Conference Paper

Reality of Food Losses: A New Measurement Methodology

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Abstract

Measuring food loss, identifying where in the food system it occurs, and developing effective policies along every stage of the value chain are essential first steps in addressing the problem of food loss and waste in developing countries. Food loss has been defined in many ways, and disagreement remains regarding proper terminology and measurement methodology. Although the terms " post‐harvest loss, " " food loss, " " food waste, " and " food loss and waste " are frequently used interchangeably, they do not refer consistently to the same aspects of the problem. In addition, none of these classifications includes pre‐harvest losses. Consequently, and despite the presumed importance of food loss, figures regarding food loss remain highly inconsistent, precise causes of food loss remain undetected, and success stories of decreasing food loss remain few. We improve over this measurement gap on food losses by developing and testing the methodology traditionally used with three new methodologies that aim to reduce the measurement error and that allow us to assess the magnitude of food loss. The methods account for losses from the pre‐harvest stage through product distribution and include both quantity loss and quality deterioration. We apply the instrument to producers, middlemen, and processors in seven staple food value chains in five developing countries. Loss figures across all value chains fluctuate between 6 and 25 percent of total production and of the total produced value; these figures are consistently largest at the producer level and smallest at the middleman level. The identified losses are in addition to the existing yield gaps identified across the different commodities studied which are in the range of 50 to 80%. Throughout the different estimation methodologies, losses at the producer level represent between 60 and 80 percent of total value chain losses, while the average loss at the middleman and processor level lies around 7 and 19 percent, respectively. Differences across methodologies are salient, especially at the producer level. While the estimation results from the three new methods implemented are close and the differences are mostly not statistically significant, the aggregate self‐reported method reports systematically lower loss figures. Finally, our results show the major reasons behind the losses identified for each commodity and country. Specifically, we find that they included pests and diseases and lack of rainfall. When looking at the produce left in the field, the major reason for the loss is a lack of appropriate harvesting techniques. Finally, the loss reported at the post‐harvest level is due mostly to damage done during selection, as a result of workers' lack of training and experience in selecting the produce. Therefore, technology, improved seeds and the proper soil management techniques together with better market access could help to substantially reduce the losses at the producer level.

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... Some organizations and researchers have different opinions on how FLW should be defined, quantified and expressed. According to FAO (2011), food loss usually takes place in the post-harvest and processing stages, whereas Delgado et al. (2017) and Gustavsson et al. (2011) considered that food loss takes place not only in the post-harvest and processing stages but also in the primary production stage. There is more agreement concerning the stages where food waste takes place. ...
... It should be noted that the way in which FLW is defined is very important because the level and/or the type and causes leading to FLW depend on these factors. For example, studies that consider the primary production level will report larger amounts of food loss as compared to those that only assess post-harvest and production losses (Delgado et al., 2017). Similarly, studies concerning non-edible food parts as waste will show larger waste amounts as compared to edible parts. ...
... Similarly, studies concerning non-edible food parts as waste will show larger waste amounts as compared to edible parts. Overall, studies assessing FLW should include pre-harvest loss along with the post-harvest loss and waste to propose more successful strategies to prevent them (Chaboud and Benoit, 2017;Delgado et al., 2017;Lipinski et al., 2013). ...
Article
The term food loss and waste (FLW) refers to discarded food during the different stages of the food chain. Food loss occurs during the initial stages of the food chain, and food waste occurs during the final stages. The relation between FLW and circular economy (CE) is particularly important for countries which are beginning to implement actions or regulations on this topic. These proposals may have an impact in strategic sectors of their economy. The objective of this review document was to analyse the regulations of FLW and CE in some countries located throughout the European Union, Asia, Africa and Latin America. To fulfil this objective, FLW and CE regulations were identified and analysed in 12 countries located in the aforementioned regions. The analysis showed that France, Spain, Japan and Uruguay included objectives related to FLW in their CE legislations focusing on food waste reduction, whereas China, Chile, Argentina and Mexico did not include FLW in their CE legislations. African countries did not have CE legislations in place yet. France and Japan have had more success in the reduction of FLW. In conclusion, CE regulation should include FLW regulation to achieve more efficiency at reducing and reusing these residues.
