No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Differential Support for Female Supervisors Among Men and Women
Abstract
Two studies evaluated the lay belief that women feel particularly negatively about other women in the workplace and particularly in supervisory roles. We tested the general proposition, derived from social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1979; 2004), that women, compared to men, may be more supportive of other women in positions of authority, whereas men would respond more favorably to other men than to women in positions of authority. Consistent with predictions, data from an online experiment (n=259), in which we randomly assigned men and women to evaluate identical female (vs. male) supervisors in a masculine industry, and a correlational study in the workplace using a Knowledge Networks sample (n=198) converged to demonstrate a pattern of gender in-group favoritism. Specifically, in Study 1, female participants (vs. male participants) rated the female supervisor as higher status, were more likely to believe that a female supervisor had attained her supervisory position due to high competence, and viewed the female supervisor as warmer. Study 2 results replicated this pattern. Female employees (vs. male employees) rated their female supervisors as higher status, and practiced both in-role and extra-role behaviors more often when their supervisor was female. In both studies, male respondents had a tendency to rate male supervisors more favorably than female supervisors, whereas female respondents tended to rate female supervisors more favorably than male supervisors. Thus, across both studies, we found a pattern consistent with gender in-group favoritism and inconsistent with lay beliefs that women respond negatively to women in authority positions.
... There is meta-analytic evidence that the masculine leadership construal tends to be stronger for male versus female participants (Boyce and Herd, 2003;Koenig et al., 2011). Furthermore, compared to women, men evaluate female leaders as less ambitious, competent, intelligent, etc. (Deal and Stevenson, 1998;Vial et al., 2018), and are less likely to select female job candidates (Gorman, 2005;Bosak and Sczesny, 2011;Koch et al., 2015). Thus, the concentration of men in top decision-making roles such as corporate boards and chief executive offices (Catalyst, 2018) may be self-sustaining because men in particular tend to devalue more communal styles of leadership (Eagly et al., 1992;Ayman et al., 2009). ...
... In both studies, we compared the responses of men and women, seeking to better understand how their leader-role expectations differ (Koenig et al., 2011). Past work suggests that individuals may generally prefer the kinds of attributes that are viewed as characteristic of their gender in-groups (Dovidio and Gaertner, 1993), and women compared to men have been found to possess less masculine leader-role expectations (Boyce and Herd, 2003;Koenig et al., 2011) and to value female leaders more (Kwon and Milgrom, 2010;Vial et al., 2018). Thus, we were interested in testing whether women might show higher appreciation for communal attributes in leaders in comparison to men. ...
... Thus, we expected female participants to rate communal traits as more necessary than male participants, whereas male participants were expected to see agentic traits (competence and assertiveness) as more necessary than female participants. These predictions also align with past research suggesting that women endorse less masculine leader stereotypes than men (Boyce and Herd, 2003;Koenig et al., 2011) and are more supportive of female leaders (Kwon and Milgrom, 2010;Vial et al., 2018). Additionally, participants were expected to show less of an aversion for negative traits that are stereotypical of their gender in-group than negative stereotypes of a gender out-group-that is, we expected female participants to see it as more of a priority to reduce negative traits commonly associated with men than male participants, whereas male participants were expected to prioritize minimizing negative feminine stereotypes more so than female participants. ...
Although leader role expectations appear to have become relatively more compatible with stereotypically feminine attributes like empathy, women continue to be highly underrepresented in leadership roles. We posit that one reason for this disparity is that, whereas stereotypically feminine traits are appreciated as nice “add-ons” for leaders, it is stereotypically masculine attributes that are valued as the defining qualities of the leader role, especially by men (who are often the gatekeepers to these roles). We assessed men’s and women’s idea of a great leader with a focus on gendered attributes in two studies using different methodologies. In Study 1, we employed a novel paradigm in which participants were asked to design their “ideal leader” to examine the potential trade-off between leadership characteristics that were more stereotypically masculine (i.e., agency) and feminine (i.e., communality). Results showed that communality was valued in leaders only after meeting the more stereotypically masculine requirements of the role (i.e., competence and assertiveness), and that men in particular preferred leaders who were more competent (vs. communal), whereas women desired leaders who kept negative stereotypically masculine traits in check (e.g., arrogance). In Study 2, we conducted an experiment to examine men’s and women’s beliefs about the traits that would be important to help them personally succeed in a randomly assigned leader (vs. assistant) role, allowing us to draw a causal link between roles and trait importance. We found that both men and women viewed agentic traits as more important than communal traits to be a successful leader. Together, both studies make a valuable contribution to the social psychological literature on gender stereotyping and bias against female leaders and may illuminate the continued scarcity of women at the very top of organizations, broadly construed.
... prior research, which have chiefly focused on the barriers and obstacles associated with women in STEM, investigated women from within one type of STEM organization, or examined gender issues of female STEM students(Halpern et al., 2007;Leaper & Brown, 2008;Loeffen, 2016;Mullet et al., 2017; Ong, Wright, Espinsoa, & Orfield, 2011;Robnett, 2016;Vial, Brescoll, Napier, Dovidio, & Tyler, 2018), by investigating the sources of support and role integration for women in diverse STEM leadership positions. Therefore, to investigate WLB constructs used by women in leadership positions, survey questions were drawn from two established scales to determine participants' as well as valued by women in their STEM leadership roles. ...
... Findings highlight the importance of developing and strengthening social support networks for women in male dominated occupations such as STEM. While successful women in STEM often perceive themselves as autonomous and self-sufficient, they value relational connections with supportive resources(Mullet et al., 2017).While other researchers have acknowledged that social support can come from supervisors(Vial et al., 2018) and coworkers(McMullan et al., 2018), this study demonstrated social support flowed from a variety of sources including spouses, peers, supervisors, mentors inside and outside of the organizations, friends, children, and religious associates. As female supervisors ranked fifth and male supervisors ranked ninth in providing social support within this study, organizations who provide women leadership training programs or businesses that want to promote cultures supportive of women in leadership roles should (a) design training and management strategies which enhance relationship qualities with emerging women leaders, (b) train senior supervisors, mentors, and sponsors to provide improved social support, and (c) indorse initiatives and interventions aimed at providing emerging women leaders with helpful advice, insights, and suggestions (informational support) as well as empathy, care, concern, and trust (emotional support). ...
... prior research, which have chiefly focused on the barriers and obstacles associated with women in STEM, investigated women from within one type of STEM organization, or examined gender issues of female STEM students(Halpern et al., 2007;Leaper & Brown, 2008;Loeffen, 2016;Mullet et al., 2017; Ong, Wright, Espinsoa, & Orfield, 2011;Robnett, 2016;Vial, Brescoll, Napier, Dovidio, & Tyler, 2018), by investigating the sources of support and role integration for women in diverse STEM leadership positions. Therefore, to investigate WLB constructs used by women in leadership positions, survey questions were drawn from two established scales to determine participants' as well as valued by women in their STEM leadership roles. ...
