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Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)
3
Abstract
Climate Change perception and adaptation
strategies among various stakeholders in
Nalanda District of Bihar (India)
Kundan Sagar
School of Ecology and Environment Studies, Nalanda University, Rajgir, Nalanda, Bihar, INDIA
kundansagar.2010@gmail.com
mitigate the impact and adaptation to climate changes are top
The aim of the research was to assess climate change
issues of relevance to traditional peoples’ views and
knowledge about climate change, its impacts and
activities, adaptation strategies together with any
perceive hindrance to its adaptation. These people are
vulnerable to the effects of climate change due to their
marginal location, low levels of technology, and lack of
other essential farming resources. The research study
was carried out in Nalanda district of Bihar (India),
commonly known for its rich culture inherited from
various dynasty and birthplace of and great
personalities and several religions along with rich
wildlife, birds and sanctuaries and immense
agricultural activity.
This research also aims to identify indigenous
practices that jeopardize the sustainable development
module among predominantly smallholder farmers by
their knowledge of climate change impacts and
adaptation strategies. This study utilizes information
from questionnaire surveys administered to
bureaucrats. Adaptation occurs through public policy
making and decisions made by these stakeholders. The
questions covered in the survey included a focus on
possible holistic stakeholder perceptions in
understanding the climate change effects on the
environment, socio-economic status, current
preparedness, coverage of climate change issues in
current plans, the need to respond and the measures
required. Climate change is potential threat to corrode
the many development gains made by Bihar and it is
believed that frequency and intensity of extreme
weather events are likely to exacerbate in future.
Keywords: Adaptation, Climate Change, Stake Holder,
Mitigation.
Introduction
Climate change is the most puzzling and convoluted can of
worms which humanity is facing. In the past, many of these
climatic disruptions had occurred by natural phenomena but
from scientific studies, it is evident that most climatic
changes, which mankind is witnessing, are likely to result
from anthropogenic activities. As a result, the whole world
is facing significant risks from climate change, therefore to
most priority for humanity. As it is evident that climate is
changing and is very liable to continue changing, even
extensive efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions will only
slow climate change, not avoid it.
An enhanced understanding of community insights, attitude,
and deeds about climate change will provide an important
establishment for government’s policy-making, service
provider’s guideline development and the engagement of
local communities.
Throughout the human history, individuals and societies
have been threatened by environmental changes and
nowadays these risks are magnified; there is, in fact,
widespread evidence that climate change is increasingly
bringing about dramatic impacts on natural and social
systems1. Thus, climate change has been discussed more
often in all spheres in all horizons and across all societal
build up’s as the enormity of this problem has been affected
every form of life on global scale2. Climate specialist’s
reports like IPCC, 2001; ACIA, 2005, UNDP 2008, have
created a noteworthy measure of proof over late decades in
the backing of anthropogenic climate change.
We are in Anthropocene i.e. climate is changing and that
humans are responsible for these changes3. It is also evident
that climate will continue to change in the future as a result
of an inescapable outcome of historical greenhouse gas
emissions4. These changes are certain to cause impacts;
adaptation will be required to avert the most damaging
impacts5.
Regardless of clear flags from established researchers, it
stays misty how viably these messages have been conveyed
to and comprehended by those people and associations who
will be at the cutting edge in managing the issue.
Specifically, conventional farmers whose jobs rely on upon
the utilization of common assets, are prone to accept the
brunt of unfavorable effects5. The degree to which these
effects are felt depends in huge part on the degree of
adaptation in light of climate change.
Adaptation is generally perceived as a key part of any
strategy reaction to climate change6. According to the latest
report from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
(IPCC), mankind is going to witness decreases in water
supply and food production in many areas, increased risks to
coastal areas and increased exposure to more intense
extreme events. The climate is changing and is very likely to
Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)
4
continue changing. Even extensive efforts to curb
greenhouse gas emissions will only slow climate change, not
avoid it7.
Thus, adaptation is a necessity. Without adaptation, climate
change would be detrimental to every segment. Without
adaptation, climate change might make impeding of the each
fragment8. The most obliterating antagonistic effects of
climate change in India incorporates regular surge, dry
season, expanded environmental harm, expanded infestation
of product by pests and diseases, depletion of household
assets, increased rural-urban migration, increased
biodiversity loss, depletion of wildlife and other natural
resource base, change in the vegetation type, decline in
forest resources, decline infill conditions (soil moisture and
nutrients), increased health risks and the spread of infectious
diseases, changing livelihood systems9.
