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International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment
2017; 2(4): 48-55
http://www.sciencepublishinggroup.com/j/ijeee
doi: 10.11648/j.ijeee.20170204.11
Review Article
A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and Water
Resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
Enetimi Idah Seiyaboh, Sylvester Chibueze Izah*
Department of Biological Sciences, Niger Delta University, Wilberforce Island, Nigeria
Email address:
chivestizah@gmail.com (S. C. Izah)
*Corresponding author
To cite this article:
Enetimi Idah Seiyaboh, Sylvester Chibueze Izah. A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and Water Resources in the Niger Delta
Region of Nigeria. International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment. Vol. 2, No. 4, 2017, pp. 48-55.
doi: 10.11648/j.ijeee.20170204.11
Received: May 12, 2017; Accepted: June 6, 2017; Published: July 14, 2017
Abstract: Nigeria is an oil and gas producing nation. The Niger Delta is the Nigerian oil and gas province. About 10 – 40% of
produced associated gas is underutilized and is flared into the environment. This is the usual trend in the Nigerian oil and gas
industry. Gas flaring has adverse impacts on the environmental components and its associated biota. This paper reviews the
impacts of gas flaring on the vegetation and water quality resources in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. The study found that gas
flaring alters water ions (especially sulphate, carbonate, nitrate), pH, conductivity heavy metals (such as lead and iron)
concentration especially in rainwater. It also affects vegetation leading to decrease in growth and productivity probably due to
changes in soil quality parameters. The paper concludes by suggesting promulgation/implementation of gas glaring laws in
Nigeria.
Keywords: Gas Flaring, Impacts, Vegetation Structure, Water Quality
1. Introduction
Following the discovery of crude oil in commercial quantity
in Nigeria, the mainstay of the nation economy shifted from
agriculture to crude oil and natural gas. Till date, crude oil and
natural gas accounts for significant source of revenue and
foreign earning to the economy [1]. According to Ohimain [2,
3], Izah and Ohimain [4], about 85% and 90% of Nigerian
earning and export respectively are provided by petroleum.
Furthermore over 80% of money used in financing national
budget is from oil rich region of Nigeria [5]. Nigeria also have
other resources including mineral resources such as natural
gas, tin, iron ore, coal, lead, zinc limestone, niobium and
arable land for agricultural purposes [6]. The country has
several other renewable energy resources such as biomass,
solar, wind, hydropower etc [4].
Crude oil and natural gas account for about 50% of global
energy resources [7]. On global perspective, Nigeria is ranked
7th and 12th largest exporters and producers crude oil
respectively [8]. It has been reported that Nigeria crude oil and
natural gas resources include 35 – 36.22 billion barrel of crude
oil, 187 trillion standard cubic feet barrel of natural gas and 31
billion barrel of oil equivalent of tar sand [2, 3, 9, 10].
Nigeria have been reported to produce about 6 billion
standard cubic feet of gas per daily [10] and 2.2 – 2.7 million
of crude oil daily [3, 10, 11]. But the production rate varies due
to several factors such as the activities of militants in the oil
rich region of Nigeria, pipeline vandalism, sabotages, oil spills,
among other factors. Of these, the activities of militia in the
region have significantly affected the production rate in
Nigeria. For instance, crude oil production significantly
decreased in first half of 2016 due to activities of militancy
and resource control.
The Nigeria crude oil and natural gas is domicile in the
Niger Delta including Ondo, Edo, Delta, Bayelsa, Rivers,
Abia, Imo, Akwa Ibom and Cross Rivers states. The crude oil
and natural gas is located in both offshore and onshore in the
region. Two major products are produced include crude oil
and natural gas. Both have adverse effect on the environment.
Crude oil could spill into the environment and change the
characteristics of the receiving environment including soil
[12 – 14] and water quality. In some cases, the volatile
49 Enetimi Idah Seiyaboh and Sylvester Chibueze Izah: A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and
Water Resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
components of the crude oil are released into the air. The
natural gas are basically utilized while the excess in flared
into the atmosphere through combustion processes.
Gas flaring is common in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria.
During flaring several pollutants gases are released into the
environment including nitrogen dioxides, sulphur dioxide,
volatile organic compounds like benzene, toluene, xylene,
polyaromatic hydrocarbons, hydrogen sulfide, benzapyrene
and dioxins [15, 16], and particulates.