... Findings highlight the importance of developing and strengthening social support networks for women in male dominated occupations such as STEM. While successful women in STEM often perceive themselves as autonomous and self-sufficient, they value relational connections with supportive resources(Mullet et al., 2017).While other researchers have acknowledged that social support can come from supervisors(Vial et al., 2018) and coworkers(McMullan et al., 2018), this study demonstrated social support flowed from a variety of sources including spouses, peers, supervisors, mentors inside and outside of the organizations, friends, children, and religious associates. As female supervisors ranked fifth and male supervisors ranked ninth in providing social support within this study, organizations who provide women leadership training programs or businesses that want to promote cultures supportive of women in leadership roles should (a) design training and management strategies which enhance relationship qualities with emerging women leaders, (b) train senior supervisors, mentors, and sponsors to provide improved social support, and (c) indorse initiatives and interventions aimed at providing emerging women leaders with helpful advice, insights, and suggestions (informational support) as well as empathy, care, concern, and trust (emotional support). ...
... These items were preceded by a stem that read, "Thinking about the times since COVID-19 has disrupted the workplace, schools, and society, I have..." and sample items include, "adapted well to changes in core tasks," and "come up with ideas to improve the way in which my core tasks are done." The coefficient alpha internal reliability estimate of this measure in the current sample was .86. (Vial et al., 2018) we controlled follower sex (coded women=0/men=1). We also controlled for follower's tenure with their leader based on findings that suggest trust is a dynamic construct that can change over time spent with the trust referent (Levin et al., 2006). ...
Purpose
The authors incorporated leadership and gender theories with research on trust to propose a model relating interpersonal emotion management (IEM, a type of relational leadership) and task-oriented (T-O) leadership to follower adaptive performance. The authors also examine the indirect effect of IEM and T-O on adaptive performance via trust and the possible moderating role of gender on these relationships.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors tested this model using a sample of 314 workers who rated their direct leaders (supervisors).
Findings
Overall, results supported the model for IEM as it was directly and indirectly related (via trust) to adaptive job performance (even after controlling for transformational leadership) and these relationships were more positive for women leaders. T-O leadership was related to adaptive job performance as expected but was unrelated to trust or, via trust, to adaptive performance. Findings also suggest that women direct leaders may garner more trust and adaptive performance from followers by engaging in higher levels of IEM, while also not experiencing backlash for engaging in the more agentic T-O behaviors during a crisis.
Practical implications
Despite an emphasis on women's relational leadership during a crisis, the authors findings show organizations are best served by ambidextrous leaders who can manage the emotions and tasks of their followers and that both women and men can engage in these leadership styles without penalty.
Originality/value
Much research regarding women's leadership advantage during a crisis is based on political leaders or has been conducted in lab settings. Further, it has focused on attitudes toward the women leaders rather than their performance. Research has also not considered both IEM along with the possible backlash women may experience for engaging in T-O leadership.
... Representative bureaucracy, social identity theory, and relational demography each offer theoretical bases that argue for women managers being more supportive towards women employees (Grissom, Nicholson-Crotty, and Keiser 2012). However, relationships between women in organizations can be complex, and studies have indicated that women in organizations are not always supportive of each other (Mavin 2006;Mavin and Williams 2013;Mavin, Gandy, and Williams 2017;O'Leary 1988;Vial et al. 2018). Below we provide an overview of these theories and arguments to discuss the impact of manager-employee gender congruence on supportive leadership behaviour. ...
This article examines the impact of manager-employee gender similarity on supportive leadership behaviours by public managers. Following prior research, we hypothesize that women with female managers are likely to report more leadership support than women with male managers and that this relationship will be moderated by the quality of the manager-employee relationship. Analysing multi-source survey data collected from a state agency, we find support for the gender-similarity effect. We also find a positive relationship between manager-employee relationship quality and supportive leadership behaviour. However, we do not find any support for the hypothesized moderation effect of the manager-employee relationship quality.
... Female supervisors are willing to create collaborative interdependence with female managers that they perceive as belonging to the same gender category. In a similar vein, female supervisors are more likely to make favourable assessments of female managers than their male counterparts in order to enhance self-esteem (Vial et al. 2018). ...
Within the public management literature, this paper analyses the contribution of women in top and line managerial positions for the public hospital’s innovation in terms of e-Health. It empirically examines Italian public hospitals and uses a combined measure of innovation by relying on different e-Health solutions. Findings show that female managers, especially when characterized by a legal background, foster the implementation of innovative strategies and facilitate the e-Health adoption. However, results report that gender similarity increases the rivalry between top management team and line managers thus limiting the adoption of e-Health solutions.
... Moreover, the gender of the researchers may have a different effect on male friendship than on female friendship. In a study by Vial, Brescoll, Napier, Dovidio, and Tyler, (2018), the authors discovered that women and men follow a pattern which is consistent with gender in-group favouritism. It shows that women favour women and men favour men and that can be an explanation of why women in the present study are more cooperative towards the researchers who are female as well. ...
... Lee, Kesebir and Pillutla (2016) reported that female workers strongly reject competitive relationships with same-gender co-workers, because relational norms for female workers involve collaborative interdependence. In a similar vein, Vial, Brescoll and Napier (2018) found evidence of in-group favoritism between female supervisors and female managers indicating that female supervisors are more likely to make favorable assessments of female managers than their male counterparts. ...
... They argue that gender role stereotypes and gender biases can be reduced in a mixed-gender environment, and thus pressure on female leaders as well as prejudicial evaluations would be reduced. In addition, Vial et al. (2018) find that female respondents show a less prejudicial evaluation towards female supervisors compared to male supervisors. As a result, in more feminine-dominated workplaces, women may be seen as having great potential to emerge as leaders. ...
Purpose – Informed by the role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders, this paper reviews the literature on gender and leadership to consolidate existing theory development, stimulate new thinking and provide a framework for future empirical studies. It offers a theoretical framework to understand what may prevent or facilitate the emergence of female leaders.
Design/methodology/approach – The paper reviews and synthesises recent research on the linkages between gender and leadership.
Findings – The review extends Eagly and Karau’s (2002) role congruity theory by (1) identifying additional constructs that may alleviate negative prejudicial evaluations, and (2) offering new insights about the potential alignment between feminine traits and leadership success.
Practical implications – The theoretical framework that emerged in this paper may be used as a heuristic model to contextually examine the lack of female leaders.
Originality/value – The paper proposes a theoretical framework to understand issues related to the emergence of female leaders. It offers news insights about possible alignment in female-leader role stereotypes that may address prejudicial evaluations against female leaders.
Ataerkil kültürün hâkim olduğu toplumlarda kadınlara aile içerisindeki görevler verilmekte, iş yaşamında ise kadına yer verilmemektedir. Ancak zaman içerisinde kadının eve ekonomik katkıda bulunmasına duyulan ihtiyaç, kadınların söz sahipliğinin artması gibi gelişmeler kadının iş yaşamında da yer almasını sağlamıştır. Yine de böyle toplumlarda kadınların iş yaşamına girmesi zor olabilmektedir. Karşılarına çıkan engelleri aşmayı başararak iş yaşamına giren kadınlar bu sefer iş yaşamında yükselmeleri önünde bir takım engellerle karşılaşabilmektedir. Başka bir ifadeyle iş yaşamına girmesi kolay olmadığı gibi iş yaşamında tutunabilmesi,
yükselebilmesi de zor olabilmektedir. Özellikle yöneticiliğin erkeklerin yapabileceği bir görev olduğu düşüncesi, kadınların yönetici pozisyonlarına gelmelerini zorlaştırmaktadır. Bunun nedenlerinden biri toplumsal cinsiyete dayalı rol dağılımına yönelik anlayışın tamamen toplumdan silinmemiş olması ve bu durumun iş yaşamına da yansıması olduğu düşünülmektedir.