Global climate change has profound implications for the
quality of life of millions of people which includes ranchers,
herders, undernourished people, ladies and children,
uneducated individuals10. Acknowledging these effects,
IPCC records two reasons why adaptation is essential in the
climate change issue. Initial, a comprehension of expected
adjustment is central in assessing the expenses or dangers of
climate change. Second, adaptation is a key reaction choice
or methodology, alongside relief11.
Indigenous and other traditional people are only rarely
considered in academic, policy and public discourses on
climate change despite the fact that they will be greatly
impacted by impending changes. Their livelihoods depend
on natural resources that are directly affected by climate
change, and they often inhabit economically and politically
marginal areas in diverse but fragile ecosystems11. The
perspectives of the indigenous people, the way they think
and behave about climate change, as well as their values and
aspirations have a significant role to play in addressing
climate change12.
Climate change in context of India and Bihar: India's
economy and a larger part of its populace are exceptionally
subject to climate change areas, for example, agribusiness,
fisheries, tourism and so forth13. Since climate change is
required to affect normal and human frameworks
antagonistically by affecting changes, these frameworks in
India can be considered exceptionally helpless. Climate
change is just liable to intensify India's as of now high
physical presentation to climate-related calamities as 65
percent of India is drought inclined, 12 percent flood
inclined and susceptible to cyclones14.
As an outcome, environmental change is profoundly liable
to effect employments by disturbing social, social,
monetary, ecological framework and human resources,
diminishing human security and posturing serious dangers to
the development of the nation like India13.
Since climate change effects are felt at various levels from
the worldwide to the nearby, reactions to climate change too
should be at numerous levels, calling for vital mediations at
the neighborhood, sub-national, national, and worldwide
levels. At the worldwide level, India's commitment to
multilateral arrangements in the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has been
noteworthy, and it keeps on supporting for powerful,
agreeable and fair worldwide methodologies in light of the
rule of 'basic however separated obligations and separate
capacities'15.
At the national level, India has built up the National Action
Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), 2008 including national
missions at its center, tending to different sectorial parts of
climate change; in the meantime, perceiving that the effects
of climate change will fluctuate crosswise over states,
divisions, areas and populaces and that diverse methodology
should be embraced to fit particular sub-national settings and
conditions, every single Indian State has been approached to
get ready State Action Plans for Climate Change (SAPCCs)
in line of the NAPCC16. It is in this connection that the Bihar,
a state which has a rich heritage inherited from various
dynasties and great personalities and blessed with nature
with astonished wildlife, birds and sanctuaries, had come up
with its own State Action arrangement (BAPCC) for Climate
Change17.
Accessible proof demonstrates that there is a high likelihood
of expansion of the recurrence of climate-related normal
risks because of climate change and henceforth increment in
potential danger because of climate change related common
debacles in India and Bihar is no special case to this18. It is
very defenseless against hydro-meteorological normal
fiascos, with North Bihar all in all being very surge inclined,
and South Bihar being exceedingly dry season inclined.19,20
In the absence of scientific state level climate models and
vulnerability studies including the low level of community
awareness, Bihar is potentially more sensitive and
vulnerable to the climate change and its impacts.
Study area
Nalanda District is one among 38 Districts of Bihar State,
India. It is 18th largest district in the State21. It is named
Nalanda, after the famous university and the world’s oldest
university “the Nalanda University” located here, therefore
famous for religious tourism and cultural heritage sites
because it is frequently referred in Jain and Buddhist
scriptures and hence blessed with rich and glorious
history22,39. As per the Bihar tourism department, this district
is a hotspot for tourism as it comes under “Buddhist Circuit,
Tirthankar Circuit, Islamic/Sufi Circuit and Nature and
Wildlife Circuit of tourism”.
Historical Perspective: Founded in the fifth century A.D.
Nalanda is known as the old seat of learning. “Cakravartin
Ashoka” built monasteries, sanctuaries and Viharas here22,38.