As such, several impacts (including human and
environmental) are associated to gas flaring. Several studies
have indicates the impacts of gas flaring in the Niger Delta
including vegetation and physical infrastructure such as
roofing sheet, buildings/structures, artifacts, monuments,
paints [15, 17 – 23], pathological and psychological impacts
on human health [24]. As such, several diseases have been
reported to be associated with gas flaring including excessive
heat and discomfort [18], gastrointestinal problems, skin
diseases, cancer, neurological, reproductive and
developmental effects, haematological and respiratory
ailments [15], heart (cardiovascular) related illness including
atherosclerosis, hypertension and ischaemic heart disease [25,
26], renal and related diseases [27], bronchitis, asthma,
cancers and several other diseases [20]. Most of the impacts
are due to indirect effects resulting from acid rain. These could
also affect other biodiversity resources including humans. For
instance, acid rain which could result from gas flaring has the
tendency to cause lung related diseases, and affect aquatic
organisms such as fishes and other wildlife and natural forest
resources such as vegetation. Furthermore, Noise emanating
from the flare could also affect humans residing close/ and or
working close to the vicinity.
As such the exploration of oil and gas and flaring of
natural gas has several environmental impacts. Therefore,
this study reviews the impacts gas flaring on groundwater
resources and vegetation structure and cover in the Niger
Delta region of Nigeria. The paper is organized into 5
sections. Section 1 is the introduction providing information
on oil and gas resources in Nigeria and overview of the
impacts of gas flaring in the Niger Delta. Section 2 discussed
gas flaring in Nigeria. Section 3 discussed the effect of
season and distance of disposal of emission. Section 4
discussed the impact of gas flaring to vegetation and water
resources. Section 5 is conclusion and the way forward.
2. Gas Flaring: A Nigerian Scenario
Globally, high amount of gas is flared in to the
environment by oil and gas producing countries. Nigeria
being among the world producing nations, flare a significant
amount of natural gases into the environment through vertical
and horizontal flaring stack (Figure 1). Globally about 110
billion cubic meters of associated gas is flared per annum
[28]. Ogbe [29] opined that Nigeria account for about 12.5%
global flared gases per annum [29]. The flaring of gases is a
global issue for some decades now [3]. Emam [31] described
gas flaring as the used combustion device (flare stack) to
remove unwanted gases and liquids during operation in many
industrial processes, such as oil-gas extraction, refineries,
chemical plants, coal industry and landfills to prevent
unplanned over-pressuring. Soltanieh et al. [32] also noted
that gas is flared in producing nations due to a number of
reasons such as inadequate infrastructure to collect, treat,
transport and utilize the associated gases; location of the
production site is remote from the market demand (such as
offshore sites); small volume of the gas and its fluctuation,
which make the design of facilities more uncertain and
therefore uneconomical investment; Impurities in the gas that
require hard and expensive treatment methods (such as highly
acidic gases); safety and operational reasons. Gas flaring leads
to release of three major components including noxious gases,
heat and noise.
Figure 1. Gas flaring in a location in the Niger Delta.
International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment 2017; 2(4): 48-55 50
Natural gas can be converted into different form for
downstream applications including electricity generation and
cooking gas. But due to inadequate resources for its
conversation and utilization, oil and gas companies prefers to
flare the gases and pay compensation. According to Donwa et
al. [15], wastage of gases through flaring is carried out due to
problems associated to processing, storing and transporting it
in Nigeria setting.
Nigeria flare significant amount of natural gas into the
environment leading to loss of substantial amount of money
per annum. For instance, World Bank reported that 150 to
170 billion m3 of gases are flared annually, worth up to about
$ 30.6 billion, the price equivalent of one-quarter of the
United States’ gas consumption or 30% of the European
Union’s yearly gas consumption [31]. Lower amount of gas
equivalent have been reported to loss due to gas flaring to the
tone of $2.0 billion per annum [29], $2.5 billion [15, 33].
Despite the incentives to capture the associated gas and
bring it to market, the volume of gas flared is still high.
About 70million /m3 of natural gas are flared per day [34].
On yearly basis, Donwa et al. [15], Ishisone [35] reported that
Nigeria flare about 17.2 billion m3 of natural gas in the Niger
Delta. Between 2006 to 2014 several oil wells were explored
in Nigeria. Table 1 presents information the details of crude oil
and condensate production, total gas and quantity utilized and
flared between 2006 to 2014. Within the period the production,
utilization and quantity flared varies. Also, the amount
targeted could not be met. This is typically attributed to
several reasons including delays in upgrade of facilities to
floody terrain, inadequate line, limited facilities, obsolete
equipment, community disturbance, activities of militia etc.
The demand for gas increase as a result of new opportunities
for gas micro power, combined cycle turbines, independent
power plant, gas to liquids and expansion in liquefied natural
gas trade also contributed to the utilization.