... The features of the selected studies are shown in Chart 3. Fourteen (14) 14 , Haiti (n=1) 16 , Colombia (n=3) 18,24,25 , Mexico (n=1) 23 , Peru (n=1) 28 , Ecuador and Peru (n=1) 27 , Ecuador, Peru, Honduras and Guatemala (n=2) 21 [14][15][16][17] or only traders (n=3) [18][19][20] were respondents in the selected articles. Most studies have evaluated the entire food supply chain (n=9) 1,21-28 , three of them assessed the distribution [18][19][20] and four studies focused on post-harvest handling and storage [14][15][16][17] . ...
... limitations; storage and difficult climatic conditions; as well as poor infrastructure, and packaging and marketing systems 1,15,16,20,21,22,26,27 . The main factors influencing such losses in the selected studies were climatic factors, excessive humidity; as well as the presence of rodents, fungi, birds and insects; and low seed quality 14,15,17,21,22,[24][25][26][27][28] . ...
... limitations; storage and difficult climatic conditions; as well as poor infrastructure, and packaging and marketing systems 1,15,16,20,21,22,26,27 . The main factors influencing such losses in the selected studies were climatic factors, excessive humidity; as well as the presence of rodents, fungi, birds and insects; and low seed quality 14,15,17,21,22,[24][25][26][27][28] . One of the selected studies mentioned theft as one of the causes of food loss 15 . ...
Article
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The article aims to identify stage of the food supply chain (FSC) has the greatest food loss and waste (FLW), the factors that influence and economic, social and environmental impacts in Latin America countries. We carried out a scoping review of observational studies, case reports and interventional studies in January 2023. Searches were performed in scientific databases and hand-searching of reference lists. Data on the included studies were summarized with narrative synthesis. In total 16 articles met the inclusion criteria. The greatest FLW occur in the early and middle stages of the FSC, mainly during storage. The main causes were connected to financial, managerial and operational limitations related in harvesting techniques, storage and cooling facilities, infrastructure and marketing systems. Food waste (FW) is also a result of lack of appropriate storage facilities and efficient transport systems, market fluctuations and systems. Only one study presented results on the environmental impact of FW. There is a higher occurrence of food loss, characterized by decrease in the quantity and quality of food in the first three stages of FSC.
... Currently, an international agreement on a single definition of FL and FW is still lacking (Teuber and Jensen, 2020). According to Delgado et al. (2017), even though the terms "FL" "Post-Harvest Loss" (PHL), "FW", and "FLW differ from each other, they can be used as equivalents in the literature. FAO definitions are the most regularly used due to the organization's initial effort in 2014 to summarize the existent terminology and definitions (Corrado et al., 2017). ...
... Quantification methods can be classified as "macro" or "micro" approaches given the variability of FLW (Delgado et al., 2017). The former describes methods that analyze a broad perspective of FLW at the global or regional level, and it can be achieved by contrasting non-processed inputs to final production, using records of mass balances measured by weight or caloric content. ...
... While the study of Gustavsson et al. (2011) provides a broad perspective of the FLW with "regional" estimates and suggests general guidelines, it is still crucial that each country creates its own database. Several country-specific reports have been published, mainly in the United States and European countries that fit into the "macro" approach category, using mass balance data and specific assumptions about production yields to understand the current scenario (Delgado et al., 2017). The "macro" approach is limited by the lack of representativeness that results from using incomplete and obsolete data, which reduces its utility for planning actions to prevent and reduce the FLW (Thyberg and Tonjes, 2016;Delgado et al., 2017). ...
Article
Full-text available
During the last decade, food loss and waste (FLW) has been gaining more attention due to its negative effect on food security. However, the lack of information about FLW quantification and characterization remains a problem, especially from the perspectives of local citizens and farmers. There is limited literature examining food losses (FL) in primary production of the food supply chain (FSC) and specific policies are needed to improve the FLW measurement. The aim of this research is to analyze how much FL is generated at the farm level using a micro-approach methodology from harvest to primary commercialization stages among farmers located in Central Chile. Additionally, we explore factors affecting FL using a fractional regression model with special emphasis on the harvest stage. Data were collected using phone interviews, conducted in 2019, with 177 small-scale producers of vegetables and berries. FL generated by the sample from harvest to primary commercialization was 14.5% on average. Farmers identified a considerable volume of FL during primary production, mostly during the harvest. The factors that increased FL among small-scale farmers were the production system and its harvest period, commercialization channels, labor shortage, and cosmetic standards. As a case study, the information collected here can be useful for encouraging further research emphasizing the harvest stage and the role of the production systems in generating FLW.
