ArticlePDF Available

A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and Water Resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria

Authors:
  • FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OTUOKE
  • Bayelsa Medical University

Abstract

Nigeria is an oil and gas producing nation. The Niger Delta is the Nigerian oil and gas province. About 10 – 40% of produced associated gas is underutilized and is flared into the environment. This is the usual trend in the Nigerian oil and gas industry. Gas flaring has adverse impacts on the environmental components and its associated biota. This paper reviews the impacts of gas flaring on the vegetation and water quality resources in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The study found that gas flaring alters water ions (especially sulphate, carbonate, nitrate), pH, conductivity heavy metals (such as lead and iron) concentration especially in rainwater. It also affects vegetation leading to decrease in growth and productivity probably due to changes in soil quality parameters. The paper concludes by suggesting promulgation/implementation of gas glaring laws in Nigeria.
International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment
2017; 2(4): 48-55
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijeee
doi: 10.11648/j.ijeee.20170204.11
Review Article
A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and Water
Resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
Enetimi Idah Seiyaboh, Sylvester Chibueze Izah*
Department of Biological Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Nigeria
Email address:
chivestizah@gmail.com (S. C. Izah)
*Corresponding author
To cite this article:
Enetimi Idah Seiyaboh, Sylvester Chibueze Izah. A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and Water Resources in the Niger Delta
Region of Nigeria. International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment. Vol. 2, No. 4, 2017, pp. 48-55.
doi: 10.11648/j.ijeee.20170204.11
Received: May 12, 2017; Accepted: June 6, 2017; Published: July 14, 2017
Abstract: Nigeria is an oil and gas producing nation. The Niger Delta is the Nigerian oil and gas province. About 10 – 40% of
produced associated gas is underutilized and is flared into the environment. This is the usual trend in the Nigerian oil and gas
industry. Gas flaring has adverse impacts on the environmental components and its associated biota. This paper reviews the
impacts of gas flaring on the vegetation and water quality resources in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The study found that gas
flaring alters water ions (especially sulphate, carbonate, nitrate), pH, conductivity heavy metals (such as lead and iron)
concentration especially in rainwater. It also affects vegetation leading to decrease in growth and productivity probably due to
changes in soil quality parameters. The paper concludes by suggesting promulgation/implementation of gas glaring laws in
Nigeria.
Keywords: Gas Flaring, Impacts, Vegetation Structure, Water Quality
1. Introduction
Following the discovery of crude oil in commercial quantity
in Nigeria, the mainstay of the nation economy shifted from
agriculture to crude oil and natural gas. Till date, crude oil and
natural gas accounts for significant source of revenue and
foreign earning to the economy [1]. According to Ohimain [2,
3], Izah and Ohimain [4], about 85% and 90% of Nigerian
earning and export respectively are provided by petroleum.
Furthermore over 80% of money used in financing national
budget is from oil rich region of Nigeria [5]. Nigeria also have
other resources including mineral resources such as natural
gas, tin, iron ore, coal, lead, zinc limestone, niobium and
arable land for agricultural purposes [6]. The country has
several other renewable energy resources such as biomass,
solar, wind, hydropower etc [4].
Crude oil and natural gas account for about 50% of global
energy resources [7]. On global perspective, Nigeria is ranked
7th and 12th largest exporters and producers crude oil
respectively [8]. It has been reported that Nigeria crude oil and
natural gas resources include 35 – 36.22 billion barrel of crude
oil, 187 trillion standard cubic feet barrel of natural gas and 31
billion barrel of oil equivalent of tar sand [2, 3, 9, 10].
Nigeria have been reported to produce about 6 billion
standard cubic feet of gas per daily [10] and 2.2 – 2.7 million
of crude oil daily [3, 10, 11]. But the production rate varies due
to several factors such as the activities of militants in the oil
rich region of Nigeria, pipeline vandalism, sabotages, oil spills,
among other factors. Of these, the activities of militia in the
region have significantly affected the production rate in
Nigeria. For instance, crude oil production significantly
decreased in first half of 2016 due to activities of militancy
and resource control.
The Nigeria crude oil and natural gas is domicile in the
Niger Delta including Ondo, Edo, Delta, Bayelsa, Rivers,
Abia, Imo, Akwa Ibom and Cross Rivers states. The crude oil
and natural gas is located in both offshore and onshore in the
region. Two major products are produced include crude oil
and natural gas. Both have adverse effect on the environment.
Crude oil could spill into the environment and change the
characteristics of the receiving environment including soil
[12 – 14] and water quality. In some cases, the volatile
49 Enetimi Idah Seiyaboh and Sylvester Chibueze Izah: A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and
Water Resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
components of the crude oil are released into the air. The
natural gas are basically utilized while the excess in flared
into the atmosphere through combustion processes.
Gas flaring is common in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria.
During flaring several pollutants gases are released into the
environment including nitrogen dioxides, sulphur dioxide,
volatile organic compounds like benzene, toluene, xylene,
polyaromatic hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, benzapyrene
and dioxins [15, 16], and particulates.
As such, several impacts (including human and
environmental) are associated to gas flaring. Several studies
have indicates the impacts of gas flaring in the Niger Delta
including vegetation and physical infrastructure such as
roofing sheet, buildings/structures, artifacts, monuments,
paints [15, 17 – 23], pathological and psychological impacts
on human health [24]. As such, several diseases have been
reported to be associated with gas flaring including excessive
heat and discomfort [18], gastrointestinal problems, skin
diseases, cancer, neurological, reproductive and
developmental effects, haematological and respiratory
ailments [15], heart (cardiovascular) related illness including
atherosclerosis, hypertension and ischaemic heart disease [25,
26], renal and related diseases [27], bronchitis, asthma,
cancers and several other diseases [20]. Most of the impacts
are due to indirect effects resulting from acid rain. These could
also affect other biodiversity resources including humans. For
instance, acid rain which could result from gas flaring has the
tendency to cause lung related diseases, and affect aquatic
organisms such as fishes and other wildlife and natural forest
resources such as vegetation. Furthermore, Noise emanating
from the flare could also affect humans residing close/ and or
working close to the vicinity.
As such the exploration of oil and gas and flaring of
natural gas has several environmental impacts. Therefore,
this study reviews the impacts gas flaring on groundwater
resources and vegetation structure and cover in the Niger
Delta region of Nigeria. The paper is organized into 5
sections. Section 1 is the introduction providing information
on oil and gas resources in Nigeria and overview of the
impacts of gas flaring in the Niger Delta. Section 2 discussed
gas flaring in Nigeria. Section 3 discussed the effect of
season and distance of disposal of emission. Section 4
discussed the impact of gas flaring to vegetation and water
resources. Section 5 is conclusion and the way forward.
2. Gas Flaring: A Nigerian Scenario
Globally, high amount of gas is flared in to the
environment by oil and gas producing countries. Nigeria
being among the world producing nations, flare a significant
amount of natural gases into the environment through vertical
and horizontal flaring stack (Figure 1). Globally about 110
billion cubic meters of associated gas is flared per annum
[28]. Ogbe [29] opined that Nigeria account for about 12.5%
global flared gases per annum [29]. The flaring of gases is a
global issue for some decades now [3]. Emam [31] described
gas flaring as the used combustion device (flare stack) to
remove unwanted gases and liquids during operation in many
industrial processes, such as oil-gas extraction, refineries,
chemical plants, coal industry and landfills to prevent
unplanned over-pressuring. Soltanieh et al. [32] also noted
that gas is flared in producing nations due to a number of
reasons such as inadequate infrastructure to collect, treat,
transport and utilize the associated gases; location of the
production site is remote from the market demand (such as
offshore sites); small volume of the gas and its fluctuation,
which make the design of facilities more uncertain and
therefore uneconomical investment; Impurities in the gas that
require hard and expensive treatment methods (such as highly
acidic gases); safety and operational reasons. Gas flaring leads
to release of three major components including noxious gases,
heat and noise.