This review seeks to enrich our understanding of how a leader's status influences leadership outcomes such as motivation to lead, leader emergence and perceived leader effectiveness. The focus is on the leader's diffuse status, i.e., status derived from demographic (e.g., gender and race) and physical (e.g., height and body shape) characteristics. Drawing insights from empirical findings and their theoretical underpinnings, we (1) highlight the need to explicitly model the leader's diffuse status as a mediator in the relationship between leader demographic and physical characteristics and leadership outcomes, (2) differentiate the effects of the leader's diffuse status as perceived by others (interpersonal level) and the leader's diffuse status as perceived by the leader (intrapersonal level) and (3) synthesise a wide range of contextual factors that influence the degree to which the leader's demographic and physical characteristics affect leadership outcomes through the leader's diffuse status. Moreover, we explain how other status types, such as status derived from the leader's position in the organisational hierarchy and status related to task-relevant leader characteristics, can moderate the effects of the leader's diffuse status. Finally, we discuss the utility of our proposed integrative framework for researchers and practitioners and outline promising future research opportunities.
Purpose
This study elaborates on the process through which gender-diverse boards of directors increase representation of females in management positions. This study draws on the gender spillover effect to examine whether gender diversity on boards of directors significantly influences the number of women promoted to managerial positions. The authors also employ implicit quota theory to examine the interaction effects of female board directors and their related strategies to target female customers as a source of female talent on the promotion numbers of female managers.
Design/methodology/approach
The authors draw from female manager panel data surveyed and gathered by the Korean Women Development Institute (KWDI), a Korean government-sponsored research institution, for the period 2008–2014. The total sample, comprising 5 biannual waves, includes 906 Korean companies across four wage rates. The authors apply zero-inflated negative binomial regression analyses to examine the effects of gender diversity on board director positions and its interactions with strategies targeting female markets on the number of female managerial promotions.
Findings
The authors find that gender diversity on boards of directors is positively related to the number of female managers promoted. Furthermore, in corporations where gender is not relevant to firms' strategy and decision-making, broader gender diversity increases the number of female managers promoted at lower- but not higher-level positions.
Originality/value
The current study demonstrates the complex role of gender diversity in board director positions in initiating and promoting the career development of female managers. On the one hand, gender diversity in board director positions has spillover effects on women's representation in management positions. On the other hand, female board directors impede the career progress of senior female managers to maintain their status in quotas when the female market is not critical to firms' competitiveness. Therefore, it is crucial to integrate two different concepts about gender diversity—the gender spillover effect and implicit quota theory—that elaborate on the effects of gender diversity in board director positions on female manager promotion numbers.
We investigate how language similarity between acquirers and targets affects post-M&A performance using a large sample of M&A transactions in China. We hypothesize and find that acquirers achieve higher post-M&A operating performance when they acquire targets that share the same native languages. We provide evidence that language similarity enhances post-M&A performance via the communication channel. Additionally, we show that the impact of language similarity is more pronounced when acquirers are not controlled by government agencies and when they are not related parties of targets. This study indicates an important role of native language similarity on post-M&A performance.
Social rejection is cold and hurtful, but how and why it is formed remains under-investigated. Our study offers one possible explanation from the rejector’s perspective by developing a moderated mediation model on the emotional antecedent and consequence of social rejection. Specifically, envious individuals use social rejection to complement their inferiority, further triggering their negative affect. Drawing on social comparison theory, we conducted an experience sampling methodology (ESM) investigation of 55 frontline workers through a 10-workday-survey (Level 1 n = 515). As predicted, daily envy is positively associated with daily social rejection. Daily social rejection is positively related to daily negative affect. Furthermore, daily social rejection mediates the relationship between daily envy and daily negative affect. These effects are more robust for females than males, including the impact of envy on social rejection and the impact of envy on negative affect via social rejection. We suggest the recipient and the rejector make psychological and behavioral adjustments accordingly. We also recommend that future research extend our current study methodologically and theoretically.
Women use power in more prosocial ways than men and they also engage in more emotional labor (i.e., self-regulate their emotions to respond and attend to the needs and emotions of other people in a way that advances organizational goals). However, these two constructs have not been previously connected. We propose that gendered emotional labor practices and pressures result in gender differences in the prosocial use of power. We integrate the literature on emotional labor with research on the psychology of power to articulate three routes through which this happens. First, women may be more adept than men at the intrapersonal and interpersonal processes entailed in emotional labor practices—a skill that they can apply at all hierarchical levels. Second, given women’s stronger internal motivation to perform emotional labor, they construe power in a more interdependent manner than men, which promotes a more prosocial use of power. As a result, female powerholders tend to behave in more prosocial ways. Third, when they have power, women encounter stronger external motivation to engage in emotional labor, which effectively constrains powerful women’s behaviors in a way that fosters a more prosocial use of power. We discuss how, by promoting prosocial behavior among powerholders, emotional labor can be beneficial for subordinates and organizations (e.g., increase employee well-being and organizational trust), while simultaneously creating costs for individual powerholders, which may reduce women’s likelihood of actually attaining and retaining power by (a) making high-power roles less appealing, (b) guiding women toward less prestigious and (c) more precarious leadership roles, (d) draining powerful women’s time and resources without equitable rewards, and (e) making it difficult for women to legitimize their power in the eyes of subordinates (especially men). Thus, emotional labor practices can help explain the underrepresentation of women in top leadership positions.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper was to investigate personality-related antecedents of Vietnamese workers' attitudes toward female managers, which subsequently predicted workers' judgments of them.
Design/methodology/approach
This study used a factorial experiment to examine participants' general attitudes toward women's rights and roles and their particular attitudes toward female managers in the workplace. Vietnamese workers ( N = 159) were randomly assigned to experimental conditions of manager performance and completed a post-test questionnaire. This study also qualitatively explored participants' observations of any gender stereotypes in the workplace.
Findings
Findings demonstrated that participants' gender, general attitudes toward women's social rights and roles, and internal work locus of control positively predicted their attitudes toward female managers. Qualitative findings showed perceived gender-based egalitarianism in the workplace, but women's leadership qualities were barely recognized.
Originality/value
This study is the first to utilize a mixed-method approach to assess Vietnamese workers' attitudes, contributing to the literature on attitudes toward both women in general and women in management in Asia generally and in Vietnam in particular.
The key issues in this chapter address concerns often voiced by opponents of diversity targets in organizations. They see such policies as unfair, valuing employee demographics rather than individual merit. Common organizational practices for employee recruitment, selection and development aim to assess professional standards and skills in a neutral fashion. However, our analysis reveals that people are often rewarded and selected for identity-defining characteristics, that are unrelated to merit. Diversity programs can alleviate such concerns and attest to good intentions, but are a source of moral licensing when these are ineffective. Ignoring that identical contributions are more difficult to realize for members of some groups than for others indicates moral neglect. Expecting all employees to behave alike deprives those who are different from fair treatment – implying their moral exclusion. These strategies reinforce the belief that the organization only rewards excellence, but undermine the ability of those who are different to perform well. Solutions acknowledge hidden influences that jeopardize fair treatment, and recognize different types of contributions. Preventing that people who are different either adapt to the majority or leave the organization requires inclusive leadership. Looking beyond numbers allows for different ways of belonging, where fair treatment also implies the willingness to make changes that realize inclusion for all in a diverse organization.