... With the "Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development" [9]., the international community has committed to effectively combat hunger and malnutrition (SDG 2) by reducing FLW [10,11]. The current crisis in Ukraine underlines the role of reducing FLW. ...
... The current crisis in Ukraine underlines the role of reducing FLW. Since "The International Day Against Food Waste" in September 2020 the public attention has been drawn to the agenda's sub-goal 12.3, to "halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and to reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including postharvest losses [by 2030]" [10,12]. ...
... The following four objectives are most often cited in the literature [1,10,13,[15][16][17]: ...
Article
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According to FAO about one-third of the food worldwide is discarded. The economic, environmental, and social (ethical) impact of food loss and waste (FLW) is substantial. Food waste (FW) at the household level in high income countries makes a significant share of total FLW. Target 12.3 of the Sustainable Development Goals advocates a 50% reduction of the global per capita FW by 2030. The German government has agreed to this goal. Across all sectors, about half of the waste is avoidable. To achieve a reduction of FLW, information on the current level, its causes, and the economic costs of its reduction are necessary. Depending on the definitions and methodologies to measure FLW, studies have come to different results. This study estimates and analyses avoidable and total household FW and for the first time its determinants in Germany. On average, 59.6 kg per capita of food is wasted annually, of which 49% is avoidable FW. The main causes of household FW are eating habits, shopping behaviour, involvement in FW, and retail promotions.
... PHL are a particular subset of unintentional food losses which occur after harvest and before consumption. Losses observed during agricultural production (that is at harvesting) should be excluded from PHL, although this is not always the case (Delgado, Schuster, & Torero, 2017). Losses observed at consumption stage are often more deliberate and therefore labelled as "food waste" (FAO, 2014). ...
... Another food loss type is pre-harvest losses. They occur as a result of pest, disease, lack of rainfall or agricultural inputs, but tend to be ignored in most food loss estimations, despite their importance in determining the loss magnitude in later stages (Delgado et al., 2017). To stress the importance of the waste part, all food losses combined (except pre-harvest losses) are commonly designated as "food loss and waste (FLW)" (FAO, 2014). ...
... 1. presents some key estimates of crop losses observed in Ghana along various stages of the food value chain.9 For example,Delgado et al. (2017) compile an overview of FLW estimates from recent studies by methodological approach and length of the food value chain considered. Another example concerns the Global Initiative on Food Loss and Waste Reduction (called "Save Food"), led by FAO, which presents estimates on FLW by food group and geographical zone for each of the major stages of the food value chain (see www.fao.org/save-food). ...
... Quantification methodologies can focus on quantifying FLW at national level (Tostivint et al. 2016;Delgado et al. 2017;FAO 2018a;UNEP 2020), focus on a wide range of entities active in multiple supply chain links (GIZ 2015a;Rockefeller Foundation 2016;WRAP 2018), or both (Hodges 2013;UNEP 2014;WRI 2016;FAO 2018b;CEC 2019). The aim, level of analysis, and structure of quantification methodologies matters significantly for the applicability in each situation, and likewise, the aim and situation of a user are major deciding factors in their choice of methodology. ...
... Depending on their specific purpose, the strategies of existing quantification methodologies differ considerably, some encompassing all steps of this strategy, whereas others focus on one or two specific steps (Table 2). IFPRI (Delgado et al. 2017) primarily focuses on measuring. It includes some part of targeting, but only at a very high level, distinguishing only between the producer-, middleman-and processor stages of food supply chains. ...
... Of the reviewed methodologies, four quantification methodologies focus on the quantification of FLW through the years on the country level only (Tostivint et al. 2016;FAO 2018a;UNEP 2020). IFPRI (Delgado et al. 2017) also wrote their quantification methodology mainly for higher-level policy, and distinguished just three stages in the supply chain; producers, middlemen and processors. ...