Figure 1. Gas flaring in a location in the Niger Delta.
International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment 2017; 2(4): 48-55 50
Natural gas can be converted into different form for
downstream applications including electricity generation and
cooking gas. But due to inadequate resources for its
conversation and utilization, oil and gas companies prefers to
flare the gases and pay compensation. According to Donwa et
al. [15], wastage of gases through flaring is carried out due to
problems associated to processing, storing and transporting it
in Nigeria setting.
Nigeria flare significant amount of natural gas into the
environment leading to loss of substantial amount of money
per annum. For instance, World Bank reported that 150 to
170 billion m3 of gases are flared annually, worth up to about
$ 30.6 billion, the price equivalent of one-quarter of the
United States’ gas consumption or 30% of the European
Union’s yearly gas consumption [31]. Lower amount of gas
equivalent have been reported to loss due to gas flaring to the
tone of $2.0 billion per annum [29], $2.5 billion [15, 33].
Despite the incentives to capture the associated gas and
bring it to market, the volume of gas flared is still high.
About 70million /m3 of natural gas are flared per day [34].
On yearly basis, Donwa et al. [15], Ishisone [35] reported that
Nigeria flare about 17.2 billion m3 of natural gas in the Niger
Delta. Between 2006 to 2014 several oil wells were explored
in Nigeria. Table 1 presents information the details of crude oil
and condensate production, total gas and quantity utilized and
flared between 2006 to 2014. Within the period the production,
utilization and quantity flared varies. Also, the amount
targeted could not be met. This is typically attributed to
several reasons including delays in upgrade of facilities to
floody terrain, inadequate line, limited facilities, obsolete
equipment, community disturbance, activities of militia etc.
The demand for gas increase as a result of new opportunities
for gas micro power, combined cycle turbines, independent
power plant, gas to liquids and expansion in liquefied natural
gas trade also contributed to the utilization.
Table 1. Crude oil and gas production and utilization in Nigeria between 2004 to 2014.
Years crude oil and condensate production, barrels Total gas, Billion
Standard Cubic Feet
Quantity of gas
utilized, BSCF
Quantity
flared, BSCF
References
Total Daily average, mmb/pd
2014 798,541,589 2.19 2,524.27 2,233.49 289.60 [36]
2013 800,488,102 2.19 2,325.14 1,916.53 409.31 [37]
2012 852,776,653 2.27 2,580.17 1,991.50 588.67 [38]
2011 866,245,232 2.37 2,400.40 1,781.37 619.03 [39]
2010 896,043,406 2.45 2,392.84 1,811.27 581.57 [40]
2009 780,347,940 2.14 1,837.28 1,327.93 509.35 [41]
2008 768,745,932 2.10 2,282.44 1,664.97 617.62 [42]
2007 803,000,708 2.20 2,415.65 1,626.10 789.55 [43]
2006 869,196,506 2.38 2,182.43 1,382.43 799.99 [44]
Furthermore, Nigeria flares about 11 – 42.54% of total
natural gas produced. These make Nigeria one of the largest
gas flaring nations in the World. Several oil wells are built
with the period of 2004 to 2014, with an average of 155 per
annum. According to Oniemola and Sanusi [45], Nigeria has
about 160 oil fields having about 1500 oil wells that produces
2.2 to 2.7 million barrels/day. The authors reported that of
these, 17 billion m3 of associated gas are flared leading to the
releasing 2,700, 160, 5400, 12million and 3.5 million tons of
particulate, sulphur oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
and methane respectively. The number of wells has far
increased due to continual exploration.
3. Effect of Season and Distance of
Disposal of Emission
Nigeria has two predominant season including wet season
(April to October) and dry season (November to March of the
following year). The rainfall pattern is usually optimum in
June, July and September. The effect of meteorology
especially temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, wind speed
have been reported in the Niger Delta specifically in Bayelsa
state [46].
Season affects the rate of dispersal of pollutants and noise.
Dispersal of pollutants resulting from emissions is affected by
season. For example, Anomohanran [18] reported pollution from
thermal plant within a distance of 2.15 km and 2.06km in wet and
dry season respectively. Several metrological parameters affects
dispersal rate of pollutant gases. Some of the notable once
include wind speed, wind direction, closeness to ocean.
Distance in another major factor that could affect the
emission of pollutants. Emission rate typically decreases as
distance from the source of pollution is increased. Ojeh [47]
reported that in a gas flaring station, the concentration of
noxious gases reduces as the distance increased in gas flaring
site. But the effects of gas flared could be felt within 450m
radius of the flare stack which could be depend on the volume
of gas flared, wind speed, temperature, temperature, velocity
of discharged and height of the stack [47]. In non-gas flaring
site, specifically on oil palm processing mill, emissions also
decreases as the distance from the sources increased [48, 49].
Though, instances of fluctuation in wind speed and direction
during measurement could lead to shorter distance from
emission source having lower values instead of higher values
compared to long distance.
4. Impacts of Gas Flaring on Water
Quality and Vegetation Resources
Gas flaring typically has two valves, the high and low gas
51 Enetimi Idah Seiyaboh and Sylvester Chibueze Izah: A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and
Water Resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
pressure valves. Hence, the concentration of emissions, noise,
released is a function of the valve used in flaring the gas as
well as the physical composition of the gas prior to flaring.
The flared gases affect several environmental components as
well as its biotic composition. The section of the paper affects
the impact of gas flaring on water quality and vegetation
resources.
4.1. Changes in Water Quality
Water resources are typically needed for the sustenance of
life, growth and development [50 – 62]. Water serve as
habitant to several biodiversity especially fisheries (shelled
and finfish), aquatic reptiles, mammals, birds and breeding
ground for several other diversity such as frog, parasite of
medical importance such as Schistome, and vectors
transmitting diseases such as mosquitoes. As such water has a
unique place for life to thrive.
Water is also used for domestic purposes such as washing,
cooking, bathing [63]. Most water resources are from surface
water, groundwater and rainwater [52]. Izah et al. [50] is with
the opinion that groundwater is mostly consumed in the Niger
Delta and surface water and rainwater also serve as potable
water sources in regions that groundwater/ borehole water is
unavailable.
Water is typically impacted by gas flaring activities.
Authors have variously reported that some water quality
parameters of surface water, ground water and rain water are
affected in gas flaring locations in the Niger Delta. For
instance, Dami et al. [64] studied the impacts gas flaring and
oil spillage on rainwater quality for domestic use in Okpai and
Beneku areas of Delta State and reported that temperature,
taste, color, conductivity, total dissolved, salts and alkalinity
were altered when compared to the permissible limits
specified by National Agency for Food and Drug
Administration and Control, United State Environmental
Protection Agency and World Health Organization for
drinking water. Dami et al. [65] studied the impacts of gas
flaring and oil spillage on groundwater quality for domestic
use in Okpai and Beneku areas of Delta State and reported that
color is majorly impacted and to lesser extent conductivity
were affected in some locations due to accumulation of
dissolved salts and other organic materials when compared to
World Health Organization standard. Nwankwo and Ogagarue
[66] studied the effect of gas flaring in surface and
groundwater quality in Delta state and reported that water
from gas flaring area contain higher concentrations of metals
such as barium, cyanide, selenium, cadmium, chromium, iron,
manganese and copper, conductivity, color and taste when
compared to non-flaring location. Emumejaye [67] studied the
effects of gas flaring on surface and ground water in Irri town
and environs and reported that high content of iron and lead in
the water which the author attributed to gas flaring in the area.
Ezenwaji et al. [68] studied the effects of gas flaring on
rainwater quality in Bayelsa State and reported that all the
parameters studied including temperature, lead, conductivity,
total dissolved solid, nitrate, carbonate, sulphate and pH had
values above World Health Organization permissible limits.
The authors further reported that nitrate contributing the
highest of 38.44% to poor quality of rain water in the area.