Table 1. Crude oil and gas production and utilization in Nigeria between 2004 to 2014.
Years crude oil and condensate production, barrels Total gas, Billion
Standard Cubic Feet
Quantity of gas
utilized, BSCF
Quantity
flared, BSCF
References
Total Daily average, mmb/pd
2014 798,541,589 2.19 2,524.27 2,233.49 289.60 [36]
2013 800,488,102 2.19 2,325.14 1,916.53 409.31 [37]
2012 852,776,653 2.27 2,580.17 1,991.50 588.67 [38]
2011 866,245,232 2.37 2,400.40 1,781.37 619.03 [39]
2010 896,043,406 2.45 2,392.84 1,811.27 581.57 [40]
2009 780,347,940 2.14 1,837.28 1,327.93 509.35 [41]
2008 768,745,932 2.10 2,282.44 1,664.97 617.62 [42]
2007 803,000,708 2.20 2,415.65 1,626.10 789.55 [43]
2006 869,196,506 2.38 2,182.43 1,382.43 799.99 [44]
Furthermore, Nigeria flares about 11 – 42.54% of total
natural gas produced. These make Nigeria one of the largest
gas flaring nations in the World. Several oil wells are built
with the period of 2004 to 2014, with an average of 155 per
annum. According to Oniemola and Sanusi [45], Nigeria has
about 160 oil fields having about 1500 oil wells that produces
2.2 to 2.7 million barrels/day. The authors reported that of
these, 17 billion m3 of associated gas are flared leading to the
releasing 2,700, 160, 5400, 12million and 3.5 million tons of
particulate, sulphur oxides, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide
and methane respectively. The number of wells has far
increased due to continual exploration.
3. Effect of Season and Distance of
Disposal of Emission
Nigeria has two predominant season including wet season
(April to October) and dry season (November to March of the
following year). The rainfall pattern is usually optimum in
June, July and September. The effect of meteorology
especially temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, wind speed
have been reported in the Niger Delta specifically in Bayelsa
state [46].
Season affects the rate of dispersal of pollutants and noise.
Dispersal of pollutants resulting from emissions is affected by
season. For example, Anomohanran [18] reported pollution from
thermal plant within a distance of 2.15 km and 2.06km in wet and
dry season respectively. Several metrological parameters affects
dispersal rate of pollutant gases. Some of the notable once
include wind speed, wind direction, closeness to ocean.
Distance in another major factor that could affect the
emission of pollutants. Emission rate typically decreases as
distance from the source of pollution is increased. Ojeh [47]
reported that in a gas flaring station, the concentration of
noxious gases reduces as the distance increased in gas flaring
site. But the effects of gas flared could be felt within 450m
radius of the flare stack which could be depend on the volume
of gas flared, wind speed, temperature, temperature, velocity
of discharged and height of the stack [47]. In non-gas flaring
site, specifically on oil palm processing mill, emissions also
decreases as the distance from the sources increased [48, 49].
Though, instances of fluctuation in wind speed and direction
during measurement could lead to shorter distance from
emission source having lower values instead of higher values
compared to long distance.
4. Impacts of Gas Flaring on Water
Quality and Vegetation Resources
Gas flaring typically has two valves, the high and low gas
51 Enetimi Idah Seiyaboh and Sylvester Chibueze Izah: A Review of Impacts of Gas Flaring on Vegetation and
Water Resources in the Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
pressure valves. Hence, the concentration of emissions, noise,
released is a function of the valve used in flaring the gas as
well as the physical composition of the gas prior to flaring.
The flared gases affect several environmental components as
well as its biotic composition. The section of the paper affects
the impact of gas flaring on water quality and vegetation
resources.
4.1. Changes in Water Quality
Water resources are typically needed for the sustenance of
life, growth and development [50 – 62]. Water serve as
habitant to several biodiversity especially fisheries (shelled
and finfish), aquatic reptiles, mammals, birds and breeding
ground for several other diversity such as frog, parasite of
medical importance such as Schistome, and vectors
transmitting diseases such as mosquitoes. As such water has a
unique place for life to thrive.
Water is also used for domestic purposes such as washing,
cooking, bathing [63]. Most water resources are from surface
water, groundwater and rainwater [52]. Izah et al. [50] is with
the opinion that groundwater is mostly consumed in the Niger
Delta and surface water and rainwater also serve as potable
water sources in regions that groundwater/ borehole water is
unavailable.
Water is typically impacted by gas flaring activities.
