherin—has also been confirmed in animals. Wintergreen oil is reported as a potent anti-inflammatory agent exhibiting moderate antioxidant and antimicrobial activity in vitro and significant insecticidal and larvicidal capacity. Together, G. procumbens accumulate a diverse fraction of polyphenols, triterpenes, and volatiles with validated in vitro and ex vivo biological activity but with the absence of in vivo studies, especially clinical trials concerning effective dose determination and toxicological verification and technological research, including drug formulation.
A sodium alginate (SA) edible coating containing oregano essential oil (OEO)/β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) inclusion complexes (SA/OEO-MP coating) was developed to extend the shelf life of fresh chicken breast during refrigeration storage. First, OEO was inserted into the hydrophobic interior of β-CD to form an inclusion complex (OEO-MP) that maintained its excellent antioxidant and antibacterial activities. The formed OEO-MP was characterized using Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance (FTIR), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). In addition, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results demonstrated that β-CD could improve the thermal stability of OEO. The encapsulation efficiency reached 71.6 %, and OEO was released continuously from the OEO-MP. The lipid oxidation, total viable count (TVC) and sensory properties of chicken breasts were regularly monitored when OEO-MP was incorporated into the SA coating for chicken breast preservation. Compared with the uncoated group, the SA/OEO-MP-coated groups showed significantly reduced increases in pH, thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS), total volatile base nitrogen (TVB-N), and TVC, especially in the SA/OEO-MP1 group. In summary, the SA/OEO-MP coating could preserve the chicken breast by reducing lipid oxidation and inhibiting the proliferation of microorganisms. It would be developed as a prospective edible packaging for chicken preservation.
Microbiological risk associated to abiotic surfaces is one of the most important issue worldwide. Surface contaminations by pathogenic bacterial biofilms or adherent cell affect a number of sectors including medical services, food industries, human services, and the environment. There is a need to synthesize or to setup novel antimicrobials. Terpenes are usually found in essential oils and have potent antimicrobial activities. However, the direct use of these molecules is often inefficient due to their low water solubility, loss of volatile compounds, thermal degradation, oxidation and toxicity. The need for biosourced compounds with antimicrobial activity, low toxicity and low cost promote the search for new stable metal complexes based on terpene ligands. This will enable the manufacture of value-added products with a lower environmental impact, as well as the production of high value added commodities. The goal of this review is to discuss the development of novel antimicrobial complexes derived from terpenes. In addition, this review explored how to improve their bioactivities and characteristics by using a formulation based on microencapsulation.
Aquatic products have an important role in global agriculture, but the challenges associated with preservation have limited their marketability. Essential oil (EO), such as sweet orange oil (SOEO), has been widely used for preservation due to its excellent antibacterial ability. However, the volatilization of EO limits its application in food preservation. In this study, SOEO was extracted from sweet orange peel by steam distillation and then stored in microcapsules. The components of the microcapsules were as follows: the porous starch was chosen as an adsorbed substrate to store SOEO (PS/SOEO), and sodium alginate (SA) and chitosan (CMCS) were used as shell material to delay the volatilization of SOEO using the sharp pore coagulation method. Our results showed that the main antibacterial ingredients in SOEO were aldehydes (33.93%) and d-limonene (15.38%). The microcapsules were of an irregular shape (oval), and the size of the microcapsules was 1.2 ± 0.1 cm as measured by a digital micrometer. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results showed that there were a lot of pores on the surface of the starch after modification, but sodium alginate and chitosan could well encapsulate these pores. The results of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis also showed that SOEO was successful encapsulated into the porous starch. The results of compression test and releasing kinetics studies suggested that CMCS and SA improved the mechanical and slow-releasing ability of SOEO microcapsules. The best antibacterial performance was obtained when 0.8 g of SOEO microcapsules was added. Finally, the shelf life of crawfish could be extended to 6 days by SOEO microcapsule (1/10 g, SOEO microcapsule/crawfish) under room temperature. These results provide a systematic understanding of the antibacterial capabilities of sweet orange essential oil microcapsules, which can contribute to the development of preservation methods for aquatic products.
Essential oils (EOs), which are secondary metabolites of plants, have volatile and natural characteristics. The biological activities of EOs have been increasing interest for many years, and the number of studies in the literature has increased in parallel with this interest. Although their antimicrobial activities are more common than other biological activities, some areas still need research. In the first stage of this chapter, the known antimicrobial activities of EOs will mainly be evaluated under the titles such as usage of EOs in combinations and encapsulation of EOs. Further, synergistic, additive, or antagonistic interactions of EO combinations will also be associated with their chemical compositions. In the second part, the review will focus on new and remarkable biological activities of EOs such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitory potential, α-amylase and α-glucosidase inhibition potential, and xanthine oxidase inhibition potentials of essential oils. While the antihypertensive activity was correlated with the inhibition of the angiotensin-converting enzyme, antidiabetic activity has been associated with the inhibition of amylase and glucosidase activities. Moreover, inhibition of the xanthine oxidase enzyme prevents overproduction of uric acid and thus hyperuricemia. This situation is associated with antigout activity.