Amadi [17] reported that concentration of the major anions
(bicarbonate, sulphate and nitrate), temperature, conductivity,
heavy metal content and total hydrocarbon content increase
significantly in the vicinity of the gas flaring location and
steadily declined in surface water, groundwater and rainwater
away from the flaring location. Efe [69] studied the effect of
acid rain and reported that pH values (which is usually used to
measure the acidity of the water) were lower (4.96) in the
Niger Delta compared to coastal region of the Northern
Nigeria with a mean pH of 5.36 which indicate the impact of
acid rain. Other effects of acid rain on water quality have been
comprehensively documented in literature by Ogunkoya and
Efi [70], Ubani and Onyejekwe [23], Olobaniyi et al. [71], Efe
and Mogborukor [72].
Among the water quality parameters commonly affected by
gas flaring is nitrate, carbonate, sulphate, nitrate, lead etc.
Amadi [17] reported that gas flaring reduces pH (pH tending
toward acidity), moisture content and bacteria
density/population. The intensity of the flare with regards to
microbial density in water is usually higher in horizontal flare
compared to the vertical flare stack. The heat from the flare
could enhance the temperature of the environment including
water. High occurrence of sulphate and nitrate ions may be
connected to the emission of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen
oxide during flaring activities. The occurrence of ions in the
water could lead to high conductivity level in water close to
gas flaring location.
4.2. Impact on the Vegetation
Plants are a major source of active nutrients required by the
body. Plants are source of carbohydrate, protein, lipid and
other minerals and vitamins depending on species. Vegetation
is also source of food for livestock especially omnivorous
animals such as goat, cow, grass cutter, rabbits etc. Vegetation
cover is also a source of habitat to several wildlife species
especially bushmeat that do not burrow. Some notable
vegetation is found in close to farmland and residential area
such as cassava and oil palm. These are two predominant
vegetation cover used as food found close to gas flaring
location in the Niger Delta. Gas flaring has the tendency to
affect several plant species [73] especially productivity and
growth [74]. For instance, Lawanson [75] reported that gas
flaring decreases the length and weight of cassava and
increase its amino acid and total sugar contents as the
distance from the flares decreases. The authors furthered
reported that such decreases were also correlated with
decreases in the content of starch and ascorbic acid (vitamin
C) in the tubers. Based on survey study in the Niger Delta
region, 77% of the resident is with the opinion that gas flaring
affect vegetation and agricultural activities [76]. In a similar
study the resident of Ebedei community in Delta state 94.6, 90,
98.75, 50.4 and 5% is with the opinion that gas flaring affect
food such as yam, cassava, okra, plantain and potatoes [74].
Gas flaring can also cause deforestation and acid rain [74].
According to Ezenwaji et al. [68], exploitation of crude oil and
International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment 2017; 2(4): 48-55 52
associated gas flaring is a major contributor of acid rain in the
Niger Delta region of Nigeria has had a fairly long history [68].
Acid rain could lead to loss of vegetation [17] and several
symptoms in plants that could lead to their death. Some of the
notable symptoms include chlorosis, abscission and yellowing
of leaves, wilting of the leaf tips and accelerated senescence,
root and shoot of plants are also destroyed and microbial
community that aid in decompositions processes [69]. The
impacts of acid rain on vegetation structures and cover is most
severe close to gas flaring stack [69].
Acid rain result in the decline in productivity and growth of
some major food crops such as cassava, sweet potatoes, maize,
melon, plantain, and cash crop like rubber [69]. The impacts in
the growth and productivity of crops could also be an
indication that the soil fertility have been impacted upon. This
may lead to loss of vital soil nutrients that encourage the
growth of plants. Other authors have comprehensively
reported the effect acid rain on vegetation have been
documented by Jacobson [77], Neufeld et al. [78], Efe [79].
Plants are known to pharmacological and bioactive
composition [80, 81]. The composition of the bioactive
constitutes play a significant role in determining their
medicinal properties. The effect of gas flaring on the
nutritional and bioactive component of vegetation established.
For instance, Ifemeje [82] reported gas flaring could change
the anti-nutrient compositions (alkaloid, phytate, oxalate,
Saponin, tannin and cyanogenic glycosides) in some common
vegetables used for food purposes such as scent leaf, bitter leaf,
water leaf and fluted pumpkin leaf. Ujowundu et al. [83] also
reported impacts in phytochemical (alkaloid, tannin,
cyanogenic glycoside, phytate), proximate composition
(moisture, ash, protein and carbohydrate), micronutrients
(calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and phosphorus)
and vitamins (riboflavin, vitamin E and C) in African
breadfruit and Bambara groundnuts planted close to gas
flaring stack. Anacletus et al. [84] also reported that
phytochemical (alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and tannins)
and trace metal (iron, lead, cadmium and zinc) constituents of
fluted pumpkin could be affected by gas flaring.
Vegetation plays several ecological roles. For instance Izah
et al. [85] reported that vegetation prevents soil erosion. Gas
flaring is known to cause physical damage to plant close to the
flare stack [17]. This could lead to other downstream impacts.
In addition, gas flaring could alter soil quality parameters [86]
including physiochemical and microbial characteristics. Some
notable soil quality parameters such as pH, temperature, soil
moisture, soil microbial population are commonly impacted
by gas flaring [23]. Okeke and Okpala [86] reported that soil
quality parameters from flaring sites such as temperature and
bulk density decreased with distance from the flare point
while other such as CEC, organic matter, moisture content etc)
increases with distance. The authors further asserted that soil
nutrient were lower in gas flaring environment compared to
the control in Eket and Izombe area of the Niger Delta.
Variation is soil characteristics especially the nutrient related
characteristics may affect the crop productivity indirectly.
Microbes being unique, changes in the soil properties could
alter the microbial diversity and density. Typically microbes
play essential role in nutrient and biogeochemical cycling.
In a survey study, the resident of Okpai, Ndokwa East Local
Government Area, Delta State is with the opinion that gas
flaring is having impact on the soil including its fertility and
productivity for food crops such as cassava, plantain, yam [87].
Also maize is also affected by gas flaring and cassava [88, 89].
5. Conclusion and the Way Forward
The Niger Delta region is one of the most productive and
fragile ecosystem in Nigeria. The area is rich in vegetation
with several pharmacological properties and water resources.
These resources are constantly being destroyed by the
activities of man in quest for industrialization and
urbanization. Several oil and gas installations are found in the
region. Gas is used by gas-turbine for electricity generation.
Despite the huge source of gas available for electricity, the gas
is constantly flared into the environment. While electricity
supply remain epileptic in the region. Nearly 10 – 40% of
natural gas produced is under-utilized and therefore flared into
the environment. Gas flaring are known to have impact on air
quality, physical infrastructure, biodiversity composition
including plants and animals especially insects, impacts on
human health over a prolong period of time and water
resources especially rainwater. Acid rain has been widely
attributed to impact of gas flaring especially in the Niger Delta
region of Nigeria. On water quality, gas flaring alters ions
especially sulphate, carbonate, nitrate, pH, conductivity, lead
and iron concentration especially in rainwater. On vegetation
perspective, it could lead to loss of vegetation cover, reduced
growth and productivity/yield probably due to changes in soil
quality parameters.
Based on the review, the attendant impacts associated with
gas flaring on vegetation and water quality could be reduced
through:
a. utilization of the gas and generation of revenue from it,
promulgation of associated gas re-injection and
amendment of flaring policy to more reasonable amount
[67].
b. enforcement of laws aimed at minimizing the amount of
gas flared into the atmosphere [68].
References
[1] Mogborukor, J. O. A. (2014). The Impact of Oil Exploration
and Exploitation on Water Quality and Vegetal Resources in a
Rain Forest Ecosystem of Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of
Social Sciences, 5 (27): 1678 – 1685.
[2] Ohimain, E. I. (2013). Can the Nigerian biofuel policy and
incentives (2007) transform Nigeria into a biofuel economy?
Energy Policy, 54: 352 – 359.
[3] Ohimain, E. I. (2013). The challenges of liquid transportation
fuels in Nigeria and the emergence of the Nigerian automotive
biofuel programme. Research Journal of Applied Sciences,
Engineering and Technology, 5 (16): 4058 – 4065.