Purpose
: To examine the gender balance of academic ophthalmology departments by determining the association between the rates of female residents in ophthalmology programs and department chair/residency program director (PD) gender and rate of female faculty within the department.
Design
: Retrospective cross-sectional study
Methods
: Demographic information of ophthalmology programs, including size, location and gender distribution of leadership, faculty, and residents was collected from public online resources. Departments with residency programs were included for analyses if they were both Accreditation Council Graduate Medical Education accredited and available for application through the San Francisco Match for the 2020-2021 application cycle. For analyses, a binomial regression was fitted to identify factors associated with the female faculty and resident proportions.
Results
: In 117 total programs, 16.7% of chairs and 37.7% of PDs were female. There were more female residents at programs with female PDs (p=0.02), with more female faculty (p<0.001), and at larger departments (p=0.001) and residency programs (p=0.04). In multivariate analysis, more female faculty members increased the odds of having more female residents (p<0.001). Chair gender did not correlate with the proportion of female faculty or residents. There were the most female residents in the Northeast and the fewest in the Southwest (p=0.003).
Conclusions
: While gender of department chair did not correlate with proportion of female faculty or residents, programs with more female faculty members had more female residents. Deans and programs should strive for departmental diversity and the recruitment and success of female residents to ensure the utilization of their full academic capital.
Research aims to identify the attitudes of faculty members in Iraqi universities towards university women occupying leadership positions. The researcher followed the descriptive and analytical method by organizing a questionnaire that included, in addition to the personal information of the respondents, twenty-six questions to measure attitudes, which were sent to the research sample via e-mail and social media. The valid ones for analysis reached (850) questionnaires, and the data were analyzed using the statistical program SPSS. Vers. 25. The results showed a moderate general positive attitudes towards university women assuming leadership positions, and that there is a difference in attitudes according to the gender variable in favor of more positive females than males, and in favor of faculty members in public universities compared to private universities, as well as in favor of males compared to married, divorced man and divorced women compared to married couples. . In the end, some recommendations were presented that would improve attitudes towards university women assuming leadership positions.
Key words: Attitudes, women leadership, faculty members, Iraqi universities.
Social network researchers have shown that, compared to majority employees, structural constraints can cause minority employees to end up in network positions that limit their access to resources (i.e., social capital), and consequently limit their access to professional opportunities. These findings, however, do not explain why structurally equivalent minority and majority employees achieve differential returns of social capital on their leadership advancement. We propose that majority and minority employees differ in terms of network utilization, which is the extent to which individuals utilize their existing network ties. We theorize why and how network utilization processes—career and work utilization of network ties—can explain employees’ (i.e., actors) influence on their leadership advancement. We also explicate the process through which actors’ direct and indirect network connections (i.e., alters) contribute to such outcomes through both career-supporting utilization and work-supporting utilization with actors. We conclude by outlining the boundary conditions of network utilization theory, a theory that changes the current understanding of how existing social network ties can perpetuate the underrepresentation of minorities in leadership positions.
Research suggests that employee status, and various status proxies, relate to a number of meaningful outcomes in the workplace. The advancement of the study of status in organizational settings has, however, been stymied by the lack of a validated workplace status measure. The purpose of this manuscript, therefore, is to develop and validate a measure of workplace status based on a theoretically grounded definition of status in organizations. Subject-matter experts were used to examine the content validity of the measure. Then, two separate samples were employed to assess the psychometric properties (i.e., factor structure, reliability, convergent and discriminant validity) and nomological network of a five-item, self-report Workplace Status Scale (WSS). To allow for methodological flexibility, an additional three samples were used to extend the WSS to coworker reports of a focal employee’s status, provide additional evidence for the validity and reliability of the WSS, and to demonstrate consensus among coworker ratings. Together, these studies provide evidence of the psychometric soundness of the WSS for assessing employee status using either self-reports or other-source reports. The implications of the development of the WSS for the study of status in organizations are discussed, and suggestions for future research using the new measure are offered.
Purpose – This chapter (a) summarizes leader–member exchange (LMX) measurement practices since the influential reviews by Schriesheim, Castro, and Cogliser (1999) and Gerstner and Day (1997), (b) clarifies the status of LMX as a broad construct from a hierarchical factor model, (c) conducts multitrait-multimethod (MTMM) analyses on leader and follower reports of multidimensional LMX, and (d) investigates discriminant validity between Member LMX and satisfaction with supervisor.
Methodology/Approach – We used (a) a literature search of LMX measurement practices, (b) a combination of meta-analysis and factor analysis to specify the broad LMX construct underlying Liden and Maslyn's (1998) (LMX-MDM) multidimensional instrument, (c) MTMM analyses of leader and member ratings of the LMX-MDM, and (d) a combination of meta-analysis and multiple regression to assess incremental validity of Member LMX beyond satisfaction with supervisor.
Findings – Since 1999, 85% of LMX studies now use one of two dominant LMX scales (LMX-7, Scandura, & Graen, 1984; LMX-MDM, Liden & Maslyn, 1998). These two measures are correlated (rcorrected=.9), suggesting the LMX-7 and the LMX-MDM are alternate forms of the same instrument. 94% of studies that used these two measures treat LMX as a single, broad construct rather than as a multidimensional set of constructs. MTMM analyses suggest Leader LMX and Member LMX are two, separate-but-related constructs (i.e., confirming two source factors and no lower-order trait factors). Last, Member LMX meta-analytically correlates with satisfaction with supervisor at rcorrected=.8. There is some incremental validity of LMX, but the pattern is inconsistent across samples.
Social Implications – We point out that LMX researchers have now moved toward standard measurement of LMX – as a broad, higher-order factor that varies between leader and follower. By doing so, we reveal that the stage is set for cumulative and replicable research on leadership as a dyadic, follower-specific phenomenon.
Originality/Value of Paper – Our chapter is the first to reveal consensus in LMX measurement across studies; to summarize the standard treatment of LMX as a single, broad factor; and to apply MTMM analyses to demonstrate separate Leader LMX and Member LMX source factors.
The belief that women secretly hate other women is one with a long history. This article highlights the role that idea played
in the myriad of literature produced about women of the “criminal classes” from the early Victorian period through to the
end of the First World War, as interest in female crime and prostitution was at its height. The trope that women are each
other's worst enemies was evident in criminal discourse across transnational contexts; in particular, I explore how such narratives
were received from the European and Anglo-American worlds and perpetuated in the Australian colonies during this period. It
is shown that nineteenth- and early-twentieth-century commentators portrayed criminality as a moral contagion communicated
by women—often deliberately and maliciously—to each other. The crimes most often associated with females were also depicted
as being based upon the exploitation of women by other women. Descriptions of the female criminal persona emphasized their
incapacity for friendship or suggested they were capable only of perverted interactions that tended towards mutual destruction.
Moving across time and transnational contexts, various permutations of criminal discourses thus promoted an image in the popular
imagination of female relationships as sites of danger and latent animosity, and moreover suggested that this reflected an
underlying dynamic among women as a whole.