Since Lord Buddha visited Nalanda several times, hence this
Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)
41
area was quite famous center of Buddhist learning, Hiuen
Tsang stayed here in seventh century and has left definite
depiction of the fabulousness of education and
immaculateness of religious life honed here22,39. As per the
Archeological survey of India, Rajgir block of this district
was the antique capital of Magadhan kingdom which thrived
in the 6th century BC. Its relationship with Lord Buddha and
Lord Mahavira praises this district. The principal Buddhist
board instantly after the Mahaparinirarvana of Lord Buddha,
to pen down his lessons, was likewise held at Rajgir. Another
block of this district Pawapuri, a righteous and sinless city,
is a great pilgrimage center of the Jains. Lord Mahavira, the
greatest propounder of Jainism had delivered his last
sermon, took Mahaparinirvana and was cremated here.
Physiography and Topography: The district of Nalanda is
spread in an area of 2367 Sq. Kms with latitude: 25.1368°
North ; longitude: 85.4438° East and a population of
2370528 has been pre-eminently an agricultural district.
Bordering Patna District in north and north-west, Gaya
District in South, Luckhisarai District in the east, Jahanabad
District in the west and Nawada district in South-east, this
district comprises of 3 sub division and 20 blocks covering
249 village panchayats23,24.
Nalanda has a rugged topography that sometimes proves
unfavorable for agriculture yet agriculture is the main
occupation here. The Nalanda District is divided into two
main parts which include “Hills Land of Rajgir and Giriyak”
which consist of two parallel ridges extending around 65 km
and “cultivated Agriculture Land” – mostly uneconomic
holdings, fragmented land25,26.
The Phalgu river flowing through Nalanda is considered
sacred for the Hindus with the other rivers in Nalanda
include Mohane, Jirayan, Kumbhari. This district is located
within the Mid-Ganga basin, in the southern margin of the
Gangetic plains, and soil can be characterized by four types
of soil viz. clay loam, fine loam, loam and course loam,
mainly derived from alluvial deposit of southern Ganga
Plain. Majority of rocks are the crystalline rocks exposed in
Rajgir Hills and forming the bedrock slopping towards north
consists of phyllites and quartzites along with pegmatitic
intrusions21,25. There are some hot springs. The hill town of
Rajgir, surrounded by seven hills is in the midst of lush green
forest.27,39
District demography and district development
indicators: The entire population of the district has been
living in 360797 households whose average size is of 7.0
persons24. The population is heavily concentrated in rural
areas which is an indicator of the population depending
mostly on agriculture and allied activities in the rural center.
Scheduled Tribes population in the district is miserably low.
The percentage of literacy rate-differences between male
and female is excessively high with literacy rate 64.43 and
sex ratio 91424.
Climate and agro ecological situation: Nalanda district is
lying in III-B zone of Bihar state whose majority population
earns its livelihood from agriculture28. The district has
183377 hectares of net sown areas and the areas in which
sowing activities are done more than once include 75258
hectares and in this way, the percentages net sown area and
the area sown are more than once comprises 78.79 and 23.34
percent respectively of the total areas of the state21 . In this
district, the farmers are progressive, committed, innovative
and hardworking despite having a small size of land
holdings29.
In Nalanda, potato cultivation has been taken up in a wide
coverage approx. 28,000 ha by a large number of small and
medium land holding farmers. In this way, farmers of this
district are getting handsome yields by using latest
technologies, hence the farmers from this district hold the
world record by producing 660 quintal onions per hectare,
the previous record of highest yield of onion was 550
quintals per hectare held by a farmer in the Netherlands30 .
While another from this district, by leading a silent
agricultural revolution in the area cultivated astonishing 22.4
tons of rice on one hectare of land, without using any
herbicides, hence surpassed the previous record of 19.4 tones
achieved by the Chinese agricultural scientist Yuan
Longping, also known as the “father of rice”31.
Climate change impacts in Nalanda
In last decades, the vicious cycle of climate change already
affected Nalanda districts. There has been a direct impact on
the migration of rural population. The majority of the
migrated rural populations are causalities of climate change
phenomenon instead of crop loss, livelihood loss, and habitat
loss. From the BAPCC reports, it is also evident that in 2011,
Nalanda district was a flood prone area but in 2009, 2010,
2013, it was drought prone area. These are effects of
temperature variance instead of climate change which has
adversely affected the agricultural patterns and the socio-
economic strata. Incessant rain, over-flowing rivers is
wreaking havoc in various parts of Nalanda.32
Several blocks of Nalanda are reeling under floods which
have claimed many lives and severely affected the lives of
hundreds. In the last year 2015 there has been scanty rainfall
in Bihar. As a result it created drought situation in some
districts.33 The irregular rainfall and anthropogenic activities
caused decrease in the hot spring flow in Rajgir.34,39 It is an
irony that several blocks of Nalanda district are facing
imminent danger of floods while more than half a dozen
blocks which include Nagarnausa, Rajgir in the state are
facing the drought-like situation.