53 Enetimi Idah Seiyaboh and Sylvester Chibueze Izah: A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and
Water Resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
[4] Izah, S. C. and Ohimain, E. I. (2015). Bioethanol production
from cassava mill effluents supplemented with solid
agricultural residues using bakers’ yeast [Saccharomyces
cerevisiae]. Journal of Environmental Treatment Techniques, 3
(1): 47 – 54.
[5] Ede, P. N. and Edokpa, D. O. (2015). Regional Air Quality of
the Nigeria’s Niger Delta. Open Journal of Air Pollution, 4:
7-15.
[6] Ohimain, E. I., Emeti, C. I., Izah, S. C. (2014). Employment
and socioeconomic effects of semi-mechanized palm oil mill in
Bayelsa state, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension
and Sociology, 3 (3): 206-216.
[7] Ohimain, E. I. (2010). Petroleum Geomicrobiology. In: Jain, S.
K., Khan, A. A., Rain, M. K., (Editors). Geomicrobiology:
Biodiversity and Biotechnology. CRC Press/Taylor and Francis,
Boca Raton, Florida, USA. Pp. 139 – 174.
[8] Ohimain, E. I. (2013). Environmental impacts of smallholder
ethanol production from cassava feedstock for the replacement
of kerosene household cooking fuel in Nigeria. Energy Sources,
Part A. 35: 1560 – 1565.
[9] Ohimain, E. I. (2013). A review of the Nigeria biofuel policy
and incentives (2007). Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews, 22: 246 – 256.
[10] Sambo, A. S. (2008). The role of energy in achieving
millennium development goal (MDGs). Keynote address at the
national engineering technology conference (NETec 2008).
Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria held on 1st of April, 2008.
[11] Fadare, D. A., Bamiro, O. A. and Oni, A. O. (2009). Energy
analysis for production of powdered and pelletised organic
fertilizer in Nigeria. ARPN Journal of Engineering and Applied
Sciences, 4 (4): 75 – 82.
[12] Aigberua, A. O., Ekubo, A. T., Inengite, A. K. and Izah, S. C.
(2017). Assessment of some selected heavy metals and their
pollution indices in an oil spill contaminated soil in the Niger
Delta: a case of Rumuolukwu community. Biotechnological
Research, 3 (1): 11- 19.
[13] Aigberua, A. O., Ekubo, A. T., Inengite, A. K. and Izah, S. C.
(2016). Evaluation of Total Hydrocarbon Content and Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbon in an Oil Spill Contaminated Soil in
Rumuolukwu Community in Niger Delta. Journal of
Environmental Treatment Techniques, 4 (4): 130 – 142.
[14] Aigberua, A. O., Ekubo, A. T., Inengite, A. K. and Izah, S. C.
(2016b). Seasonal variation of nutrient composition in an oil
spill contaminated soil: a case of Rumuolukwu, Eneka, Port
Harcourt, Nigeria. Biotechnological Research, 2 (4): 179-186.
[15] Donwa, P. A., Mgbame, C. O., Utomwen, O. A. (2015). Gas
flaring in the oil and gas sector in Nigeria. International
Journal of Commerce and Management Research, 1 (1): 28-39.
[16] Adamu, H. and Umar, B. A. (2013). Occurrence and Chemistry
of Co-contamination of Nitrate and Hydrocarbon Pollutants in
Gas-Flared Areas of Niger-Delta, Nigeria. International
Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 1 (4):
139-146.
[17] Amadi, A. N. (2014). Impact of Gas-Flaring on the Quality of
Rain Water, Groundwater and Surface Water in Parts of Eastern
Niger Delta, Nigeria. Journal of Geosciences and Geomatics, 2
(3): 114-119.
[18] Anomohanran, O. (2012). Thermal Effect of Gas Flaring at
Ebedei Area of Delta State, Nigeria. The Pacific Journal of
Science and Technology, 13 (2): 555 – 560.
[19] Iyorakpo, J. and Odibikuma, P. W. (2015). Impact of gas flaring
on the built Environment: the case of Ogba/Egbema/Ndoni
Local Govt Area, Rivers State, Nigeria. European Scientific
Journal, 11 (26): 83 – 95.
[20] Olukoya, O. A. P. (2015). Negative Effects of Gas Flaring On
Buildings and Public Health in Oil Producing Communities: The
OgbiaCommunity, Bayelsa State Case. International Journal of
Environmental Monitoring and Protection, 2 (5): 52-61.
[21] Nkwocha, E. E. and Pat-Mbano, E. C. (2010). Effect of Gas
Flaring on Buildings in the Oil Producing Rural Communities of
River State, Nigeria. African Research Review, 4 (2): 90-102.
[22] Abua, M. A. and Ashua, S. W. (2015). The Impact of Gas
Flaring on Plant Diversity in Ibeno Local Government Area.
Journal of Agriculture and Ecology Research International, 4
(1): 10-17.
[23] Ubani, E. C. and Onyejekwe, I. M. (2013). Environmental
impact analyses of gas flaring in the Niger delta region of
Nigeria. American Journal of Scientific and Industrial
Research, 4 (2): 246-252.
[24] Nriagu, J., Udofia, E. A., Ekong, I. and Ebuk, G. (2016). Health
Risks Associated with Oil Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public
Health, 13, 346; doi: 10.3390/ijerph13030346.
[25] Egwurugwu, J. N., Nwafor A, Chinko BC, Oluronfemi OJ,
Iwuji SC, Nwankpa, P. (2013). Effects of prolonged exposure
to gas flares on the lipid profile of humans in the Niger Delta
region, Nigeria. American Journal of Research Communication,
1 (5): 115-145.
[26] Egwurugwu, J. N. and Nwafor, A. (2013). Prolonged Exposure
to Oil and Gas Flares Ups the Risks for Hypertension.
American Journal of Health Research 1 (3): 65-72.
[27] Egwurugwu, J. N., Nwafor, A., Oluronfemi, O. J., Iwuji, S. C.
and Alagwu, E. A. (2013). Impact of Prolonged Exposure to
Oil and Gas Flares on Human Renal Functions. International
Research Journal of Medical Sciences, 1 (11): 9-16.
[28] Ismail, O. S. and Umukoro, G. E. (2012). Global Impact of Gas
Flaring. Energy and Power Engineering, 4: 290-302.
[29] Ogbe, E. (2010). Optimization of strategies for natural gas
utilization: case study of the Niger Delta. A Thesis presented to
the department of petroleum engineering, African University of
Science and Technology.
[30] Otiotio, D. (2013). Gas Flaring Regulation in the Oil and Gas
Industry: A Comparative Analysis of Nigeria and Texas
Regulations.
[31] Emam, E. A. (2015). Gas Flaring In Industry: An Overview.
Petroleum and Coal, 57 (5): 532-555.
[32] Soltanieh, M., Zohrabian, A., Gholipour, M. J. and Kalnay, E.
(2016). A review of global gas flaring and venting and impact
on the environment: Case study of Iran. International Journal
of Greenhouse Gas Control, 49: 488–509.
[33] Ajugwo, A. O. (2013). Negative Effects of Gas Flaring: The
Nigerian Experience. Journal of Environment Pollution and
Human Health, 1 (1): 6-8.
International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment 2017; 2(4): 48-55 54
[34] Emoyan, O. O., Akpoborie, I. A. and Akporhonor, E. E. (2008).
The Oil and Gas Industry and the Niger Delta: implications for
the Environment. J. Appl. Sci. Environ. Manage., 12 (3): 29 –
37.
[35] Ishisone, M. (Undated). Gas Flaring in the Niger Delta: the
Potential Benefits of its Reduction on the Local Economy and
Environment.
http://nature.berkeley.edu/classes/es196/projects/2004final/Ish
one.pdf, Assessed June 4th, 2016.
[36] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) (2014).
Annual statistical bulletin. 1st Edition. Corporate planning and
development division (CPDD).