A variety of plants are good sources of therapeutic agents, mainly due to their secondary metabolites, chemical compounds formed from the conversion of light energy. Among these metabolites are the diterpenes, a group of structurally diverse molecules widely distributed in nature. Diterpenes exhibit a broad spectrum of biological activities and have been extensively studied due to promising results in their antitumor effects. Breast cancer is one of the most common cancer types found worldwide, varying from mild and potentially curable to incurable manifestations using the treatments available. Therefore, the search for new drugs is urgent and necessary. This chapter provides a literature update and a review of the antibreast cancer effects of diterpenes from plants, based on published studies indexed in the main databases during 2015–20. The structure, mechanism of action, molecular targets, and in silico, in vitro, and in vivo effects are presented.
An upsurge in the global demand for safe and healthy food with minimal synthetic preservatives has raised the need for natural antimicrobial agents. Plant based products, especially essential oils (EOs) exhibit strong antimicrobial activities that could play a significant role as a novel source of food preservatives. However, hydrophobicity, high volatility, susceptibility to oxidation, low stability and solubility limit the uses of essential oils. Therefore, nanoencapsulation could be promising technique to address these limitations as it prevents the exposure and degradation of essential oils, by creating a physical barrier that protects the bioactive constituents. Furthermore, it also facilitates their controlled release, resulting into enhanced bioavailability as well as efficacy in the food system. Present review highlights the various encapsulating methods and provides insight about some encapsulated essential oils and their bioactive properties.
Food additives and preservatives are purposefully added to food in minute quantity to perform a defined technological or sensory function like enhancing shelflife, imparting, and restoring color, to maintain palatability and wholesomeness, to enhance or preserve nutritive value, or to enhance flavor. Apart from the advantages offered by these substances during processing and storage, certain safety and health issues hinder their proficient use for food application. This has caused a leaning trend towards the utilization of compounds from a natural source such as phytochemicals and plant essential oils as natural antioxidants and food preservatives. The utilization of metallic nanoparticles as an effective antimicrobial agent has also been a rising trend in the research field. Novel techniques such as nanoencapsulation have further encouraged the development of these novel food ingredients for promising food applications. This chapter provides a succinct overview of various conventional food additives and preservatives with a major emphasis on their types, functionality, mode of action, and significance for food applications. Further, it tends to discuss various novel alternative ingredients together with discussing the opportunities shaped by the advent of technologies like nanoencapsulation. It also provides a concise review of different techniques employed for the determination of food additives.
Food is one of the most important substances for survival, it contains all the components that are required for nutrition to maintain a healthy life. Nowadays, due to tremendous advancement, synthetic and natural supplements are added to food items and beverages in huge amount. The synthetic or artificial colors need a strong accreditation from the administrative bodies for their consumption [1–4].
When color preservatives overshoot the sanctioned limit it gradually causes hyperactivity in children. It is mandatory to oversee food quality and the supplements being added to the food for consumption. Also, natural color is rapidly being replaced with artificial or synthetic colors [5].
It is very crucial and critical to understand the effects of each preservation methods and their handling procedure on various foods because each step of storage, handling, processing, and distribution affects the various characteristics of food which could be desirable/undesirable.
Adulteration of food is a demonstration of deliberately corrupting the nature of nourishment offered available to be purchased either by the admixture or substitution of second rate substances and which antagonistically influence nature of food sources, yet in addition their coincidental pollution during the time of development, reaping, capacity, preparing, transport, and dispersion [6–8].
Keywords :
This study investigates the antifungal activities of the essential oils (EO) obtained from Myrtus communis L. and Gaultheria procumbens L. leaves on foodborne yeasts, isolated from sourdough samples and the chemical compositions of the oils. The main constituents of the Myrtus communis L. EO. were 1,8-cineole (35.62 %), α-pinene (29.14 %) and α-terpineol (10.04 %). Methyl salicylate (96.87 %) and limonene (2.05 %) were identified as the major constituents in the G. procumbens L. EO. M. communis L. and G. procumbens L. EOs showed the highest antifungal activity against Torulaspora delbrueckii (27.86 mm zone diameter) and Pichia polymorpha (40.23 mm zone diameter) respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) of the M. communis L. and G. procumbens L. EOs were in the range of 46,87-562.50 μg/mL / 23.44-375.0 μg/mL and 4.39-562.50 μg/mL / 2.93-156.25 μg/mL, respectively.