In the classic black sheep effect (BSE) an ingroup deviant member is usually evaluated more negatively than the corresponding outgroup deviant. This effect is usually obtained by using scenarios and asking people to imagine the situation as vividly as possible. The present study proposes a new method to investigate the BSE by considering the behavioral and physiological reactions to unfair behavior (aggressive game behavior) in a realistic experimental group-setting. The study involved 52 university students in a minimal group setting who performed a modified version of the competitive reaction time (CRT) task adapted to be played in groups of four people. The classic BSE was replicated for evaluation but not for the behavioral reactions (retaliate to aggression) to deviants. More interestingly, a negative relationship emerged in the ingroup deviant condition between the level of behavioral derogation and the systolic blood pressure level.
We propose that individuals are inclined to believe that women have difficulty working
with one another. Management researchers have reinforced this assumption by
propagating concepts such as the queen bee syndrome and by neglecting to provide
balanced perspectives with accounts of conflict among men at work. We suggest that
observers are inclined to problematize conflict among women at work relative to
conflict among men, and that this tendency might be partly responsible for perceptions
that women have difficulty working with one another. We provide empirical evidence
to support this notion. We first review the literature on conflict between women at
work and address its shortcomings to set the stage for our study.
The narrative surrounding the nature of relationships and interactions between and among women at work is decidedly negative, which is evident in the coverage that female competition and the queen bee syndrome receive in the media, nonfiction books, and the management and psychology literatures. In the current article, we propose a two-stage theory that is grounded in gender stereotyping to account for this narrative. In the first stage, we draw from theories of social comparison and in-group distancing to offer plausible reasons for why women?s same-sex relationships at work might be more fraught with interpersonal conflict than men?s. In the second stage, we set aside consideration of possible gender differences in same-sex conflict frequency and draw from attribution theory to propose that female same-sex conflict is more problematized by third parties than male same-sex conflict, which could produce the exaggerated perception that women have more dysfunctional same-sex workplace relationships than men. Implications for future research and gender equality in organizations are discussed.
Gender bias continues to be a concern in many work settings, leading researchers to identify factors that influence workplace decisions. In this study we examine several of these factors, using an organizing framework of sex distribution within jobs (including male- and female-dominated jobs as well as sex-balanced, or integrated, jobs). We conducted random effects meta-analyses including 136 independent effect sizes from experimental studies (N = 22,348) and examined the effects of decision-maker gender, amount and content of information available to the decision maker, type of evaluation, and motivation to make careful decisions on gender bias in organizational decisions. We also examined study characteristics such as type of participant, publication year, and study design. Our findings revealed that men were preferred for male-dominated jobs (i.e., gender-role congruity bias), whereas no strong preference for either gender was found for female-dominated or integrated jobs. Second, male raters exhibited greater gender-role congruity bias than did female raters for male-dominated jobs. Third, gender-role congruity bias did not consistently decrease when decision makers were provided with additional information about those they were rating, but gender-role congruity bias was reduced when information clearly indicated high competence of those being evaluated. Fourth, gender-role congruity bias did not differ between decisions that required comparisons among ratees and decisions made about individual ratees. Fifth, decision makers who were motivated to make careful decisions tended to exhibit less gender-role congruity bias for male-dominated jobs. Finally, for male-dominated jobs, experienced professionals showed smaller gender-role congruity bias than did undergraduates or working adults. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
Dramatic forms of discrimination, such as lynching, property destruction, and hate crimes, are widely understood to be consequences of prejudicial hostility. This article focuses on what has heretofore been only an infrequent countertheme in scientific work on discrimination-that favoritism toward ingroups can be responsible for much discrimination. We extend this counterthesis to the strong conclusion that ingroup favoritism is plausibly more significant as a basis for discrimination in contemporary American society than is outgroup-directed hostility. This conclusion has implications for theory, research methods, and practical remedies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
The notion of ‘think manager–think male’ has been demonstrated in many studies. The current study examines whether leaders are perceived as more effective when they have ‘feminine’, ‘masculine’ or ‘androgynous’ characteristics, and how this relates to the leader's and followers' sex. Using carefully matched samples of 930 employees of 76 bank managers, we studied the relationship between managers' gender-role identity (perceived ‘femininity’, ‘masculinity’ and ‘androgyny’) and how this relates to leadership effectiveness in terms of transformational leadership and personal identification with the leader. Our findings show that among both male and female leaders, ‘androgyny’ was more strongly related to transformational leadership and followers' identification than ‘non-androgyny’, and that leaders' ‘femininity’ was more strongly related to leadership effectiveness than ‘masculinity’. Furthermore, the results show that women paid a higher penalty for not being perceived as ‘androgynous’ (mixing ‘femininity’ and ‘masculinity’), in comparison to men with regard to personal identification. When examining same- versus cross-sex relationships, we found that ‘non-androgynous’ male managers were rated higher by their male employees than by their female employees. Our findings suggest that women and men who are interested in being perceived as effective leaders may be well advised to blend ‘feminine’ and ‘masculine’ behaviors, and even more so when they are in situations of non-congruency (i.e., women in leadership roles and leading in cross-sex relationships). We discuss the implications of these findings for both theory and practice.
Whether Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) is a unidimensional or a multidimensional construct was assessed through the development and validation of a multidimensional measure. Item analysis involving 302 working students, followed by construct and criterion-related validation using 249 employees representing two organizations resulted in a multidimensional LMX scale. The results provided support for the affect, loyalty, and contribution dimensions identified by Dienesch and Liden (1986), as well as a fourth dimension, professional respect.
In two experiments, we investigate how individuals' levels of power and status interact to determine how they are perceived by others. We find that power and status have similar, positive, effects on judged dominance. We also find that power has a negative effect on perceived warmth, but status moderates this “power penalty”: high power without status is associated with low warmth, but power with status is judged warm. Consequently, we find high status individuals, regardless of power level, are perceived positively – dominant and warm – whereas high power–low status individuals are judged most negatively — dominant and cold (Experiments 1 and 2). As a result, perceivers expect positive interactions with high status individuals, but negative interactions with high power, low status individuals (Experiment 2). These findings provide insight into power and status social judgments, and further our understanding of similarities and differences between these distinct, yet related, constructs.
Data obtained from the 1991 “Work Organizations” module of the General Social Survey (GSS) reveal a small but significant tendency for employed men to display higher organizational commitment (OC) than employed women do. This article examines the gender differences and factors that arguably heighten or dampen it. The authors consider both job models highlighting gender differences on job attributes such as autonomy or rewards, and gender models that stress socialization, family ties, and differential labor market opportunities. They find that the primary explanation for the gender difference is that men are more likely than women to hold jobs with commitment-enhancing features. Gender differences in family ties do little to affect male-female OC difference. When job attributes, career variables, and family ties are simultaneously controlled, the authors find that, if anything, women tend to exhibit slightly greater OC. Contrary to implications of some gender models, the correlates of OC do not appear to be appreciably different for men and women.