[37] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) (2013).
Annual statistical bulletin. 1st Edition. Corporate planning and
development division (CPDD).
[38] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) (2012).
Annual statistical bulletin. 1st Edition. Corporate planning and
development division (CPDD).
[39] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) (2011).
Annual statistical bulletin. 1st Edition. Corporate planning and
development division (CPDD).
[40] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) (2010).
Annual statistical bulletin. 1st Edition. Corporate planning and
development division (CPDD).
[41] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) (2009).
Annual statistical bulletin. Draft Edition. (Web Version).
Corporate planning and development division (CPDD).
[42] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) (2008).
Annual statistical bulletin. 1st Edition. (Web Version).
Corporate planning and development division (CPDD).
[43] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) (2007).
Annual statistical bulletin. 2nd Edition. (Web Version).
Corporate planning and development division (CPDD).
[44] Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation (NNPC) (2006).
Annual statistical bulletin. 1st Edition. (Web Version).
Corporate planning and development division (CPDD).
[45] Oniemola, P. K. and Sanusi, G. (2009). The Nigerian biofuel
policy and incentives (2007); a need to follow the Brazilian
pathway. International Association for Energy Economics, 4th
Quarter, pp: 135-139.
[46] Izah, S. C., Angaye, T. C. N. and Ohimain, E. I. (2015).
Climate change: some meteorological indicators and
perception of farmers in Yenagoa metropolis, Bayelsa state,
Nigeria. International Journal of Geology, Agriculture and
Environmental Sciences, 3 (1): 56 – 60.
[47] Ojeh, V. N. (2012). Sustainable Development and Gas Flaring
Activities: a Case Study of Ebedei Area of Ukwuani LGA,
Delta State, Nigeria. Resources and Environment, 2 (4):
169-174.
[48] Ohimain, E. I. and Izah, S. C. (2013). Gaseous emissions from
a semi-mechanized oil palm processing mill in Bayelsa state,
Nigeria. Continental Journal of Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 4
(1): 15 – 25.
[49] Ohimain, E. I., Izah, S. C. and Abah, S. O. (2013). Air quality
impacts of smallholder oil palm processing in Nigeria. Journal
of Environmental Protection, 4: 83-98.
[50] Izah, S. C., Chakrabarty, N. and Srivastav, A. L. (2016a). A
Review on Heavy Metal Concentration in Potable Water
Sources in Nigeria: Human Health Effects and Mitigating
Measures. Exposure and Health, 8: 285–304.
[51] Izah, S. C. and Ineyougha, E. R. (2015). A review of the
microbial quality of potable water sources in Nigeria.
Journal of Advances in Biological and Basic Research, 1 (1):
12 – 19.
[52] Izah, S. C. and Srivastav, A. L. (2015). Level of arsenic in
potable water sources in Nigeria and their potential health
impacts: A review. Journal of Environmental Treatment
Techniques, 3 (1): 15 – 24.
[53] Agedah, E. C., Ineyougha, E. R., Izah, S. C., and Orutugu, L. A.
(2015). Enumeration of total heterotrophic bacteria and some
physico-chemical characteristics of surface water used for
drinking sources in Wilberforce Island, Nigeria. Journal of
Environmental Treatment Techniques, 3 (1): 28 – 34.
[54] Ogamba, E. N., Izah, S. C. and Oribu, T. (2015). Water quality
and proximate analysis of Eichhornia crassipes from River Nun,
Amassoma Axis, Nigeria. Research Journal of Phytomedicine,
1 (1): 43 – 48.
[55] Ogamba, E. N., Izah, S. C. and Toikumo, B. P. (2015). Water
quality and levels of lead and mercury in Eichhornia crassipes
from a tidal creek receiving abattoir effluent, in the Niger Delta,
Nigeria. Continental Journal of Environmental Science, 9 (1):
13 – 25.
[56] Ogamba, E. N., Seiyaboh, E. I., Izah, S. C., Ogbugo, I. and
Demedongha, F. K. (2015c). Water quality, phytochemistry and
proximate constituents of Eichhornia crassipes from Kolo
creek, Niger Delta, Nigeria. International Journal of Applied
Research and Technology, 4 (9): 77 – 84.
[57] Ogamba, E. N., Ebere, N. and Ekuma, C. G. (2017).
Physicochemistry and Ichthyofauna of Ikoli Creek, Niger Delta,
Nigeria. Biotechnol Res 3 (2): 43-49.
[58] Seiyaboh, E. I., Izah, S. C. and Oweibi, S. (2017).
Physico-chemical Characteristics of Sediment from Sagbama
Creek, Nigeria. Biotechnological Research, 3 (1): 25-28.
[59] Seiyaboh, E. I., Izah, S. C. and Oweibi, S. (2017). Assessment
of Water quality from Sagbama Creek, Niger Delta, Nigeria.
Biotechnological Research, 3 (1): 20-24.
[60] Seiyaboh, E. I., Harry, G. A. and Izah, S. C. (2016).
Length-Weight Relationship and Condition Factor of Five Fish
Species from River Brass, Niger Delta. Biotechnological
Research, 2 (4): 187-192.
[61] Seiyaboh, E. I., Inyang, I. R. and Izah, S. C. (2016). Spatial
Variation in Physico-chemical Characteristics of Sediment
from Epie Creek, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Greener Journal of
Environment Management and Public Safety, 5 (5): 100 –
105.
[62] Seiyaboh, E. I., Inyang, I. R. and Izah, S. C. (2016). Seasonal
Variation of Physico-Chemical Quality of Sediment from Ikoli
Creek, Niger Delta. International Journal of Innovative
Environmental Studies Research, 4 (4): 29-34.
[63] Oyoroko, E. and Ogamba, E. N. (2017). Effects of detergent
containing linear alkyl benzene sulphonate on behavioural
response of Heterobranchus bidorsalis, Clarias gariepinus and
Heteroclarias. Biotechnol. Res. 3 (3): 55-58.
55 Enetimi Idah Seiyaboh and Sylvester Chibueze Izah: A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and
Water Resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
[64] Dami, A., Ayuba, H. K. and Amukali, O. (2012). Effects of Gas
Flaring and Oil Spillage on Rainwater Collected for Drinking
in Okpai and Beneku, Delta State, Nigeria. Global Journal of
Human Social Science Geography & Environmental
GeoScience, 12 (13): 25- 29.
[65] Dami, A., Ayuba, H. K. and Amukali, O. (2013). Ground water
pollution in Okpai and Beneku, Ndokwa east local government
area, delta state, Nigeria. E3 Journal of Environmental
Research and Management, 4 (1): 0171-0179.
[66] Nwankwo, C. N. and Ogagarue, D. O. (2011). Effects of gas
flaring on surface and ground waters in Delta State Nigeria.
Journal of Geology and Mining Research, 3 (5): 131-136.
[67] Emumejaye, K. (2012). Effects of Gas Flaring On Surface and
Ground Water in Irri Town and Environs, Niger-Delta, Nigeria.
IOSR Journal Of Environmental Science, Toxicology And Food
Technology, 1 (5): 29-33.
[68] Ezenwaji, E. E., Okoye, A. C. and Otti, V. I. (2013). Effects of
gas flaring on rainwater quality in Bayelsa State, Eastern
Niger-Delta region, Nigeria. Journal of Toxicology and
Environmental Health Sciences, 5 (6): 97-105.
[69] Efe, S. I. (2011). Spatial Variation of Acid Rain and its
Ecological Effect in Nigeria. Proceedings of the Environmental
Management Conference, Federal University of Agriculture,
Abeokuta, Nigeria, pp 381 – 396.
[70] Ogunkoya, O. O. and Efi, E. J. (2003). Rainfall quality and
sources of rainwater acidity in Warri area of the Niger Delta,
Nigeria. Journal of Mining and Geology, 39 (2): 125-130.
[71] Olobaniyi, S. B.; Ogban, F. E.; Ejechi, B. O. and Ugbe, F. C.