... Part of this knowledge comes from a study that used aggregated data for 2007 to investigate the per capita quantity of FLW generated in the region, resulting in around 225 kg [13]. Another type of study conducted interviews and surveys with different stakeholders to measure the quantity of food wasted during the early and middle stages of the FSC-as in the case of beans and maize value chains in Guatemala and Honduras [14], potato value chains in Ecuador and Peru [14,15], or tomato value chain in Colombia [16]. Surveys also were used to study household food waste, as in Uruguay [17]. ...
... Part of this knowledge comes from a study that used aggregated data for 2007 to investigate the per capita quantity of FLW generated in the region, resulting in around 225 kg [13]. Another type of study conducted interviews and surveys with different stakeholders to measure the quantity of food wasted during the early and middle stages of the FSC-as in the case of beans and maize value chains in Guatemala and Honduras [14], potato value chains in Ecuador and Peru [14,15], or tomato value chain in Colombia [16]. Surveys also were used to study household food waste, as in Uruguay [17]. ...
... They are related to the difficulties faced by farmers during production because of unfavorable climatic conditions, pests, and diseases [14,15]; the market inconsistency and product rejections by agri-food corporations due to quality requirements [29]; the immense diversity of supply channels in formal and informal food chains [24,25]; the lack of cold chain logistics in the agri-food and fisheries sectors [27]. Another determinant is that These findings are similar to those reported in previous studies from upper-middleincome countries, such as South Africa [31] and Brazil [21]. ...
Article
Full-text available
The quantification of food losses and waste (FLW) has become a research hotspot in the last decade, but little work has been done to have food waste data in Latin American countries. This paper contributes to addressing this knowledge gap by examining the magnitude of FLW along the whole food supply chain (FSC) in Peru. The methodological approach was based on the top-down mass flow analysis at all steps of the FSC for the 2007–2017 period (most recently available data), including different food commodity groups (CGs), such as cereals, roots and tubers, oil seeds and pulses, fruits, vegetables, meat, fish and seafood, and milk. Results show an annual average of FLW of 12.8 million tonnes, which represents 47.76% of the national food supply. Regarding per capita quantities, the average amount of FLW was 426.56 kg per year when considering the entire FSC, and 67.34 kg per year when considering only the consumption step. This study suggests which steps of the FSC and CGs are the most promising targets for FLW reduction strategies in Peru.
... Many still quote an early global estimate of FAO (2011), which suggests that as much as one third of all food production gets lost or wasted before human consumption. More recent, but incomplete, estimates suggest losses could be considerably less than previously thought, albeit still significant, especially when also accounting for losses in food quality (Delgado et al. 2017;FAO 2019), Likewise, too little is known about which factors are associated with food loss and waste, especially in developing countries. Inadequate post-harvest handling practices and lack of cold or dry storage and transportation are among several known food chain weaknesses that are major causes of food losses. ...
... A more recent FAO study now estimates global food losses (up to the retail stage) at 14 percent on average worldwide, but -for lack of reliable data -does not give an estimate for global food waste (FAO 2019). IFPRI research (Delgado et al. 2017(Delgado et al. , 2019, which influenced the latest FAO study, focuses on food loss during the first stages of the supply chain (farming, transportation, storage, wholesale distribution, and processing). Though applied to a limited number of staple crops and country cases, three key findings stand out from that research. ...
... There is no simple answer here, as the reasons are multiple and vary greatly from context to context. In developing countries, much food gets lost because of poor handling on the farm, as S, C, A, and P refer to different measurement methods as further specified in Delgado et al. (2017), whereby the first (S-method) refers to self-reported quantity losses by farmers, middlemen and processors, while C, A, and P try to capture both quantity and quality losses through different estimation methods. Specifically: S = Refers to food loss as measured by the 'aggregate self-reported method', that is based on reporting by the producers, middlemen, and processors regarding the food losses they each incurred. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Too little is known about which factors are associated with food loss and waste, especially in developing countries. Inadequate post-harvest handling practices and lack of cold or dry storage and transportation are among several known food chain weaknesses that are major causes of food losses. Yet, even where farmers and other supply chain actors are aware of the economic benefits (net of costs) of proper storage and handling practices, we do not always see widespread adoption of such practices. This maybe the case, for instance, if farmers perceive greater payoff from investing in increased production or do not have enough market access to reap the benefits of food loss reduction. Overlooking such economic drivers could lead to ineffective intervention strategies. This paper explores the implications for policy design and investment strategies for the development of more efficient food systems in developing countries.