In this study, nanoemulsions of essential oil from Ocimumgratissimum (Linn) (EO) were produced using low and high energy techniques using cashew gum (CG) as a co-surfactant. The main constituents of the EO were determined by Gas Chromatography coupled with Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS), and their presence in the EO and in the formulations verified by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and UV-visible spectrophotometry was observed the encapsulation efficiency (EE%), with colloidal stability. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) was used to study cashew gum. Dynamic light scattering analysis (DLS) determined the nanoemulsion Z means, polydispersity index and the Zeta potential value, nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) were determined. The nanostructured EO showed better antibacterial action against the pathogenic gastroenteritis species Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella enterica when compared to free EO. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) was used for morphological analysis of the nanoparticle and study of the action of the nanoemulsion through images of the cellular morphology of S. enterica. The antioxidant activity was evaluated against the ABTS radical (2,2'-azino-bis diazonium salt (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid)). The encapsulation of EO in a nanostructured system improved its antibacterial and antioxidant activity, the low energy synthesis showed greater storage stability, remaining stable for 37 days.
The present study investigated the novel antifungal, and anti-aflatoxin B1 mechanism of Eugenia caryophyllata L. essential oil (ECEO) loaded chitosan nanomatrix against the toxigenic strain of A. flavus (AFLV-DK-02). Phytochemical profiling of ECEO was done by GC–MS which revealed eugenol (73.6%) as the primary bioactive compound. ECEO was encapsulated inside the chitosan nanomatrix (ECEO-Np) and characterized using SEM, AFM, FTIR and XRD analysis. The ECEO-Np exhibited enhance antifungal (0.25 μL/mL) and anti-aflatoxin B1 inhibitory activity (0.15 μL/mL) than ECEO. Antifungal and antiaflatoxin B1 inhibitory activity was found to be related with impairment in the biological functioning of the plasma membrane (ergosterol synthesis, leakage of membrane ions, UV light (260, 280 nm) absorbing material, dead cell by propidium iodide assay, mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), methylglyoxal and inhibition in essential carbon substrate utilization). ECEO-Np exhibited remarkable free radical scavenging activity with IC50 value of 0.002 μL/mL. ECEO-Np effectively preserves the sensory characteristics of exposed maize crop seed up to six months of storage and shows considerable safety profile (non-toxic, non-mutagenic, non-hepatotoxic, non-carcinogenic, non-tumorigenic and biodegradable) using computational ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity) analysis.
Multifunctional nanogel coatings provide a promising antimicrobial strategy against biomedical implant-associated infections. Nanogels can create a hydrated surface layer to promote antifouling properties effectively. Further modification of nanogels with quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) potentiates antimicrobial activity owing to their positive charges along with the presence of a membrane-intercalating alkyl chain. This study effectively demonstrates that poly(N-isopropylacrylamide-co-N-[3(dimethylamino)propyl]methacrylamide) (P(NIPAM-co-DMAPMA)-based nanogel coatings possess antifouling behavior against S. aureus ATCC 12600, a Gram-positive bacterium. Through the tertiary amine in the DMAPMA comonomer, nanogels are quaternized with a 1-bromo-dodecane chain via an N-alkylation reaction. The alkylation introduces the antibacterial activity due to the bacterial membrane binding and the intercalating ability of the aliphatic QAC. Subsequently, the quaternized nanogels enable the formation of intraparticle hydrophobic domains because of intraparticle hydrophobic interactions of the aliphatic chains allowing for Triclosan incorporation. The coating with Triclosan-loaded nanogels shows a killing efficacy of up to 99.99% of adhering bacteria on the surface compared to nonquaternized nanogel coatings while still possessing an antifouling activity. This powerful multifunctional coating for combating biomaterial-associated infection is envisioned to greatly impact the design approaches for future clinically applied coatings.
Food packaging generates a large volume of waste materials and >90% of the waste plastics are landfilled. The growing demand for high quality and safe packaging materials have resulted in the longer shelf life of foods packed with eco-friendly materials. This needs natural base materials for packaging applications, along with active ingredients that can extend the shelf life of the food materials. One such development in the field of active packaging is antimicrobial packaging. Out of the many antimicrobial agents used, the essential oils (EO) are gaining more importance especially due to their high activity. This review aims to give an insight into the developments in active food packaging, especially with EO. Various biopolymer containing EO have been used for food packaging applications. An insight into the recent approaches used for the casting of biopolymer films with EO is given. The effect of EO on the physical properties of the biopolymer films, the migration and release of the active agents on to the food surface, and the mechanism of action have been highlighted. The challenges and opportunities of EO for the food packaging industry have been discussed.