(2007), Quality of Groundwater in Delta State, Nigeria. Journal
of environmental Hydrology, 15: 1-9.
[72] Efe, S. I. and Mogborukor J. O. A. (2008). Acid rain in the
Niger Delta region: Implication on Water Resource Crises,
Proceedings, International Conference on the Nigerian State,
Oil industry and the Niger Delta, 11-13th March, 2008, Glory
land Cultural Centre, Yenagoa, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.
[73] Achi, C. (2003). Hydrocarbon exploitation, environmental
degradation and poverty: the Niger Delta experience. Diffuse
Pollution Conference, Dublin 2003 2B Policy /
Socio-Economics.
[74] Ozabor, F. and Obisesan, A. (2015). Gas Flaring: Impacts on
Temperature, Agriculture and the People of Ebedei in Delta
State Nigeria. Journal of Sustainable Society, 4 (2): 5-12.
[75] Lawanson, A. O., lmevbore, A. M. A. and Fanimokun, V. O.
(Undated). The Effects of Waste-Gas Flares on the Surrounding
Cassava Plantations in the Niger Delta Regions of Nigeria.
http://www.istrc.org/images/Documents/Symposiums/Sixth/6t
h_symposium_proceedings_0041_section_3_239.pdf.
Accessed September 21st, 2016.
[76] Adewale, O. O. and Mustapha, U. (2015). The Impact of Gas
Flaring in Nigeria. International Journal of Science,
Technology and Society, 3 (2): 40-50.
[77] Jacobson, J. S. (1984). Effect of Acidic Aerosol, fog, Mist and
Rain on Crops and Trees, Phill. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond. B 49:
327-338.
[78] Neufeld, H. S., Jernstedt, J. A. and Haines, B. L. (1985). Direct
Foliar Effects of Simulated Acid Rain, I. Damage, Growth and
Gas Exchange New Phytologist, 99 (3): 389-405.
[79] Efe, S. I. (2010). Spatial variation in acid and some heavy metal
composition of rainwater harvesting in the oil producing region
of Nigeria. Natural Hazard, DOI 10.1007/s11069-010-9526-2.
[80] Epidi, J. O, Izah, S. C. and Ohimain, E. I., Epidi, T. T, (2016).
Phytochemical, antibacterial and synergistic potency of tissues
of Vitex grandifolia. Biotechnological Research, 2 (2): 69-76.
[81] Epidi, J. O., Izah, S. C. and Ohimain, E. I. (2016). Antibacterial
and Synergistic Efficacy of Extracts of Alstonia boonei Tissues.
British Journal of Applied Research, 1 (1): 0021-0026.
[82] Ifemeje, J. C. (2015). Effect of Gas Flaring on the
Anti-nutritional Composition of Four Green Leafy Vegetables
from Eleme in Rivers State, Nigeria. Columbia International
Publishing International Journal of Environmental Pollution
and Solutions, 3 (1): 31-37.
[83] Ujowundu, C. O., Nwaogu, L. A., Ujowundu, F. N. and
Belonwu, D. C. (2013). Effect of Gas Flaring on the
Phytochemical and Nutritional Composition of Treculia
Africana and Vigna subterranean, British Biotechnology
Journal, 3 (3): 293-304.
[84] Anacletus, F., Adisa, O. I. and Uwakwe, A. (2014). Effect of
Gas Flaring on Some Phytochemicals and Trace Metals of
Fluted Pumpkin (Telferia occidentalis). Journal of
Environment and Earth Science, 4 (16): 1 – 5.
[85] Izah, S. C., Angaye, T. C. N. and Ohimain, E. I. (2016).
Environmental Impacts of Oil palm processing in Nigeria.
Biotechnological Research, 2 (3): 132-141.
[86] Okeke, P. N. and Okpala C. Q. (2014). Effects of gas flaring on
selected arable soil quality indicators in the Niger Delta,
Nigeria. Sky Journal of Soil Science and Environmental
Management, 3 (1): 001 – 005.
[87] Olisemauche, O. O. and Avwerosuoghene, O. P. (2015). The
effect of gas flaring on Agricultural production of Okpai,
Ndukwa East Local Government Area, Delta State, Nigeria.
Standard Scientific Research and Essays, 3 (9): 266-272.
[88] Odjugo, P. A. O. and Osemwenkhae, E. J. (2009). Natural gas
flaring affects microclimate and reduces maize (Zea mays)
yield. Int. J. Agri. Biol., 11: 408─412.
[89] Odjugo, P. A. O. (2007). Some Effects of Gas Flaring on the
Microclimate of Yam and Cassava Production in Erhorike and
Environs. Delta State, Nigeria. Nigerian Geograhical J. 5:
43-54.
Chapter
The One Health concept recognizes the interconnectedness of humans, biodiversity, and environmental well-being. This chapter highlights that air pollution is a significant global issue that has substantial consequences for humans, biodiversity, and ecosystem status and health. The three main categories of air pollutants are physical pollutants, such as smoke and particulate matter, chemical pollutants, such as nitrogen oxides and persistent organic pollutants, and biological pollutants, such as bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Various factors, including geography, weather, emission sources, population density, land use patterns, air mass movements, regulatory actions, seasonal oscillations, and chemical reactions, influence the spread of air pollution. To mitigate the One Health impacts of air pollution, governments, corporations, communities, and individuals need to collaborate in implementing policies aimed at decreasing emissions, embracing cleaner energy and transportation technologies, enhancing urban green areas, and raising public awareness about the health hazards linked to air pollution. To also exert influence on policy changes aimed at achieving a cleaner and healthier environment, one can employ effective strategies such as conducting public awareness campaigns, implementing stringent laws for industries and automobiles, advocating for sustainable energy and transportation alternatives, and developing urban green infrastructure.
Chapter
Air pollution from multiple sources causes various short-term health effects, primarily affecting the respiratory and cardiovascular systems. The main pollutants causing these effects are particulate matter, nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ozone, and carbon monoxide. Short-term exposure to elevated levels of particulate matter consists of tiny particles in the air that can penetrate the respiratory system, causing health problems include eye and throat irritation, exacerbation of respiratory conditions, and cardiovascular abnormalities. Nitrogen dioxide can lead to lung and respiratory irritation, exacerbating bronchoconstriction and increasing respiratory symptoms, particularly in individuals with pre-existing conditions. Sulfur dioxide exposure can lead to respiratory problems such as eye and throat irritation and exacerbate asthma symptoms. Exposure to ozone can cause respiratory discomfort, exacerbate asthma symptoms, and contribute to respiratory infections, especially during outdoor activities. Carbon monoxide impairs the body’s ability to transport oxygen, leading to symptoms such as headaches, dizziness, and nausea. Elevated levels can lead to severe health complications, including loss of consciousness and fatality. Immediate strategies to tackle these impacts involve stringent regulations for emission control, public education campaigns to raise awareness about pollution sources and self-protection measures, urban development schemes to reduce traffic congestion and enhance green spaces, and swift emergency procedures for high pollution periods. Collaboration among governments, companies, and communities is necessary to ensure adherence to air quality rules. This will aid in safeguarding public health and advocating for sustainable approaches to mitigate the direct impacts of air pollution.