Authors have variously reported that some water quality
parameters of surface water, ground water and rain water are
affected in gas flaring locations in the Niger Delta. For
instance, Dami et al. [64] studied the impacts gas flaring and
oil spillage on rainwater quality for domestic use in Okpai and
Beneku areas of Delta State and reported that temperature,
taste, color, conductivity, total dissolved, salts and alkalinity
were altered when compared to the permissible limits
specified by National Agency for Food and Drug
Administration and Control, United State Environmental
Protection Agency and World Health Organization for
drinking water. Dami et al. [65] studied the impacts of gas
flaring and oil spillage on groundwater quality for domestic
use in Okpai and Beneku areas of Delta State and reported that
color is majorly impacted and to lesser extent conductivity
were affected in some locations due to accumulation of
dissolved salts and other organic materials when compared to
World Health Organization standard. Nwankwo and Ogagarue
[66] studied the effect of gas flaring in surface and
groundwater quality in Delta state and reported that water
from gas flaring area contain higher concentrations of metals
such as barium, cyanide, selenium, cadmium, chromium, iron,
manganese and copper, conductivity, color and taste when
compared to non-flaring location. Emumejaye [67] studied the
effects of gas flaring on surface and ground water in Irri town
and environs and reported that high content of iron and lead in
the water which the author attributed to gas flaring in the area.
Ezenwaji et al. [68] studied the effects of gas flaring on
rainwater quality in Bayelsa State and reported that all the
parameters studied including temperature, lead, conductivity,
total dissolved solid, nitrate, carbonate, sulphate and pH had
values above World Health Organization permissible limits.
The authors further reported that nitrate contributing the
highest of 38.44% to poor quality of rain water in the area.
Amadi [17] reported that concentration of the major anions
(bicarbonate, sulphate and nitrate), temperature, conductivity,
heavy metal content and total hydrocarbon content increase
significantly in the vicinity of the gas flaring location and
steadily declined in surface water, groundwater and rainwater
away from the flaring location. Efe [69] studied the effect of
acid rain and reported that pH values (which is usually used to
measure the acidity of the water) were lower (4.96) in the
Niger Delta compared to coastal region of the Northern
Nigeria with a mean pH of 5.36 which indicate the impact of
acid rain. Other effects of acid rain on water quality have been
comprehensively documented in literature by Ogunkoya and
Efi [70], Ubani and Onyejekwe [23], Olobaniyi et al. [71], Efe
and Mogborukor [72].
Among the water quality parameters commonly affected by
gas flaring is nitrate, carbonate, sulphate, nitrate, lead etc.
Amadi [17] reported that gas flaring reduces pH (pH tending
toward acidity), moisture content and bacteria
density/population. The intensity of the flare with regards to
microbial density in water is usually higher in horizontal flare
compared to the vertical flare stack. The heat from the flare
could enhance the temperature of the environment including
water. High occurrence of sulphate and nitrate ions may be
connected to the emission of carbon, sulphur and nitrogen
oxide during flaring activities. The occurrence of ions in the
water could lead to high conductivity level in water close to
gas flaring location.
4.2. Impact on the Vegetation
Plants are a major source of active nutrients required by the
body. Plants are source of carbohydrate, protein, lipid and
other minerals and vitamins depending on species. Vegetation
is also source of food for livestock especially omnivorous
animals such as goat, cow, grass cutter, rabbits etc. Vegetation
cover is also a source of habitat to several wildlife species
especially bushmeat that do not burrow. Some notable
vegetation is found in close to farmland and residential area
such as cassava and oil palm. These are two predominant
vegetation cover used as food found close to gas flaring
location in the Niger Delta. Gas flaring has the tendency to
affect several plant species [73] especially productivity and
growth [74]. For instance, Lawanson [75] reported that gas
flaring decreases the length and weight of cassava and
increase its amino acid and total sugar contents as the
distance from the flares decreases. The authors furthered
reported that such decreases were also correlated with
decreases in the content of starch and ascorbic acid (vitamin
C) in the tubers. Based on survey study in the Niger Delta
region, 77% of the resident is with the opinion that gas flaring
affect vegetation and agricultural activities [76]. In a similar
study the resident of Ebedei community in Delta state 94.6, 90,
98.75, 50.4 and 5% is with the opinion that gas flaring affect
food such as yam, cassava, okra, plantain and potatoes [74].
Gas flaring can also cause deforestation and acid rain [74].
According to Ezenwaji et al. [68], exploitation of crude oil and
International Journal of Economy, Energy and Environment 2017; 2(4): 48-55 52
associated gas flaring is a major contributor of acid rain in the
Niger Delta region of Nigeria has had a fairly long history [68].