Attitudes toward female authority and their relationship to gender beliefs were examined using implicit and explicit measures of each. Implicit attitudes covaried with implicit gender authority beliefs (i.e., linking men to high-authority and women to low-authority roles). Explicit attitudes covaried with explicit gender authority beliefs, feminist identification, and hostile sexism. Thus, gender authority beliefs may influence both conscious and unconscious prejudice against female authorities. Although women showed less explicit prejudice than did men, their implicit attitudes were similarly negative. Finally, the relationship found between two different response latency methods (a priming task for attitudes, a categorization task for beliefs) supports the assumption that implicit measures assess similar constructs (i.e., automatic associations in long-term memory).
Hierarchy is such a defining and pervasive feature of organizations that its forms and basic functions are often taken for granted in organizational research. In this review, we revisit some basic psychological and sociological elements of hierarchy and argue that status and power are two important yet distinct bases of hierarchical differentiation. We first define power and status and distinguish our definitions from previous conceptualizations. We then integrate a number of different literatures to explain why status and power hierarchies tend to be self‐reinforcing. Power, related to one’s control over valued resources, transforms individual psychology such that the powerful think and act in ways that lead to the retention and acquisition of power. Status, related to the respect one has in the eyes of others, generates expectations for behavior and opportunities for advancement that favor those with a prior status advantage. We also explore the role that hierarchy‐enhancing belief systems play in stabilizing hierarchy, both from the bottom up and from the top down. Finally, we address a number of factors that we think are instrumental in explaining the conditions under which hierarchies change. Our framework suggests a number of avenues for future research on the bases, causes, and consequences of hierarchy in groups and organizations.
Self-reports figure prominently in organizational and management research, but there are several problems associated with their use. This article identifies six categories of self-reports and discusses such problems as common method variance, the consistency motif, and social desirability. Statistical and post hoc remedies and some procedural methods for dealing with artifactual bias are presented and evaluated. Recommendations for future research are also offered.
Employees develop exchange relationships both with organizations and immediate superiors, as evidenced by research on perceived organizational support (POS) and leader-member exchange (LMX), respectively. Despite conceptual similarities between these two constructs, theoretical development and research has proceeded independently. In an attempt to integrate these literatures, we developed and tested a model of the antecedents and consequences of POS and LMX, based on social exchange theory. Results indicated that POS and LMX have unique antecedents and are differentially related to outcome variables, providing support for the importance of both types of exchanges.
Examines why stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination are enduring phenomena. Social psychological research, reviewed here in 4 major sections, explains that stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination have (1) some apparently automatic aspects and (2) some socially pragmatic aspects, both of which tend to sustain them. But, as research also indicates, change is possible, for (3) stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination seem individually controllable, and consequently, (4) social structure influences their occurrence. Past and present theoretical approaches to these issues are also discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This work examines the moderating effects of status stability, legitimacy, and group permeability on in-group bias among high-and low-status groups. These effects were examined separately for evaluative measures that were relevant as well as irrelevant to the salient status distinctions. The results support social identity theory and show that high-status groups are more biased. The meta-analysis reveals that perceived status stability, legitimacy, and permeability moderate the effects of group status. Also, these variables interacted in their influences on the effect of group status on in-group bias, but this was only true for irrelevant evaluative dimensions. When status was unstable and perceived as illegitimate, low-status groups and high-status groups were equally biased when group boundaries were impermeable, compared with when they were permeable. Implications for social identity theory as well as for intergroup attitudes are discussed.
Stereotype research emphasizes systematic processes over seemingly arbitrary contents, but content also may prove systematic. On the basis of stereotypes' intergroup functions, the stereotype content model hypothesizes that (a) 2 primary dimensions are competence and warmth, (b) frequent mixed clusters combine high warmth with low competence (paternalistic) or high competence with low warmth (envious), and (c) distinct emotions (pity, envy, admiration, contempt) differentiate the 4 competence-warmth combinations. Stereotypically, (d) status predicts high competence, and competition predicts low warmth. Nine varied samples rated gender, ethnicity, race, class, age, and disability out-groups. Contrary to antipathy models, 2 dimensions mattered, and many stereotypes were mixed, either pitying (low competence, high warmth subordinates) or envying (high competence, low warmth competitors). Stereotypically, status predicted competence, and competition predicted low warmth.
Although authoritarian leadership is viewed pejoratively in the literature, in general it is not strongly related to important follower outcomes. We argue that relationships between authoritarian leadership and individual employee outcomes are mediated by perceived insider status, yet in different ways depending on work unit power distance climate and individual role breadth self-efficacy. Results from technology company employees in China largely supported our hypothesized model. We observed negative indirect effects of authoritarian leadership on job performance, affective organizational commitment, and intention to stay among employees in units with relatively low endorsement of power distance, whereas the indirect relationships were not significant among employees in relatively high power distance units. These conditional indirect effects of authoritarian leadership on performance and intention to stay were significantly stronger among employees with relatively high role breadth self-efficacy. We discuss how the model and findings promote understanding of how, and under what circumstances, authoritarian leadership may influence followers' performance and psychological connections to their organizations. (PsycINFO Database Record
This contribution reviews work on the queen bee phenomenon whereby women leaders assimilate into male-dominated organizations (i.e., organizations in which most executive positions are held by men) by distancing themselves from junior women and legitimizing gender inequality in their organization. We propose that rather than being a source of gender inequality, the queen bee phenomenon is itself a consequence of the gender discrimination that women experience at work. We substantiate this argument with research showing that (1) queen bee behavior is a response to the discrimination and social identity threat that women may experience in male-dominated organizations, and (2) queen bee behavior is not a typically feminine response but part of a general self-group distancing response that is also found in other marginalized groups. We discuss consequences of the queen bee phenomenon for women leaders, junior women, organizations and society more generally, and propose ways to combat this phenomenon.
In an attempt to explain why the gender gap in leadership positions persists, we propose a model centered on legitimacy. When women hold powerful positions, they have a harder time than men eliciting respect and admiration (i.e., status) from subordinates. As a result, female power-holders are seen as less legitimate than male power-holders. Unless they are able to legitimize their role, relative illegitimacy will prompt a variety of consequences such as more negative subordinate behavior and reduced cooperation when the leader is a woman. Subordinate rejection will likely put female leaders in a precarious mindset, and trigger negative responses toward subordinates; such behavior can confirm negative expectations of female leaders and further undermine female authority in a self-reinforcing cycle of illegitimacy. Leader or organizational features that enhance status attributions and/or lower subordinates' perceptions of power differentials may increase legitimacy for women in leadership roles.
Recent research suggests that women are more likely to participate in the helping dimension of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) whereas men are more likely to participate in the civic virtue dimension. Three laboratory studies were conducted to test the hypotheses that observers expect employees to participate in gender-congruent OCBs and that, when exhibited, observers are more likely to attribute gender-incongruent OCBs than gender-congruent OCBs to impression management motives. Results indicated that OCBs in general were expected more of women than of men. Only under specific conditions were OCB-civic virtue behaviors expected more of men. Additionally, participants were more likely to attribute men's OCB than women's OCB to impression management motives. Implications and future research suggestions are discussed.