Chapter
Air pollution is a major environmental issue due to its substantial effects on ecosystem dynamics and conditions. This chapter discusses the consequences of air pollution on ecosystems, focusing on the causes, chemical composition, and resulting disruptions to ecology and the atmosphere. Air pollution stems from natural and anthropogenic factors, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, industrial pollutants, farming methods, and automobile emissions. Secondary pollutants like smog and acid rain are created when air pollutants interact in the atmosphere, further harming ecosystems. Air pollution significantly impacts atmospheric processes. Pollutants influence Earth’s radiative balance by absorbing and scattering sunlight, thus affecting weather patterns and contributing to climate change. Greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere, leading to altered precipitation patterns, more frequent extreme weather events, and rising sea levels, all of which exacerbate global warming. These changes threaten biodiversity, agriculture, and water supply. Air pollution negatively affects terrestrial ecosystems through processes like acid deposition and nutrient imbalances. Acid rain increases soil acidity, releasing toxic metals and depleting essential minerals, which harms plant health, reduces agricultural output, and disturbs forest ecosystems. Ground-level ozone, created by photochemical reactions involving NOx and VOCs, can inhibit photosynthesis, reducing agricultural yields and hindering forest growth. Aquatic habitats are similarly affected by air pollution. Acid rain increases the acidity of water bodies, altering their chemical composition and affecting marine life viability. Elevated nitrogen levels from atmospheric deposition and agricultural runoff lead to eutrophication, characterized by excessive algal growth, which creates ocean dead zones devoid of marine life. This imbalance threatens biodiversity, jeopardizes fisheries, and impacts human health. Targeted strategies like emission-reducing legislation are essential to mitigating the harmful effects of air pollution on the environment. International cooperation is crucial, as air pollution is a transboundary issue requiring global solutions. Public awareness and involvement are also vital to support pollution-reducing legislation and encourage behavioral changes.
Chapter
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are complex chemical contaminants that have an equal impact on environmental sustainability and public health. They are found in diverse environmental matrices including soil, water, air, and even food. PAHs are produced by several processes, including industry, automobile emissions, and home heating, and they contribute to both indoor and outdoor air pollution. They are also produced through natural processes. PAHs can build up in soil, water, and sediments due to their notorious environmental persistency. PAHs can bioaccumulate and travel long-distance in air environments and also present health risks to humans upon exposure. Their wide distribution demonstrates their ecological implications, which affect human, biodiversity ecosystem health. Human exposure to PAHs can occur from inhaling contaminated air, eating or drinking contaminated food or drink, or skin contact. This can lead to a wide range of health issues. Because some of the congeners of PAH are carcinogenic, thus, exposure to PAHs is associated with an increased risk of lung, skin, and bladder cancer. Additionally, they play a part in non-carcinogenic health impacts such as anomalies in the nervous system, respiratory and cardiovascular diseases, and immune system failure. Because of the toxicity and persistence of PAHs, robust mitigating strategies are needed. Strict legislative restrictions on emissions, technological developments in pollution control, and raising public awareness to reduce exposure dangers should all be part of these strategies.
Chapter
This chapter thoroughly explores modeling and statistical approaches for addressing the persistent global challenge of air pollution, emphasizing its significant impact on public health and environmental sustainability. From a historical perspective, the study traces the evolution from localized industrial impacts to current transboundary and global considerations, with examples from Africa highlighting the historical context and environmental awareness. Modeling and statistical methodologies, including dispersion models, time series analysis, source apportionment techniques, and machine learning applications, and this chapter highlights their historical significance as well as current and future relevance for air pollution mitigation. Furthermore, contemporary modeling approaches, categorized into atmospheric dispersion modeling, chemical transport models, and hybrid models, provide unique insights into pollutant behavior. Statistical techniques involving time series analysis, source apportionment, and machine learning applications showcase their adaptability in diverse air pollution contexts. Case studies involving urban air quality modeling, industrial emissions, and regional/global perspectives, highlighting challenges and effective mitigation strategies. The analysis of challenges and limitations emphasizes issues such as data quality, model validation, uncertainty, and computational complexity, crucial for refining methodologies. Future directions outline emerging technologies, remote sensing, IoT integration, and the role of air pollution analysis in policy formulation, signaling a new era of proactive air quality management informed by cutting-edge technologies. By addressing challenges and embracing emerging technologies, the scientific community can contribute to effective air quality management and sustainable environmental practices.
Chapter
Full-text available
The emergence of new chemical air pollutants presents a serious threat to environmental integrity and public health. Originating primarily from industrial activities, vehicle emissions, and various other sources, these pollutants have wide-ranging effects on ecosystems and human populations. This paper examines the complex relationship between chemical air pollutants and their impacts on human health. Key pollutants include volatile organic compounds, particulate matter, trace metals, persistent organic pollutants, nanoparticles, and endocrine disruptors. Exposure to these substances can lead to a variety of health issues, such as respiratory diseases, cancer, neurological damage, hormonal imbalances, cardiovascular problems, and developmental and reproductive disorders. Tackling this complex problem requires a comprehensive approach that combines legislative action, technological innovation, pollution control measures, and public education. Effective mitigation of chemical air pollution and protection of human health and environmental stability depends on coordinated efforts among governments, industries, academic institutions, and communities.
Chapter
Air pollution, caused by vehicular emissions, industrial pollutants, natural disasters, and domestic fuel consumption, remains a global concern. Major pollutants including PM2.5, PM10, ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, dioxins, PCBs, trace metals (e.g., lead, mercury), PAHs, volatile and semivolatile organic compounds, and others contribute to respiratory, cardiovascular, and neurological diseases as well as cancers and endocrine disruptions. This chapter is a call to action to urgently address the impacts of air pollution and air pollutants. While international efforts have reduced air pollution-related mortality and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs), disparities persist, particularly in low- and low-middle sociodemographic index (SDI) regions. Public health strategies, including regulatory measures such as air quality monitoring and emission standards, community engagement through public awareness campaigns, educational programs, economic interventions like pollution taxes and clean technology subsidies are crucial. Achieving sustainable clean air requires technology innovation, stringent regulations, community involvement, financial incentives, and international cooperation. These efforts are essential to control air pollution effectively and advance toward a sustainable, pollution-free society globally.
Chapter
Full-text available
As air pollution stems from diverse sources, it poses a significant threat to human health on a global scale. This chapter focuses on the principles, research, and innovations of air pollution. Factors such as vehicle emissions, industrial processes, human activities, and natural sources collectively contribute to a complex network of pollutants affecting air quality. Analyzing air pollution patterns regionally and globally often reveals distinct dispersals influenced by topography, weather conditions, and human actions. This assessment considers both immediate health impacts, such as respiratory and cardiovascular issues, and long-term consequences like chronic illnesses and developmental problems. Targeted interventions are imperative, particularly for vulnerable populations like children, the elderly, and individuals with pre-existing medical conditions. Case studies from different regions highlight the diverse and intense health effects linked to air pollution, emphasizing the urgent need for a global solution to this problem. The Air Quality Index (AQI) and associated health advisories can provide a framework for comprehending pollution levels and taking appropriate measures. Mitigating health risks associated with air pollution requires the implementation of legislation, public health initiatives, and awareness campaigns. Furthermore, innovative research, community engagement, collaboration, and policy initiatives on air quality-related issues are essential. The chapter concludes with a compelling call for lawmakers, healthcare providers, and the general public to collaborate in reducing air pollution for the betterment of human health, emphasizing the intrinsic link between air quality and well-being.
Chapter
Full-text available
Biological monitoring of air pollutants has emerged as a vital tool in assessing the impact of air pollution on human health and the environment. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the principles, methods, applications, and challenges associated with the biological monitoring of air pollutants. It discusses the advantages of biological monitoring over traditional air quality monitoring methods, highlighting its ability to directly measure pollutant exposure and integrate biological responses as indicators of environmental stress. Biological monitoring methods for air pollutants encompass a range of techniques, including biomarker analysis, bioassays, and ecological indicators. Biomarkers, such as oxidative stress markers, genotoxicity assays, and inflammatory mediators are useful for quantifying pollutant-induced biological effects in humans and other organisms. Bioassays, which utilize living organisms to detect and quantify pollutants in air samples, offer insights into the toxicity and ecological impact of airborne contaminants. Additionally, ecological indicators, such as lichens, mosses, and indicator species, are valuable tools for assessing long-term air quality trends and ecosystem health. Plants such as mosses, lichens, and vascular plants like Robinia pseudoacacia, Pseudoscleropodium purum, Pseudevernia furfuracea, Xanthoria parietina, Tradescantia pallida, and Tillandsia species have been extensively studied for their ability to serve as reliable indicators of air pollution. These plants exhibit direct physical changes, gene expression alterations, and distribution and diversity shifts in response to air pollutants. Despite its numerous advantages, biological monitoring of air pollutants faces challenges that must be addressed to ensure its effectiveness and reliability. These challenges include standardization of biomarker assays, selection of appropriate indicator species, interpretation of complex biological responses, and integration of biological monitoring data into air quality management frameworks. Overcoming these challenges requires interdisciplinary collaborations amongst scientists, regulators, and policymakers to develop standardized protocols, improve data interpretation methods, and enhance the utility of biological monitoring in air quality management. In conclusion, biological monitoring of air pollutants offers a powerful approach to assessing the health and environmental impacts of air pollution.