Fungal secondary metabolism is often considered apart from the essential housekeeping functions of the cell. However, there are clear links between fundamental cellular metabolism and the biochemical pathways leading to secondary metabolite synthesis. Besides utilizing key biochemical precursors shared with the most essential processes of the cell (e.g., amino acids, acetyl CoA, NADPH), enzymes for secondary metabolite synthesis are compartmentalized at conserved subcellular sites that position pathway enzymes to use these common biochemical precursors. Co-compartmentalization of secondary metabolism pathway enzymes also may function to channel precursors, promote pathway efficiency and sequester pathway intermediates and products from the rest of the cell. In this review we discuss the compartmentalization of three well-studied fungal secondary metabolite biosynthetic pathways for penicillin G, aflatoxin and deoxynivalenol, and summarize evidence used to infer subcellular localization. We also discuss how these metabolites potentially are trafficked within the cell and may be exported.
Essential oils (EOs) are the volatile lipophilic components extracted from plants. Many EOs have demonstrated strong antimicrobial properties when tested in in vitro experiments. The commercial applications of these EOs require a suit- able formulation constituted by biodegradable compounds that protect them from degradation and evaporation at the same time that allows for a sustained release. The objective of this study was therefore to reduce the rate of evaporation of the oil via microencapsulation. Alginate microspheres (AMSs) were prepared using emulsion extrusion method. The AMSs were hardened with a cross-linking agent, calcium chloride. The effects of the three variables: alginate concen-tration (0.5% - 8%), the amount of cross-linking agent (0.125% - 2%) and time of cross-linking (5 - 30 min.) on loading capacity and encapsulation efficiency (EE, %) were studied. The effect of the amount of cross-linker was significant on loading capacity (%) and EE (%). The AMSs under the optimized conditions provided loading capacity of 22% - 24% and EE of 90% - 94% based on type of EO. The antifungal activity of vapors of microencapsulated and non-microen- capsulated oils were evaluated against two of pathogenic fungi species for stored grains: Aspergillus niger and Fusa-rium verticillioides. The optimized MSs were observed to have a sustained in vitro release profile (50% of the antifun-gal activity was maintained at the 8th day of the study). In conclusion, encapsulation in Ca-alginate microspheres may effectively reduce the evaporation rate of essential oils, thus increase the potential antifungal activity.
There has been a great interest in application of nanoparticles as biomaterials for delivery of therapeutic molecules such as drugs and genes, and for tissue engineering. In particular, biopolymers are suitable materials as nanoparticles for clinical application due to their versatile traits, including biocompatibility, biodegradability and low immunogenicity. Biopolymers are polymers that are produced from living organisms, which are classified in three groups: polysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids. It is important to control particle size, charge, morphology of surface and release rate of loaded molecules to use biopolymer-based nanoparticles as drug/gene delivery carriers. To obtain a nano-carrier for therapeutic purposes, a variety of materials and preparation process has been attempted. This review focuses on fabrication of biocompatible nanoparticles consisting of biopolymers such as protein (silk, collagen, gelatin, β-casein, zein and albumin), protein-mimicked polypeptides and polysaccharides (chitosan, alginate, pullulan, starch and heparin). The effects of the nature of the materials and the fabrication process on the characteristics of the nanoparticles are described. In addition, their application as delivery carriers of therapeutic drugs and genes and biomaterials for tissue engineering are also reviewed.
The increased use of antibacterial and antifungal agents in recent years has resulted in the development of resistance to these drugs. The significant clinical implication of resistance has led to heightened interest in the study of antimicrobial resistance from different angles. Areas addressed include mechanisms underlying this resistance, improved methods to detect resistance when it occurs, alternate options for the treatment of infections caused by resistant organisms, and strategies to prevent and control the emergence and spread of resistance. In this review, the mode of action of antifungals and their mechanisms of resistance are discussed. Additionally, an attempt is made to discuss the correlation between fungal and bacterial resistance. Antifungals can be grouped into three classes based on their site of action: azoles, which inhibit the synthesis of ergosterol (the main fungal sterol); polyenes, which interact with fungal membrane sterols physicochemically; and 5-fluorocytosine, which inhibits macromolecular synthesis. Many different types of mechanisms contribute to the development of resistance to antifungals. These mechanisms include alteration in drug target, alteration in sterol biosynthesis, reduction in the intercellular concentration of target enzyme, and overexpression of the antifungal drug target. Although the comparison between the mechanisms of resistance to antifungals and antibacterials is necessarily limited by several factors defined in the review, a correlation between the two exists. For example, modification of enzymes which serve as targets for antimicrobial action and the involvement of membrane pumps in the extrusion of drugs are well characterized in both the eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells.