... Food production is predicted to increase by 60% by 2050 to feed the planet's estimated 10 billion people (FAO, 2019; Fedoroff, 2015). However, food loss due to pests and diseases, as well as food waste, should be reduced (Savary et al. 2019;Delgado et al. 2017). Crop pests and diseases on food crops degrade agricultural yields and quality leading to significant economic losses and impairing food security at the household, national, and global levels with average losses ranging from 21.5% (10.1 to 28.1%) in wheat, 30.3% (24.6 to 40.9%) in rice, 22.6% (19.5 to 41.4%) in maize, 17.2% (8.1 to 21%) in potato, and 21.4% (11 to 32.4%) in soybean (Savary et al. 2019). ...
... Crop pests and diseases on food crops degrade agricultural yields and quality leading to significant economic losses and impairing food security at the household, national, and global levels with average losses ranging from 21.5% (10.1 to 28.1%) in wheat, 30.3% (24.6 to 40.9%) in rice, 22.6% (19.5 to 41.4%) in maize, 17.2% (8.1 to 21%) in potato, and 21.4% (11 to 32.4%) in soybean (Savary et al. 2019). Plant diseases also cause considerable preharvest losses for smallholder farmers in some parts of the world, with nearly 50% of beans and maize producers in Central America and nearly 50% of potato farmers in South America reporting losses (Delgado et al. 2017). ...
Book
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He has received a MOTA-NFST fellowship and was qualied for the ICAR ASRB NET in Plant Pathology and has made signicant contributions to the eld, including the publication of research articles, popular articles and book chapters. He has actively participated in national and international conferences, presenting both oral and poster presentations.
... Food production is predicted to increase by 60% by 2050 to feed the planet's estimated 10 billion people (FAO, 2019; Fedoroff, 2015). However, food loss due to pests and diseases, as well as food waste, should be reduced (Savary et al. 2019;Delgado et al. 2017). Crop pests and diseases on food crops degrade agricultural yields and quality leading to significant economic losses and impairing food security at the household, national, and global levels with average losses ranging from 21.5% (10.1 to 28.1%) in wheat, 30.3% (24.6 to 40.9%) in rice, 22.6% (19.5 to 41.4%) in maize, 17.2% (8.1 to 21%) in potato, and 21.4% (11 to 32.4%) in soybean (Savary et al. 2019). ...
... Crop pests and diseases on food crops degrade agricultural yields and quality leading to significant economic losses and impairing food security at the household, national, and global levels with average losses ranging from 21.5% (10.1 to 28.1%) in wheat, 30.3% (24.6 to 40.9%) in rice, 22.6% (19.5 to 41.4%) in maize, 17.2% (8.1 to 21%) in potato, and 21.4% (11 to 32.4%) in soybean (Savary et al. 2019). Plant diseases also cause considerable preharvest losses for smallholder farmers in some parts of the world, with nearly 50% of beans and maize producers in Central America and nearly 50% of potato farmers in South America reporting losses (Delgado et al. 2017). ...
... ((Food and Agricultural Organization, Rome, Italy, 2019; Fedoroff, 2015). To increase the efficacy, a rise in output will be required, as well as an impact on food loss owing to insect, weeds and diseases and food scraps (Savary et Crop diseases can lead considerable pre-harvest losses for small-scale farmers in certain parts of the globe, with nearly half of bean as well as maize growers in Central America and nearly a quarter of potato growers in South America reporting losses (Delgado, 2017). Plant pathogens generate huge losses in food production, leading to decreased yields, reduction of species diversity, mitigation expenses owing to control techniques, and downstream health effects (Savary et al., 2019). ...
... Tools to strengthen agricultureAs evidenced by the latest outbreak produced by COVID-19, pathogenic risks to human food safety and hygiene are in the everyday public view and governments. Emergent crop epidemics offer similar hazards, although they are frequently undetected(Delgado et al., 2017;Anderson et al., 2004;Bebber, 2014). The Software for Measuring Emergent Diseases (ProMED) began worldwide surveillance system of emergent diseases in humans in 1994.(Anderson ...