The Central Groundwater Board (CGWB) scientist said the
groundwater reservoirs in as many as 11 blocks of the state
are in semi-critical condition. A large number of households
in these cities still have limited access to safe drinking water.
The Storm-ravaged several homes and thunderstorm
accompanied by heavy rains lashed this district35. It is also
Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)
42
evident from table 1 that there is significant spatial and
temporal distribution of Indian Summer Monsoon Rainfall
(ISMR) during June-September and scientific study proved
that departure in minimum and maximum temperatures from
average values influences plant physiological conditions viz.
respiration, water requirement, and growth, thereby
affecting yields 36.
The climatic variability directly impacts yields at crop level
and also affects soil quality; water resources; brings in pests,
diseases and weeds etc. further aggravating the impact on the
cropping system, thereby reducing the yield per hectare of
land or per unit of livestock at the farm level37. The adverse
impact of climatic variability on agriculture production at
farm level gets aggregated to the level of the food system
regarding food shortages and rising prices which can also
endanger food and livelihood security36. Changes in the
climate had affected the fisheries sector of this district which
include the effect on aquatic habitats (quantity and quality),
ecosystem productivity, distribution and abundance of
aquatic competitors and predators/disease thereby affecting
the livelihood and food security of fishing communities.
It has already been observed that the distribution of
important fish species and plankton has been affected due to
changes in temperature and rainfall patterns over the
catchments of its rivers37. Since, the impact of climate
change can not be ignored, hence this study solicited
stakeholders' opinions on climate change adaptation and
their needs for information on the issue.
Methodology
This study is an attempt to assess the perceptions of
Indigenous People in selected villages/wards in Nalanda
district of Bihar on climate change issues and
adaptation/coping measures and identify indigenous
response options for information and knowledge that will
help in policy making that may have positive impact on the
life of the local and marginalized poor people who are
directly affected by climate change. This research uses an
approach, which seeks to gain insights from the stakeholders
themselves based on a household survey. The data were
collected from 975 households in Nalanda district, India.
We also surveyed the heads of various departments of
district administration who are important actors in
adaptation - who have the current and experience of coping
with and adapting to climate variability and extremes. They
can provide information on climate change impacts and
adaptations; they can also assess the viability of proposed
adaptive measures. The research community and the district
administration (stakeholders) can develop adaptation
strategies together by combining scientific information and
local knowledge and experiences of change and responses.
Adaptation occurs through public policy making and
decisions made by these stakeholders.
Analyzing the capacity of stakeholders to cope with and
adapt to climatic events is fundamental to characterizing
current and possible future vulnerability. Understanding the
role of stakeholders in the decision- making process will
assist in the implementation of adaptation policies.
Therefore, the purpose of this survey was two fold - first to
survey stakeholder perceptions of their capacity to adapt to
a changing climate and next to identify stakeholders'
information needs regarding adaptation to climate change
Stakeholders in the study: Stakeholders are those who have
interests in a particular decision either as individuals or as
representatives of a group. They are people who influence a
decision or can influence it as well as those affected by it. In
this study, stakeholders were defined as 1) those affected by
climate change, 2) those positioned most effectively to
advance adaptation.
The required data and information were collected from a
direct field study based on the results of questionnaires that
were administered in ten selected villages in Nalanda district
of Bihar, primarily from Nalanda, Rajgir, Biharsharif ,
Pawapuri, and Harnaut. Information used in this paper is
generally qualitative in nature based on field observation,
household survey and informal discussion with key
informants conducted in two phases first November -
December 2016 and second June –July 2017. Only villages
that were easily assessable were randomly selected.
For the purpose of administering the questionnaires,
household heads above the age thirty-five years were
purposively administered questionnaires to. More
experienced and matured farmers were administered
questionnaires to because they are better at distinguishing
climate change from the merely inter-annual variation of
weather scenarios. A total of 300 questionnaires were
administered to each of the villages and only to households'
heads that were willing to be administered questionnaires to.