The mycelial growth of Aspergillus flavus Link was completely inhibited using 1.5 (microl/ml or 2.0 (microl/ml of Cymbopogon citratus essential oil applied by fumigation or contact method in Czapek's liquid medium, respectively. This oil was found also to be fungicidal at the same concentrations. The sublethal doses 1.0 and 1.5 (microl/ml inhibited about 65% of fungal growth after five days of incubation and delayed conidiation as compared with the control. Microscopic observations using Light Microscope (LM), Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM) were carried out to determine the ultra structural modifications of A. flavus hyphae after treatment with C. citratus essential oil. The hyphal diameter decreased and hyphal wall appeared as precipitates and disappeared in some regions. This oil also caused plasma membrane disruption and mitochondrial structure disorganization. Moreover, Ca(+2), K(+) and Mg(+2) leakages increased from the fumigated mycelium and its total lipid content decreased, while the saturated and unsaturated fatty acids increased. One of the most important results obtained during this study was the ability of C. citratus essential oil at its sublethal dose to completely inhibit aflatoxin B(1) production from A. flavus. These findings increase the possibility of exploiting C. citratus essential oil as an effective inhibitor of biodegradation and storage contaminating fungi and also in fruit juice preservation.
This review focus on the role of polymers used in pharmaceutical drug delivery of therapeutic agents. The polymers are used as carriers for delivery of drug at target site. Biodegradable polymers are widely used in delivery of drugs at specific site of the body because they can be degraded at constant rate of drug release. Natural polymers are also used for drug delivery at predetermined rates. The release mechanism of the drug from these polymers is by Degradation, Diffusion and Swelling. For controlled drug delivery of the therapeutic agents, they are used in pharmaceutical industry as binders, as film coating to mask the unpleasant taste, to enhance the drug stability and to modify the release characteristics of the drug. Key words: Natural and synthetic polymers, drug delivery, mechanism, applications
Chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) ionically crosslinked with tripolyphosphate salts (TPP) were employed as nanocarriers in combined drug delivery and magnetic hyperthermia (MH) therapy. To that aim, three different ferrofluid concentrations and a constant 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) concentration were efficiently encapsulated to yield magnetic CSNPs with core-shell morphology. In vitro experiments using normal cells, fibroblasts (FHB) and cancer cells, human glioblastoma A-172, showed that CSNPs presented a dose-dependent cytotoxicity and that they were successfully uptaken into both cell lines. The application of a MH treatment in A-172 cells resulted in a cell viability of 67-75% whereas no significant reduction of cell viability was observed for FHB. However, the A-172 cells showed re-growth populations 4 hours after the application of the MH treatment when CSNPs were loaded only with ferrofluid. Finally, a combined effect of MH and 5-FU release was observed with the application of a second MH treatment for CSNPs exhibiting a lower amount of released 5-FU. This result demonstrates the potential of CSNPs for the improvement of MH therapies.
The present study explores the efficacy of Cinnamomum zeylanicum essential oil (CZEO) against food-borne molds, aflatoxin B1 secretion, its functional properties and mode of action. GC–MS results revealed, phenol, 2-methoxy-3-(2-propenyl)- (74.65%) and caryophyllene (8.46%) as major compounds of CZEO. The CZEO caused complete inhibition of all test molds and aflatoxin B1 secretion at 0.25 to 0.6 μL/mL and 0.3 μL/mL respectively. Atomic absorption spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopic studies revealed a significant reduction in ergosterol content, increased leakage of ions and disruption in cell membrane of A. flavus exposed to CZEO. Total equivalent antioxidant capacities of CZEO were observed as 5.47, 11.99 and 2.66 mM trolox/mg for DPPH, FRAP and ABTS⁺ respectively. The phenolic content was measured as 106.95 μg gallic acid equivalents/mg of CZEO. The CZEO caused considerable inhibition of acetylcholinesterase and butyrylcholinesterase enzyme activities.
Industrial relevance
The findings suggest that CZEO could be used for the development of eco-friendly food preservatives with functional properties.
Since the beginning of the food industry, synthetic preservatives have been used to prevent food spoilage caused by microbial and oxidative deterioration. In view of the recent consumer awareness towards green consumerism, some of the prevalent synthetic preservatives are not reliable in the present day. In this context, essential oils of aromatic plants often having strong antimicrobial and antioxidant potential may be used as natural preservatives to realize the consumer demand for safe, healthy and nutritious food. The current existing limitations of essential oil-based preservatives such as low water solubility, strong organoleptic characteristics (flavour and aroma), low stability, etc. could be addressed by the modern advanced technologies such as nanoencapsulation, edible coatings and controlled release systems. This commentary provides an overview on the prospects, existing limitations and future research direction towards the development of essential oil-based preservatives.