Previous research suggests that women, more than men, experience negative outcomes when they display dominance. A closer look, however, reveals ambiguity about the specific forms of dominance proscribed for women. Here, we suggest that negative reactions to women's dominance, a counter-stereotypical behavior, may require that the behavior be clearly encoded as counter-stereotypical-which is less likely when the behavior is expressed implicitly. This hypothesis was tested with a meta-analysis of studies on the evaluation of individuals behaving dominantly, including articles not directly investigating gender. Results revealed that dominance indeed hurts women's, relative to men's, likability (although the overall effect is small, d = -0.19, k = 63), as well as more downstream outcomes such as hireability (d = -0.58, k = 20). More important, however, dominance expressed explicitly (e.g., direct demands) affected women's likability (d = -0.28) whereas implicit forms of dominance (e.g., eye contact) did not (d = 0.03). Finally, the effect of dominance on men's and women's perceived competence did not differ (d = 0.02, k = 31), consistent with the idea that it is interpersonal (rather than instrumental) evaluations that obstruct women leaders. Implications for theory, and for the success of male and female leaders, are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record
Despite the widespread interest in the topic of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), little empirical research has tested the fundamental assumption that these forms of behavior improve the effectiveness of work groups or organizations in which they are exhibited. In the present study, the effects of OCBs on the quantity and quality of the performance of 218 people working in 40 machine crews in a paper mill located in the Northeastern United States were examined. The results indicate that helping behavior and sportsmanship had significant effects on performance quantity and that helping behavior had a significant impact on performance quality. However, civic virtue had no effect on either performance measure. In recent years, there has been an increasing interest in the topic of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs).
Drawing from role theory and structural functionalism, we examined the temporal relationship between employees’ affective commitment to the organization (ACO) and affective commitment to the supervisor (ACS) and how these commitments affect turnover. We further examined perceived supervisor-organization value congruence as a moderator. In Study 1, a three-wave panel study (N = 317), we found longitudinal change in ACO to result in a temporal change in ACS, suggesting ACO precedes ACS. Study 2 (N = 272) extended this result by looking at the relationships of these commitments to turnover and perceived supervisor-organization value congruence as a moderator. ACS mediated a negative relationship between ACO and turnover. Moreover, ACO’s relationship with ACS and indirect relationship with turnover were stronger at high levels of supervisor-organization value congruence.
Despite a long history in social sciences such as anthropology and sociology, status has not received its deserved status in psychology and related domains such as management. This chapter attempts to bring greater clarity to the conceptualization of status and to highlight its distinctions from related bases of social hierarchy, such as power, dominance, and influence. To accomplish these goals, we first review current conceptual thinking on status and other related bases of social hierarchy. We then present a review of recent empirical evidence that supports differentiation among these bases of social hierarchy, focusing primarily on empirical work that differentiates status and power. We then propose an integrative framework that organizes the many related, yet distinct constructs that describe social hierarchy. Throughout, we are attentive to the fundamental question of why distinguishing status from these related aspects of social hierarchy matters-both for research and for a better understanding of social life. © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2014. All rights are reserved.
Any organization's success depends upon the voluntary cooperation of its members. But what motivates people to cooperate? In Why People Cooperate, Tom Tyler challenges the decades-old notion that individuals within groups are primarily motivated by their self-interest. Instead, he demonstrates that human behaviors are influenced by shared attitudes, values, and identities that reflect social connections rather than material interests. Tyler examines employee cooperation in work organizations, resident cooperation with legal authorities responsible for social order in neighborhoods, and citizen cooperation with governmental authorities in political communities. He demonstrates that the main factors for achieving cooperation are socially driven, rather than instrumentally based on incentives or sanctions. Because of this, social motivations are critical when authorities attempt to secure voluntary cooperation from group members. Tyler also explains that two related aspects of group practices--the use of fair procedures when exercising authority and the belief by group members that authorities are benevolent and sincere--are crucial to the development of the attitudes, values, and identities that underlie cooperation. With widespread implications for the management of organizations, community regulation, and governance, Why People Cooperate illustrates the vital role that voluntary cooperation plays in the long-standing viability of groups.
Hom, Griffeth, and Sellaro's (1984) theoretical alternative to Mobley's (1977) turnover model was investigated in two studies. In Study 1, conceptual distinctions among model constructs and operationalizations of those constructs were validated. 206 nurses were surveyed, and constructs were assessed with multiple indicators. Although discriminating most constructs, structural equation modeling (SEM) identified a more parsimonious conceptualization in which a general construct underlies withdrawal cognitions. Other SEM analyses supported the indicators' construct validity and Hom et al.'s structural network. In Study 2, a longitudinal analogue of Hom et al.'s model was tested. A survey of 129 new nurses measured model constructs on three occasions. SEM disclosed that some causal effects in this model materialized contemporaneously, whereas others emerged after a lengthy time. Moreover, these causal effects systematically changed during newcomer assimilation. Implications for future research of turnover models are discussed.
Two major types of motivation underlie the ability of leaders to gain cooperation in groups. First is the desire of people to gain rewards and avoid punishments. Leaders can tap into such motivations to the extent that then control resources and/or instruments of surveillance and sanctioning. Second is people's internal attitudes and values, which shape what people want or feel they ought to do. Leaders can draw on these internal motivations by appealing to or creating attitudes and values. Both strategies influence behavior, but there are clear advantages to leadership based on connecting to people's attitudes and values. In particular, people voluntarily follow leaders who engage their internal motivations.
Does working in a female dominated industry influence how male leaders are perceived? To investigate this question, we draw on Role Congruity Theory and suggest that industry gender composition moderates the relationship between leader gender and four different aspects of leadership effectiveness. The existing literature suggests that male leaders are likely to be perceived more effective than female leaders because leader roles largely resemble male gender roles. However, the perception of leadership effectiveness does not solely depend on the leader gender but also the context that makes the leader gender more salient. Based on the 360-degree leadership assessment data of 952 U.S. leaders and their raters (n = 8684), the current study found that as the gender composition of the industry becomes more congruent with the gender of the leader, both self- and other- leader perceptions become more favorable. In this study, industry gender composition moderated the relationship (a) between leader gender and self-ratings of leadership effectiveness dimensions as well as (b) between leader gender and other-ratings. This was particularly true when looking at perceptions of leaders’ abilities to promote adaptability in their organizations. Overall, this paper provides insight into the role of contextual factors on leadership effectiveness ratings and highlights the importance of considering industry gender composition when utilizing feedback for the purposes of leadership development.
I describe a test of linear moderated mediation in path analysis based on an interval estimate of the parameter of a function linking the indirect effect to values of a moderator—a parameter that I call the index of moderated mediation. This test can be used for models that integrate moderation and mediation in which the relationship between the indirect effect and the moderator is estimated as linear, including many of the models described by Edwards and Lambert (200710.
Edwards, J.R., & Lambert, L.S. (2007). Methods for integrating moderation and mediation: A general analytical framework using moderated path analysis. Psychological Methods, 12, 1–22.[CrossRef], [PubMed], [Web of Science ®]View all references) and Preacher, Rucker, and Hayes (200743.
Preacher, K.J., Rucker, D.D., & Hayes, A.F. (2007). Assessing moderated mediation hypotheses: Theory, methods, and prescriptions. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 42, 185–227.[Taylor & Francis Online], [Web of Science ®]View all references) as well as extensions of these models to processes involving multiple mediators operating in parallel or in serial. Generalization of the method to latent variable models is straightforward. Three empirical examples describe the computation of the index and the test, and its implementation is illustrated using Mplus and the PROCESS macro for SPSS and SAS.