The crucial reason for this decision is to pay attention to
those who were more interested and concerned by the
incidence of climate change. Approximately 15 to 20 min
was spent to complete one questionnaire. The study was
conducted at the face-to-face level and obtained a response
rate of approximately 98%.
Out of the 100 questionnaires administered to each of the
villages, some were rejected because not all were completely
returned or answered. The questionnaires for administrators
were filled by group of five volunteers. The volunteers met
the respondents explaining the study and the purpose of the
questionnaire. The questionnaire could be answered through
the volunteer or personally filled only once. This
questionnaire comprised of 21 questions, mostly multiple-
choice, but also some open questions.
The questions were on the stakeholders' general perceptions
about climate change, their climate information needs,
Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)
43
potential impacts of climate change and their significance,
their current preparedness to climate change and its impacts,
coverage of climate change issues in current plans, and the
need to respond and the needed measures to be taken. 25
officials from Central and State administrative service
answered to the questionnaire. Responses were collected and
stored by in a PC. Open questions were coded by a simple
and subjective coding system.
Results
About 80 % percent of the inhabitants of the villages studied
were farmers, even those who claimed not to be farmers
engage themselves in little farming activities.
•
57% respondents were males while 43% were females.
•
74% of the respondents fall between 35 to 50 years.
•
Remaining 26% fall between the 51 to 65 years of age.
The Environment is changing due to
Anthropogenic Activity
years, they claimed that there is less rainfall, more likely to
notice changes in the timing of the rains and more likely to
notice a change in the frequency of droughts and floods as
well as crop infestation and output drop. About 86.5% of the
traditional farmers studied from the various villages agree
that climate change has led to various forms of crops
infestations there by reducing the quality and quantity of
crops produced. In turn there is a significant increase in the
cost of food crops as agreed by more than 90% of the
respondents.
5% 3%
7%
Stongly Agree
Some what Agree
20%
65%
Do knot Know
Some what
Disagree
Figure 3: Changes in rainfall, temperature and over all
climates
Figure 2: Is village environment changing?
Considering the issues of environmental change, majority
(65%) (fig. 2) of the respondents strongly agree that the
environment has been changing over the years due to human
activities such as farming, burning, deforestation, unplanned
construction, urbanization and industrialization. About 80 %
of the respondents said that climate change is a critical
environmental issue that needs immediate attention.
In analyzing the issues of climate change, 78% of the
respondents agreed that the climate in particular is changing
due to diverse human activities and 75% strongly agree that
the temperature has been rising over the past few decades as
shown in figure 3. In the same vain, 81 % of them expressed
that rainfall is decreasing every year with varied rainfall
anomalies.
As shown in figure 3, 66% of the respondents agree that due
to these the weather and in turn the environment is becoming
dry every year affecting human settlement within the study
area. The rainfall is declining and not supporting. Crop
production was strongly stated by about 85% of the
respondents.
Experienced farmers and more elderly inhabitants were
more inclined that temperature has increased and rainfall
quantity is falling in figure 4. From their experience over the
Figure 4: Weather, rains, and climate change
Also, there have been problems of flood and drought which
contribute significantly to the problems associated with
climate change that threatened the livelihood of the
inhabitants of the study area. As shown in figure 5, about
60% agree that there has been an increase in incidences of
floods during the rainy season. 90% respondents agree that
there have been increasing incidences of droughts during the
dry season. Apart from the impact of climate change on crop
production in the study area, almost 82% of the indigenous
people studied stress that the environment is suffering from
excessive de-vegetation that is presently instigating fuel
scarcity and loss in forest resources.
Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)
44
Figure 5. Crop and climate change
In the study area, majority of the traditional people depend
much on environmental resources which are already under
threat and this is already affecting the livelihood of people
as opined by about 90% of the respondents. According to
97% of the respondents, the poor are usually always mostly
affected by the incidence of climate change while the
remaining 3% of the respondents do not know who are being
affected more. 32% of the respondents said that the impact
of climate change is more on food production, 28.5% of the
respondents said the impact is more on health, 20.5% of the
respondents subscribed that the impact is more on
biodiversity loss, 4.7% stress that the impact is more towards
instigating disaster and 7.5% of the respondents were of the
opinion that businesses are more jeopardized by climate
change.