The present study was undertaken to investigate the insecticidal activity of chemically characterized Gaultheria procumbens essential oil (EO) and its mode of action against the Coleopteran insects, Sitophilus oryzae, and Rhyzopertha dominica. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry result depicted methyl salicylate (MS) as the major compound (96.61%) of EO. EO and its major compound methyl salicylate (MS) showed 100% mortality at 150 µL/L air and 5.0 µL/L air against S. oryzae and R. dominica respectively on 24 h exposure. The in-vivo percent inhibition of AChE activity ranged between (6.12 % and 27.50%). In addition, changes in the antioxidative defence system, superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), reduced glutathione (GSH), and oxidized glutathione (GSSG) in test insects were estimated. A significant dose-dependent response in all test parameters was observed. The results demonstrated that Gaultheria procumbens EO could play a significant role in the formulation of EO-based insecticides for the management of stored grain insect.
The encapsulation by spray drying method of coriander essential oil (CEO) in various materials (chitosan, alginate, chitosan/alginate, chitosan/inulin) was studied. The viscoelastic properties of the oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions and the characteristics of CEO-loaded microcapsules like morphology, moisture, wettability, solubility, flowability properties, swelling and release mechanisms were investigated. The chitosan microcapsules had a brain-like structure while the alginate and chitosan/alginate microcapsules are spherical with a smooth surface.
The Compressibility Index (CI = 29.09–32.25%) and Hausner Ratio (HR = 1.38–1.44) values showed that all the microcapsules prepared correspond to the “poor” flowability powders group. The chitosan microcapsules exhibited the maximum release rate at pH 2.5 while the alginate microcapsules exhibited the maximum release rate at pH 6.5. Kinetics and mechanism of CEO release were studied using various mathematical models such as, zero order, first order, Higuchi model and Peppas model. The diffusional exponent (n) values of Peppas equation explains a non Fickian transport mechanism and diffusion or diffusion-swelling controlled process.
Essential oil components (EOCs) are known for their antifungal properties; however, their high volatility limits their application as antimicrobial agents. Strategies used for controlling EOCs volatility include encapsulation or loading into porous materials. This study evaluated the in vitro antifungal activity of selected EOCs (carvacrol, cinnamaldehyde, eugenol and thymol) against the fungus Aspergillus niger when loaded into MCM-41 and β-cyclodextrin (β-CD).
It was found that carvacrol and thymol in Mobil Composition of Matter No. 41 (MCM-41) display remarkable enhanced antifungal properties in comparison to the pure or β-CD-encapsulated EOCs. In fact, carvacrol and thymol were able to maintain antifungal activity and inhibit fungal growth for 30 days, suggesting better applicability of these EOCs as natural preservatives.
The sustained antifungal effect of EOCs encapsulated into silica mesoporous supports was described.
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Keeping in view of the harmful effects of molds and their toxic metabolites, particularly aflatoxins on food items, the present study explores the efficacy of essential oil (EO) combination of Curcuma longa L. and Zingiber officinale Rosc. as a plant‐based preservative in view of its broad fungitoxic spectrum against storage fungi, aflatoxin inhibitory efficacy, antioxidant properties and nonphytotoxicity. The EO combination significantly inhibited the growth and aflatoxin production by the toxigenic foodborne strain of Aspergillus flavus LHP‐6 at 2.5 and 2.0 µL/mL, respectively. The combination also showed strong antioxidant activity through 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazil free radical scavenging, β‐carotene‐linoleic acid bleaching and total phenolic content assay. The EO combination exhibited nonphytotoxic nature during the seed germination and seedling growth experiments with chickpea seeds. The EO combination of C. longa and Z. officinale may successfully overcome the problem of mold contamination as well as oxidative deterioration of stored agricultural food commodities.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
The essential oil combination of Curcuma longa and Zingiber officinale may be recommended as a plant‐based nonphytotoxic preservative against the storage molds, aflatoxin production and lipid peroxidation. Such a formulation showing preservative activity through synergistic effects would have better prospects in agricultural pest management program in view of the development of races of pests by different synthetic pesticides.
Aspergillus flavus is a human pathogen, allergen and mycotoxin producer. Plant oils such as peppermint oils are known to possess considerable antifungal properties are increasingly considered as natural agents for food preservation and as alternatives for toxic synthetic fungicides. This study was set to investigate the encapsulation of Menthe piperita essential oils in chitosan-cinnamic acid nanogel in order to enhance antimicrobial activity and stability of the oils against A. flans. The results obtained showed that the extract possessed remarkable antifungal properties against A. flavus and that due to the volatility and instability of the oils against environmental factors, its encapsulation considerably improved its performance. The minimum inhibitory concentration of free and encapsulated M. piperita essential oils against A. flavus under sealed condition were at 2100 and 500 ppm, respectively. Moreover, the encapsulated oils performed better (800 ppm), when tested under non-sealed condition while the free oils failed to caused complete inhibition within the concentration range tested (up to 3000 ppm). These findings revealed the promising role of CS-Ci nanogel as a carrier for essential oils in order to enhance their antimicrobial properties.