Whether Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) is a unidimensional or a multidimensional construct was assesed through the development and validation of a multidimensional measure. Item analysis involving 302 working students, followed by construct and criterion-related validation using 249 employees representing two organizations resulted in a multidimensional LMX scale. The results provided support for the affect, loyalty, and contribution dimensions identified by Dienesch and Liden (1986), as well as a fourth dimension, professional respect.
In applying social role theory to account for the content of a wide range of stereotypes, this research tests the proposition that observations of groups' roles determine stereotype content (Eagly & Wood, 2012). In a novel test of how stereotypes can develop from observations, preliminary research collected participants' beliefs about the occupational roles (e.g., lawyer, teacher, fast food worker, chief executive officer, store clerk, manager) in which members of social groups (e.g., Black women, Hispanics, White men, the rich, senior citizens, high school dropouts) are overrepresented relative to their numbers in the general population. These beliefs about groups' typical occupational roles proved to be generally accurate when evaluated in relation to data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. Then, correlational studies predicted participants' stereotypes of social groups from the attributes ascribed to group members' typical occupational roles (Studies 1a, 1b, and 1c), the behaviors associated with those roles (Study 2), and the occupational interest profile of the roles (Study 3). As predicted by social role theory, beliefs about the attributes of groups' typical roles were strongly related to group stereotypes on both communion and agency/competence. In addition, an experimental study (Study 4) demonstrated that when social groups were described with changes to their typical social roles in the future, their projected stereotypes were more influenced by these future roles than by their current group stereotypes, thus supporting social role theory's predictions about stereotype change. Discussion considers the implications of these findings for stereotype change and the relation of social role theory to other theories of stereotype content. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2014 APA, all rights reserved).
This article presents a four-category framework to characterize the contents of prescriptive gender stereotypes. The framework distinguishes between prescriptions and proscriptions that are intensified by virtue of one's gender, and those that are relaxed by virtue of one's gender. Two studies examined the utility of this framework for characterizing prescriptive gender stereotypes in American society (Study 1) and in the highly masculine context of Princeton University (Study 2). The results demonstrated the persistence of traditional gender prescriptions in both contexts, but also revealed distinct areas of societal vigilance and leeway for each gender. In addition, they showed that women are seen more positively, relative to societal standards, than are men. We consider the implications of this framework for research on reactions to gender stereotype deviants and sex discrimination.
In a field experiment involving 106 form-processing employees of a large, public service organization four treatment conditions are compared—leader—member exchange (LMX), job design, a combination of LMX and job design, and a placebo control—on satisfaction and productivity. The job design manipulation fails to take, and only the LMX condition results in significant before—after gains. Employee growth need strength moderates the LMX effect. Both dyadic exchange and work itself outcomes show significant gains in the LMX condition. The implications of these results are discussed.
Although past research has noted the importance of both power and gender for understanding volubility—the total amount of time spent talking—in organizations, to date, identifying the unique contributions of power and gender to volubility has been somewhat elusive. Using both naturalistic data sets and experiments, the present studies indicate that while power has a strong, positive effect on volubility for men, no such effect exists for women. Study 1 uses archival data to examine the relationship between the relative power of United States senators and their talking behavior on the Senate floor. Results indicate a strong positive relationship between power and volubility for male senators, but a non-significant relationship for female senators. Study 2 replicates this effect in an experimental setting by priming the concept of power and shows that though men primed with power talk more, women show no effect of power on volubility. Mediation analyses indicate that this difference is explained by women’s concern that being highly voluble will result in negative consequences (i.e., backlash). Study 3 shows that powerful women are in fact correct in assuming that they will incur backlash as a result of talking more than others—an effect that is observed among both male and female perceivers. Implications for the literatures on volubility, power, and previous studies of backlash are discussed.
This article examines the quality of vertical exchanges involving 171 managers and their bosses. All of the managers work at middle or upper levels in 48 American corporations. Hierarchical multiple regressions corroborate the hypothesis that quality of vertical exchange exhibits a strong positive relationship with organizational commitment, and this relationship persists even after controlling for four situational variables. The article advances implications for future research and several implications for practicing managers and consultants.
This study compares two models of motivation for cooperative behavior in groups. Those models are the resource-based social exchange model and the status-based social identity model. A comparison of the two models suggests that both are important in understanding cooperation in groups. However, issues of identity are relatively more important antecedents of cooperation, especially in the case of discretionary cooperative behavior. Further, identity also has a strong influence on attitudes and values, which themselves have been linked to discretionary behavior. Hence, identity issues dominate people’s motivation to voluntarily cooperate with the groups to which they belong.
I. Overview. Introduction. The Design of This Study. II. The Antecedents of Cooperative Behavior. Why Study Cooperative Behavior in Groups. Instrumental Motivations for Engaging in Cooperative Behavior. Internally-driven Cooperative Behavior. III. The Influence of Justice: Procedual Justice and Cooperation. The Influence of Justice Based Judgments. Procedural Justice and Cooperative Behavior. IV. The Meaning of Procedual Justice: The Four Component Model. Relational Models of Procedual Justice. A Two Component Model of Procedural Justice: Quality of Decision-making and Quality of Treatment. Creating a Four Component Model of Procedural Justice: Adding the Distinction Between Formal and Informal Sources of Justice. V. Social Identity and Cooperative Behavior: Status and Psychological Engagement. Social Identity and Cooperative Behavior. Justice and Group Status: The Antecedents of Status Evaluations. Psychological Engagement with the Group. VI. Discussion Conclusion: Understanding Group Behavior From a Non-Instrumental Perspective. VII. References. VIII. Appendices
The present study of 60,470 women and men examined evaluations of participants’ current managers as well as their preferences for male and female managers, in general. A cross-sex bias emerged in the ratings of one’s current boss, where men judged their female bosses more favorably and women judged male bosses more favorably. The quality of relationships between subordinates and managers were the same for competent male and female managers. A small majority (54%) of participants claimed to have no preference for the gender of their boss, but the remaining participants reported preferring male over female bosses by more than a 2:1 ratio. Qualitative analysis of the participants’ justifications for this preference are presented, and results are discussed within the framework of role congruity theory.
"This paper advocates a validational process utilizing a matrix of intercorrelations among tests representing at least two traits, each measured by at least two methods. Measures of the same trait should correlate higher with each other than they do with measures of different traits involving separate methods. Ideally, these validity values should also be higher than the correlations among different traits measure by the same method." Examples from the literature are described as well as problems in the application of the technique. 36 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
Agentic female leaders risk social and economic penalties for behaving counter-stereotypically (i.e., backlash; Rudman, 1998), but what motivates prejudice against female leaders? The status incongruity hypothesis (SIH) proposes that agentic women are penalized for status violations because doing so defends the gender hierarchy. Consistent with this view, Study 1 found that women are proscribed from dominant, high status displays (which are reserved for leaders and men); Studies 2–3 revealed that prejudice against agentic fe-male leaders was mediated by a dominance penalty; and in Study 3, participants' gender system-justifying beliefs moderated backlash effects. Study 4 found that backlash was exacerbated when perceivers were primed with a system threat. Study 5 showed that only female leaders who threatened the status quo suf-fered sabotage. In concert, support for the SIH suggests that backlash functions to preserve male dominance by reinforcing a double standard for power and control.