In responding to issues on the sustainability of the
environment, about 80% of the respondents incline that
climate change can be a hindrance towards the struggle
towards achieving sustainable environmental development
in Bihar. Regarding awareness, 23% of the respondents
agreed that there is an awareness on climate change in the
study area, 28% of the respondents said they do not know
and finally, majority 48% of the respondents declined to say
that the awareness on climate change is very weak in the
study area and Bihar as a whole.
In response to adaptation strategies to climate change, 47.1%
of the respondents said that they cultivate different/varieties
of crops as adaptation strategies. It was perceived that
adapting to climate change by planting different varieties of
crops is high. Some farmers restrict themselves to different
planting dates by shortening the growing season. These
changes occur when there is a reduction in rainfall and a
change in the timing of the rains or a change in the frequency
of drought caused by temperature increase and insufficient
rains. In another vein 19.6% of the respondents adopt water
maximization by practicing irrigation farming while 2.3%
said they adopt shortening season strategies in combating
climate change. 9.8% responded that they adapt fertilizer as
a climate change adaptation strategy, 10% opined that they
increase the extent of land put into agriculture.
There are many factors hindering adaptation techniques of
combating climate change. Gender influences adoption level
indirectly through access to complementary inputs. Non-
availability of the desired variety of seed and higher price of
quality seeds were the most significant hindering factors
in the adaptation strategies. In response, 46.05% of the
respondents stress that lack of improving seeds is the major
hindrance to adoption of modern techniques, About 9.8% of
the responded saying that the main hindrance for them is the
lack of money to acquire modern techniques. About 24% of
the respondents feel the lack of assessing to water for
irrigation farming is the major hindrance while 15% said
their obstacle is the lack of current knowledge on adaptation
methods. About 4% feel strongly that lack of information on
weather incidence is the biggest obstacle.
Administrators Survey: The questionnaire started with the
question on general perceptions about climate change. The
vast majority of the respondents agreed with the statement
that climate change is caused by human actions. However
only 43% of the respondents agree that the climate has
already changed, about 38% of the stakeholders said that
climate change has been identified as a risk in disaster
mitigation or risk register. But more than 95% respondents
said that the greenhouse effect has not been defined
anywhere within the risk register of disaster management or
government environmental protection document. 81% of
stakeholder said climate change is not significant for his/ her
sector. 19% were not sure.
Stakeholder information needs: A majority (81%) of the
stakeholders said that so far, they have not received enough
information on climate change issues to support their
decision-making and planning at work. 19% were not aware
about the issue. The stakeholders were given a list of
alternative information needs on climate change issues. Of
these alternatives, the responses emphasize information on
regional) impacts (about 62% of respondents), on impacts on
India (48%), on local impacts (33%), on probabilities of
occurrence of extreme events (27%), uncertainties of
estimates (14%).
Climate change impacts and their significance:
The respondents considered that some of the changes and
impacts such as mean temperature rise, milder winters and
shortening of the growing season will have both positive and
negative impacts from the point of view of their sectors. For
most sectors, increases of possibility of major floods,
weather extreme events, increases in windiness and
precipitation were considered negative. Changes in rainfall
and increase in dry periods were also considered negative
but for many respondents they were also neutral (having not
positive or negative impacts).
Solution to climate change: Most of the respondents
(52.4%) felt that mitigation was the most efficient measure
to combat climate change, 19% said adaptation like
advanced planning, research, development of new
Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)
45
technology and preparing for extreme events etc. to be
among the most efficient measures to adapt to climate
change. 37% respondents say they have produced an action
plan. About 63% say that they do not have any
action plan produced.
It is surprisingly to know half of operational plans of the
organizations or sectors that the respondents represented
(52% of respondents), climate change issues had not already
been taken into account, 37% of the plans covered climate
change issues. Most of the plans dealt with both mitigation
and adaptation (41%). 32% of the plans treated only
mitigation issues.
Discussion
The stakeholders were selected for this study based on the
assumption that they are either affected by climate change
most and/ or they are in the position to act in adaptation.
However, from the point of view of the national economy,
some of the significant sectors are under-represented in this
study. Also, it would have been good to include more
representatives of the social policy sector in this study as
they are important potential actors in adaptation policies and
plans. The number of representatives from these sectors was
small partly due to difficulties in identifying and involving
the respondents.