Chemical crosslinking coupled with mass spectrometry provides structural information that is useful for probing protein conformations and providing experimental support for molecular models. "Zero-length" crosslinks have greater value for these applications than longer crosslinks because they provide more stringent distance constraints. However, this method is less commonly utilized because it cannot take advantage of isotopic labels, MS-labile bonds, or enrichment tags to facilitate identification. In this study, we combined label-free precursor ion quantitation and targeted tandem mass spectrometry with a new software tool, Zero-length Crosslink Miner (ZXMiner), to form a multi-tiered analysis strategy. A major, critical objective was to simultaneously achieve very high accuracy with essentially no false positive crosslink identifications, while maintaining a good depth of analysis. Our strategy was optimized on several proteins with known crystal structures. Comparison of ZXMiner to several existing crosslink analysis software showed that other algorithms detected less true positive crosslinks and were far less accurate. Although prior use of zero-length crosslinking was typically restricted to small proteins, ZXMiner and the associated strategy enables facile analysis of very large protein complexes. This was demonstrated by identification of zero-length crosslinks using purified 526 kDa spectrin heterodimers and intact red cell membranes and membrane skeletons.
The essential oil extracted from the bark of Cinnamomum jensenianum Hand.-Mazz was tested for antifungal activity against Aspergillus flavus. Fifty-five components accounting for 96.66% of the total oil composition were identified by GC–MS. The major components were eucalyptol (17.26%) and α-terpineol (12.52%). Mycelial growth and spore germination was inhibited by the oil in a dose-dependent manner. The oil also exhibited a noticeable inhibition on the dry mycelium weight and the synthesis of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) by A. flavus, completely restraining AFB1 production at 6 μl/ml. The possible mode of action of the oil against A. flavus is discussed based on changes in the mycelial ultrastructure. To confirm the target of the oil in the plasma membrane, studies on the inhibition of ergosterol synthesis were performed. Results show that the oil caused a considerable reduction in the ergosterol quantity. Thus, the essential oil from C. jensenianum can be used as a potential source for food preservative.
In this study, oregano essential oil (OEO) has been encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles by a two-step method, i.e., oil-in-water emulsion and ionic gelation of chitosan with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP). The success of OEO encapsulation was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, UV-vis spectrophotometry, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques. The obtained nanoparticles exhibited a regular distribution and spherical shape with size range of 40-80nm as observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). As determined by TGA technique, the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of OEO-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were about 21-47% and 3-8%, respectively, when the initial OEO content was 0.1-0.8g/g chitosan. In vitro release studies showed an initial burst effect and followed by a slow drug release.
In this study, oregano essential oil (OEO) has been encapsulated in chitosan nanoparticles by a two-step method, i.e., oil-in-water emulsion and ionic gelation of chitosan with sodium tripolyphosphate (TPP). The success of OEO encapsulation was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, UV–vis spectrophotometry, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD) techniques.The obtained nanoparticles exhibited a regular distribution and spherical shape with size range of 40–80 nm as observed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). As determined by TGA technique, the encapsulation efficiency (EE) and loading capacity (LC) of OEO-loaded chitosan nanoparticles were about 21–47% and 3–8%, respectively, when the initial OEO content was 0.1–0.8 g/g chitosan. In vitro release studies showed an initial burst effect and followed by a slow drug
release.
The control of micro-organisms responsible for pre- and postharvest diseases of agricultural products, mainly viruses and fungi, is a problem that remains unresolved, together with the environmental impact of the excessive use of chemicals to tackle this problem. Current efforts are focused on the search for efficient alternatives for microbial control that will not result in damage to the environment or an imbalance in the existing biota. One alternative is the use of natural antimicrobial compounds such as chitosan, a linear cationic biopolymer, which is biodegradable, biocompatible and non-toxic, has filmogenic properties and is capable of forming matrices for the transport of active substances. The study of chitosan has attracted great interest owing to its ability to form complexes or matrices for the controlled release of active compounds such as micro- and nanoparticles, which, together with the biological properties of chitosan, has allowed a major breakthrough in the pharmaceutical and biomedical industries. Another important field of study is the development of chitosan-based matrices for the controlled release of active compounds in areas such as agriculture and food for the control of viruses, bacteria and fungi, which is one of the least exploited areas and holds much promise for future research. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry.
Chitosan derivatives containing 2.8−5.1 deoxycholic acid groups per 100 anhydroglucosamine units of chitosan were synthesized by an EDC-mediated coupling reaction. Physicochemical properties of self-aggregates of the hydrophobically modified chitosans in aqueous media were studied by the dynamic light scattering method and fluorescence spectroscopy. The mean diameter (dH) of DC4.2 self-aggregates in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) solution (pH 7.2) was 159 nm with unimodal size distribution (variance = 0.082). It seemed that the interparticle interaction between self-aggregates was almost negligible. The mean diameter decreased with increasing degree of substitution (DS), pH, or ionic strength of the medium. The critical aggregation concentration (cac) of self-aggregates was determined from the fluorescence emission spectra of pyrene. The cac value of DC4.2 in PBS solution (pH 7.2) was 2.6 × 10-2 mg/mL. The cac values decreased with increasing DS, pH, or ionic strength of the medium.