Chapter
Full-text available
The chapter emphasizes the importance of understanding the One Health implications of air pollution through a thorough assessment of its interconnected effects on human, biodiversity, and environmental health. The One Health approach, which addresses health challenges at the intersections of these domains (human, biodiversity, and environmental health), is explored with a focus on the impacts on humans and broader health effects. The chapter discusses interrelated systems, exposure pathways, case studies, policy implications, collaboration, and future research possibilities. The chapter highlights the significant impact of air quality on human health, emphasizing wider health consequences and the disruption of environmental equilibrium. The effectiveness of the One Health approach to air quality assessment offers valuable insights into viable solutions to air pollutants. The governance environment around air pollution is examined, considering regulatory frameworks, national/regional policies, and international activities. The chapter also highlights the importance of interdisciplinary collaboration, effective communication strategies, and public awareness to address air pollution challenges. Future studies should explore lesser-known facets and integrate research with the Sustainable Development Goals. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the need for teamwork and individual responsibility to address the diverse problems posed by air pollution and protect the environment, animals, and public health.
Article
Full-text available
Residents of the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria have been exposed for decades now to the hazards of the oil and gas industry operations such as gas flaring. This study was aimed at assessing the potential harmful effects on the lipid profile of some of the residents exposed to prolonged gas flares. Seven hundred and ninety subjects were recruited voluntarily from two communities in Imo East Senatorial zone of Nigeria. The test community subjects have been exposed to gas flaring for more than forty five years while the control subjects were unexposed to gas flaring though residents of both communities share a lot of common characteristics. Blood samples were collected from each subject and analyzed for serum total cholesterol (TC), triglyceride(TG) and high density lipoprotein(HDL). Low density lipoprotein(LDL), very low density lipoprotein(VLDL) levels were calculated using standard formulae. Lipid profile ratios: TC/HDL, TG/HDL,LDL/HDL and HDL/VLDL were also calculated. Results showed that serum levels of TC,TG, LDL, TC/HDL, LDL/HDL and HDL/VLDL were significantly increased in the test subjects when compared with the controls (p<0.05).The serum level of HDL was statistically higher in the control subjects compared with the test subjects(p<0.05). In conclusion, prolonged exposure to gas flares may contribute to increased dyslipidemia, this may increase the prevalence of cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis, hypertension and ischaemic heart disease. The hyperlipidemia can be attributed to the presence of heavy metals in flared gas.
Article
Full-text available
The study determined the impact of gas flaring on some phytochemical and trace metal compositions of Telferia occidentalis in Obrikom, a gas flaring community. Plants for the study were obtained from farmlands in the gas flaring community in Rivers State, Nigeria and values obtained were compared with those from non gas flaring community (Rumualogu). The phytochemical composition (mg/100g) of Telferia occidentalis leaves grown both in gas flaring and non gas flaring sites was measured. The results obtained from non-gas flaring community are alkaloid (3.34 ± 0.006), flavonoid (6.67±0.009), saponins (8.21±0.020) and tannins (0.01±0.001) while the values from the gas flaring community are alkaloid (2.18±0.004), flavonoid (0.83±0.001), saponins (2.22±0.009) and tannins (0.46±0.012). The findings showed that plants in gas flaring community had reduced phytochemicals except tannins which increased significantly (P>0.05). There was significant increase (P>0.05) in the levels of Fe (2.78±0.01 to 3.51±0.02), Zn (0.90±0.06 to 1.30±0.02), Pb (0.21±0.01 to 0.54±0.01) and Cd (0.00±0.00 to 0.07±0.01) when the leaves grown in a non gas flaring site were compared with the gas flaring site samples. However, there was no significant difference in Cr concentration of the vegetable from both sites; Cr (0.2±0.01 to 0.06±0.01). All these may have possible implication on the nutritional and medicinal values of Telferia occidentalis.
Article
Full-text available
This study evaluated the physico-chemical properties of Sagbama creek. Samples were collected from 5 locations at sub depth of 5 to 15cm in triplicate. The water was analyzed using standard procedures. Resulted showed that pH (6.13 to 6.95). Temperature (26.6 to 27.2 0 C), Turbidity (21.80 to 23.03NTU), Conductivity (60.57 to 67.33 μhmoscm-1
Article
Full-text available
This study investigated the water quality and levels of mercury and lead in Eichhornia crassipes from Ikoli creek, a tidal creek receiving abattoir effluent, in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Samples were collected between April and June (six weeks) at two weeks interval. The samples were analyzed using standard procedures. Results showed that the physico-chemical properties of the water; pH, temperature, conductivity, turbidity, sulphate, nitrate, total dissolved solid, total hardness, salinity varied minimally and therefore appears not to be affected by the discharge of abattoir effluents. Also, the heavy metals such as lead and mercury were observed to be within their respective permissible limits. This could be due to the fact that Eichhornia crassipes aid absorbs these metals from the water column. The slight variations observed could be attributed to other anthropogenic activities in and around the creek, rather than abattoir effluents.
Article
Full-text available
This study was conducted to assess the water quality, phytochemicals and proximate constituents of Eichhornia crassipes from Kolo creek, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Samples were collected and analyzed using standard analytical methods. Results showed that the water characteristics were pH (6.610 – 6.793), salinity (0.003 – 0.007 ‰), total dissolved solid (16.100 – 19.233 mg/l), conductivity (31.600 – 39.167 μS/cm), turbidity (27.367 – 31.800 NTU), total hardness (1.033 – 1.367 mg/l), total suspended solid (1.753 – 3.427 mg/l), chloride (1.257 -1.467 mg/l) sulphate (0.417 – 0.567 mg/l), nitrate (0.130 – 0.146mg/l), calcium (1.107 - 1.183 mg/l), potassium (0.313 – 0.363mg/l), sodium (0.580 – 0.680 mg/l), magnesium (0.370 – 0.500 mg/l), iron (0.100 – 0.160 mg/l) and manganese (0.013 – 0.033 mg/l). The proximate constituents ranged from 86.273 – 87.817%, 5.807 – 6.550%, 4.710 -5.460%, 2.357 – 3.257%, 6.087 – 6.867% and 12.183 -13.077% for moisture content, ash, protein, lipid, fiber and dry matter respectively. Analysis of variance showed that there were no significant difference (P<0.05) with respect to sampling locations in all the parameters studied. The phytochemistry also reveals that alkaloids, glycoside, flavonoids, saponin and tannins were present. This study confirm their potential use of Eichhornia crassipes for animal feed production, chemotherapeutic properties and phytoremediation of the aquatic habitats.
Article
Aims: The unemployment rate in Nigeria has risen in recent years. Activities related to the oil palm industry could employ millions of people. This study evaluated the employment and socioeconomic influence ofsemi-mechanized oil palm processing in Elebele, Bayelsa State, Nigeria. Methodology: Direct observations and interviews of the employees of the processing units of the mill were used to obtain the data. Results: The mill employed eleven workers for eachshift and each person had the capacity of producing 9.1 liters of palm oil per day. The labor force was comprised of able bodied men and women (72.7 and 27.3% respectively). During processing, women sieved the oil while men received the palm bunches at th e plant.Men also loaded bunch on stripper, stripped, sieved, sterilized/boiled, digested/pressed, clarified and dried the oil. The processors ranged from 21 to 51 years old. The educational background showed that they were graduates of universities (degre e), polytechnics (diploma), secondary (high)