Some of the respondents found the questionnaire is hard to
answer, mainly for two reasons. First, for some sectors or
stakeholders the issue of climate change and its impacts are
still distant and the issue is not discussed or treated within
the sector and in its plans. Secondly, some stakeholders
found the questions difficult to answer as they were not
targeted clearly to their sector or type of work. The officials
of district administration mostly know the climate change
issue well and the issue is also discussed within these sectors
but not between them. Therefore, for the stakeholders from
these sectors, the questionnaire was easier to answer.
The response rate to the questionnaire was quite good. Many
respondents had also taken time and effort to answer the
questions with care. It seems that many stakeholders have
already thought about and discussed adaptation and climate
change questions in their work within their sectors and also
concrete measures – mainly in mitigation, but also some
adaptation measures – are implemented or planned. The
need to take action was often stressed and the importance of
mitigation was emphasized.
Another issue often mentioned was uncertainties. There are
still many uncertainties concerning the changes, their
direction and magnitude, the impacts, time frames, causes of
the phenomena and extreme events. Therefore, the need for
research and information to support decision-making and
planning was often stressed. The stakeholders also expressed
the need for guidelines, recommendations and new
regulation to guide decision-making at the local or regional
levels.
The stakeholders seemed to be in general quite well aware
of climate change issues in general and they seemed to be
also aware of adaptation as an issue. It seems, however, that
in many sectors the issue has not been discussed and
concrete measures or plans have not been made so far but the
issue has been acknowledged. Most respondents had
received enough information on climate change issues to
support their work so far. It is possible, though, that those
stakeholders that were not so familiar with the climate
change questions, did not respond to the questionnaire in the
first place. Even though aware of the issue, many
uncertainties about climate change and its impacts and
information needs were expressed.
The need for research on adaptation, impacts and climate
change, information dissemination and education was also
often emphasized. Many stakeholders responding to the
study also said that measures taken in Nalanda District so far
to adapt to climate change have not been sufficient. The
types of measures suggested that authorities should take
were: research on adaptation, research on climate change
impacts and scenarios; integration of climate change issues
into planning at all levels, integrating sectoral planning and
cooperation; information dissemination on climate change
and adaptation issues and research results; regulation and
new legislation to enhance adaptation; economic measures
and creating incentives for private sector; enhancing
innovations and technological development; education and
training on climate change and adaptation; analyzing risks,
risk assessment, monitoring and evaluation systems; taking
more active part in international negotiations and work; and
developing decision making system.
Interestingly some of the stake holders, who are well
educated, raise question about the government ambitious
programme to build Bihar Sharif as smart city and expressed
their concerns whether in coming future, this smart city will
able to counteract increasing disasters and climate changes
impacts.
Conclusion
The findings of this study show that the threat of climate
change for traditional farmers is more on health, food
supply, biodiversity quality and fuel wood availability than
on businesses and disaster instigation. Indigenous people
adapting to climate change strategies in the study area
include planting different varieties of crops, cultivating
different crops, changing the extend of land put into crop
production, changing to irrigation farming, the use of
chemical fertilizer and improvement in water maximization.
Factors hindering the use of quality seed are found to be the
non-availability of the desired variety seeds and higher price
of quality seeds. The analysis has revealed to a great extent
that the indigenous people in the study areas take the issues
of climate change seriously. The perceived hindrances to
adoption of modern technique as adaptation strategies of
Disaster Advances
Vol. 10 (8) August (2017)
46
climate change include lack of improved seeds, lack of
assess to water for irrigation farming.
Future Research
No doubt, the climate change adaptation is an opportunity
for social reform, for the questioning of values that drive
inequalities in development and our unsustainable
relationship with the environment. But this outcome is by no
means certain and growing evidence suggests that too often
adaptation is imagined as a non-political, technological
domain and enacted in a defensive rather than a progressive
spirit. Adaptation has been framed in terms of identifying
what is to be preserved and what is expendable, rather than
what can be reformed or gained.
It is also matter of future research that how “The different
actors perceive contrasting roles for adaptation? What is the
cost of adaptation? Can the burgeoning academic and policy
interest in adaptation be levers to address these deeper
questions of sustainability and justice, as well as adjusting to
meet the more proximate risks presented to us by a changing
climate? What institutional arrangements are best suited to
implementing adaptive management?”
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(Received 30th June 2017, accepted 22nd July 2017)
*****
Suggested Citation :
Sagar, Kundan. "Climate Change perception and adaptation strategies among various stakeholders in Nalanda
District of Bihar (India)." Disaster Advances, 10 (8), 39-47(2017):