Microencapsulation of bioactive compounds has received increased attention in the last decade. Among the polymers used for developing microparticulated systems, chitosan has been widely cited. Obtained by deacetylation of chitin, chitosan is a natural, biodegradable, biocompatible and mucoadhesive polymer with permeability enhancement properties. These data justify its use for overcoming the reduced efficacy of conventional treatments of oral diseases. Various tests simulating the buccal environment have described controlled drug release profile and significant activity against buccal pathogens by chitosan microparticles entrapping antimicrobial agents. Considering the increasing microbial resistance to conventional antibiotics, essential oils have shown to be an important option against these pathogens. For sustained stability and prolonged release of essential oils from pharmaceutical formulations, some authors have studied the association of chitosan to them. This review disserts about the application of chitosan and essential oils on oral cavity care pointing out their association may be an interesting option.
Chitin is the second most abundant natural biopolymer after cellulose. The chemical structure of chitin is similar to that of cellulose with 2-acetamido-2-deoxy-β-d-glucose (NAG) monomers attached via β(1⃗4) linkages. Chitosan is the deacetylated (to varying degrees) form of chitin, which, unlike chitin, is soluble in acidic solutions. Application of chitinous products in foods and pharmaceuticals as well as processing aids has received considerable attention in recent years as exotic synthetic compounds are losing their appeal. This review summarizes some of the important developments related to food applications of chitin, chitosan and their derivatives.
Chitosan was modified by coupling with linoleic acid through the 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide-mediated reaction to increase its amphipathicity for improved emulsification. The micelle formation of linoleic acid-modified chitosan in the 0.1 M acetic acid solution was enhanced by O/W emulsification with methylene chloride, an oil phase. The fluorescence spectra indicate that without emulsification the self-aggregation of LA-chitosan occurred at the concentration of 1.0 g/L or above, and with emulsification, self-aggregation was greatly enhanced followed by a stable micelle formation at 2.0 g/L. The addition of 1 M sodium chloride promoted the self-aggregation of LA-chitosan molecules both with and without emulsification. The micelles of LA-chitosan formed nanosize particles ranging from 200 to 600 nm. The LA-chitosan nanoparticles encapsulated the lipid soluble model compound, retinal acetate, with 50% efficiency.
Methyl salicylate is a compound currently used in the creation of many flavors. It can be obtained by synthesis or from two natural sources: essential oil of wintergreen and essential oil of sweet birch bark. Deuterium site-specific natural isotope abundance (A(i)) determination by NMR spectroscopy with the method of reference ERETIC ((2)H-ERETIC-NMR) has been applied to this compound. A(i) measurements have been performed on 19 samples of methyl salicylate from different origins, natural/synthetic and commercial/extracted. This study demonstrates that appropriate treatment performed on the data allows discrimination between synthetic and natural samples. Moreover, the representation of intramolecular ratios R(6/5) as a function of R(3/2) distinguishes between synthetics, wintergreen oils, and sweet birch bark oils.
Estradiol (E2), a highly lipophilic molecule with good oral absorption but poor oral bioavailability, was incorporated into poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles to improve its oral bioavailability. Nanoparticles were prepared by using polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) or didodecyldimethylammonium bromide (DMAB) as stabilizer, leading to negatively (size 410.9+/-39.4 nm) and positively (size 148.3+/-10.7 nm) charged particles, respectively. Both preparations showed near zero order release in vitro with about 95% drug being released within 45 and 31 days for PVA and DMAB, respectively. In situ intestinal uptake studies in male Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats showed higher uptake of DMAB stabilized nanoparticles. Following oral administration to male SD rats, E2 could be detected in blood for 7 and 2 days from DMAB and PVA stabilized nanoparticles, respectively. Histopathological examination and blood counts indicated the absence of inflammatory response. These data suggest that DMAB stabilized PLGA nanoparticles have great potential as carriers for oral delivery of estradiol.
Encapsulation of Thyme essential oils in chitosan-benzoic acid nanogel with enhanced antimicrobial activity against Aspergillus flavus
- S T Khalili
- A Mohsenifar
- M Beyki
- S Zhaveh
- T Rahmani-Cherati
- A Abdollahi
Khalili, S. T., Mohsenifar, A., Beyki, M., Zhaveh, S., Rahmani-Cherati, T., Abdollahi, A.,
et al. (2015). Encapsulation of Thyme essential oils in chitosan-benzoic acid
nanogel with enhanced antimicrobial activity against Aspergillus flavus. LWTfood Science and Technology, 60, 502e508.