Acid rain could lead to loss of vegetation [17] and several
symptoms in plants that could lead to their death. Some of the
notable symptoms include chlorosis, abscission and yellowing
of leaves, wilting of the leaf tips and accelerated senescence,
root and shoot of plants are also destroyed and microbial
community that aid in decompositions processes [69]. The
impacts of acid rain on vegetation structures and cover is most
severe close to gas flaring stack [69].
Acid rain result in the decline in productivity and growth of
some major food crops such as cassava, sweet potatoes, maize,
melon, plantain, and cash crop like rubber [69]. The impacts in
the growth and productivity of crops could also be an
indication that the soil fertility have been impacted upon. This
may lead to loss of vital soil nutrients that encourage the
growth of plants. Other authors have comprehensively
reported the effect acid rain on vegetation have been
documented by Jacobson [77], Neufeld et al. [78], Efe [79].
Plants are known to pharmacological and bioactive
composition [80, 81]. The composition of the bioactive
constitutes play a significant role in determining their
medicinal properties. The effect of gas flaring on the
nutritional and bioactive component of vegetation established.
For instance, Ifemeje [82] reported gas flaring could change
the anti-nutrient compositions (alkaloid, phytate, oxalate,
Saponin, tannin and cyanogenic glycosides) in some common
vegetables used for food purposes such as scent leaf, bitter leaf,
water leaf and fluted pumpkin leaf. Ujowundu et al. [83] also
reported impacts in phytochemical (alkaloid, tannin,
cyanogenic glycoside, phytate), proximate composition
(moisture, ash, protein and carbohydrate), micronutrients
(calcium, sodium, magnesium, potassium and phosphorus)
and vitamins (riboflavin, vitamin E and C) in African
breadfruit and Bambara groundnuts planted close to gas
flaring stack. Anacletus et al. [84] also reported that
phytochemical (alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins and tannins)
and trace metal (iron, lead, cadmium and zinc) constituents of
fluted pumpkin could be affected by gas flaring.
Vegetation plays several ecological roles. For instance Izah
et al. [85] reported that vegetation prevents soil erosion. Gas
flaring is known to cause physical damage to plant close to the
flare stack [17]. This could lead to other downstream impacts.
In addition, gas flaring could alter soil quality parameters [86]
including physiochemical and microbial characteristics. Some
notable soil quality parameters such as pH, temperature, soil
moisture, soil microbial population are commonly impacted
by gas flaring [23]. Okeke and Okpala [86] reported that soil
quality parameters from flaring sites such as temperature and
bulk density decreased with distance from the flare point
while other such as CEC, organic matter, moisture content etc)
increases with distance. The authors further asserted that soil
nutrient were lower in gas flaring environment compared to
the control in Eket and Izombe area of the Niger Delta.
Variation is soil characteristics especially the nutrient related
characteristics may affect the crop productivity indirectly.
Microbes being unique, changes in the soil properties could
alter the microbial diversity and density. Typically microbes
play essential role in nutrient and biogeochemical cycling.
In a survey study, the resident of Okpai, Ndokwa East Local
Government Area, Delta State is with the opinion that gas
flaring is having impact on the soil including its fertility and
productivity for food crops such as cassava, plantain, yam [87].
Also maize is also affected by gas flaring and cassava [88, 89].
5. Conclusion and the Way Forward
The Niger Delta region is one of the most productive and
fragile ecosystem in Nigeria. The area is rich in vegetation
with several pharmacological properties and water resources.
These resources are constantly being destroyed by the
activities of man in quest for industrialization and
urbanization. Several oil and gas installations are found in the
region. Gas is used by gas-turbine for electricity generation.
Despite the huge source of gas available for electricity, the gas
is constantly flared into the environment. While electricity
supply remain epileptic in the region. Nearly 10 – 40% of
natural gas produced is under-utilized and therefore flared into
the environment. Gas flaring are known to have impact on air
quality, physical infrastructure, biodiversity composition
including plants and animals especially insects, impacts on
human health over a prolong period of time and water
resources especially rainwater. Acid rain has been widely
attributed to impact of gas flaring especially in the Niger Delta
region of Nigeria. On water quality, gas flaring alters ions
especially sulphate, carbonate, nitrate, pH, conductivity, lead
and iron concentration especially in rainwater. On vegetation
perspective, it could lead to loss of vegetation cover, reduced
growth and productivity/yield probably due to changes in soil
quality parameters.
Based on the review, the attendant impacts associated with
gas flaring on vegetation and water quality could be reduced
through:
a. utilization of the gas and generation of revenue from it,
promulgation of associated gas re-injection and
amendment of flaring policy to more reasonable amount
[67].
b. enforcement of laws aimed at minimizing the amount of
gas flared into the atmosphere [68].
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