Chapter
Throughout many areas of the globe, phyto-pathogens epidemics are on the rise, posing a major threat to crop production for the impoverished. A worldwide human epidemic is now endangering the health of millions of people around the world. To pull people out of poverty and promote wellness a reliable, nutritious food source will be required. Changing climate, spreading through worldwide food trade route, pathogen spillover as well as the creation of novel disease groups are all contributing to the expansion and exacerbation of phyto-pathogens both endemic and newly developing. To address the above broad concerns, a novel set of tools is required encompassing surveillance system and enhanced diagnostic devices such as pathogen detectors, as well as forecasting and data analytics. Here in this book chapter, we present comprehensive studies that can really aid in the prevention of emerging crop diseases outbreaks
... Climate change affects all dimensions of food security in complex ways. Harsh climatic conditions such as excessive rainfall, lack of rain, temperature and humidity cause signi cant pre-harvest and postharvest food loss (Schuster et al., 2018). Infestation by pests and infections by disease are important causes of food loss and waste, that consequently affect food availability negatively (Schuster et al., 2018;John, 2014). ...
... Harsh climatic conditions such as excessive rainfall, lack of rain, temperature and humidity cause signi cant pre-harvest and postharvest food loss (Schuster et al., 2018). Infestation by pests and infections by disease are important causes of food loss and waste, that consequently affect food availability negatively (Schuster et al., 2018;John, 2014). Its impact on transportation through infrastructural damage, decrease in purchasing power due to rising food prices, cause water and food-borne diseases and a decrease in yield due to extreme events . ...
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Climate change affects food security directly through temperature levels and water availability in agriculture and indirectly through its impact on disease vectors and pests. This paper investigates the economic impact of climate change on food security in SSA. Panel data of all SSA countries are used in the analysis, to analyze the impact of temperature and precipitation on food security. Their coefficient of variation is used to analyze their impact on food security. The results from the analysis indicate that the coefficient of variations in both temperature and precipitation affects food security negatively. The climate variables affect food security directly through its impact on food production and indirectly through its impact on other food security indicators. The study recommends ecosystem management and production system improvement. According to the findings, the impact of climate change on food security in the SSA region is damaging. To overcome the impact, the study suggests appropriate land use policy formulation, natural resource conservation, implementing best agronomic practices and maintaining the number of population at an optimum level in the region.
... Field random sample methodology provides a more accurate estimation to growers, policymakers and researchers of what is the actual percentage of the product that remains in the field and which is lost across the different stages across FSC (Johnson et al., 2018). The methodologies including (aggregate self-reported, category method, attribute method and price method) are based on the collected data from representative actors of producers, intermediaries, and processors among the production reaching to consumption (Delgado et al., 2017). Through these methodologies total lost food (both quantity and quality losses) could be estimated, which could translate into economic value and/or calculate the lost or wasted resources used to produce the lost food (Delgado et al., 2021b). ...
... C-Method is based on the classification of the crop into quality categories, each category differs in the price and end-use for example (fresh human use, for processing, for animal feed, etc.), 6 as showed in Table 1. Each category is accompanying by a percentage representing the portion of the product that is sold in this grade and its price in every category (Compton and Sherington, 1999;Delgado et al., 2017). By the proposed instrument, we asked the farmers about the last cultivation season, (quantity, quality losses and the price for each grade of sold production), by the same for the intermediaries. ...
Article
Reducing Food losses and waste (FLW) is a key global challenge to ensure sufficient food for the future and to use available natural resources more efficiently. This study based on the primary data collected from 343 tomato supply chain actors' in Egypt. We adopted the life cycle assessment approach and the category method (C-Method) to estimate the percentage of postharvest losses (PHL) and their economic and environmental impacts. The result revealed the average percentage of PHL is ‏13.36%, 7.5%, 8.6%, 8.8% and 11.63%‏ for the ‏‏ ‏farmers, processors, village traders', wholesalers and retailers respectively. The total land and water used to produce this lost food estimated around 80 thousand hectares and 306 million cubic meters, besides the other production inputs. Which cost the Egyptian economy about 449$ million annually and emits 4.5 million tons of CO2eq. The study highlights the importance of prevention strategies is better than recovering ones to mitigate the economic and environmental impacts of FLW. Additionally, diversity of the marketing channels for perishables could contribute to lessen the percentage of PHL through reducing unsold share, meet the consumers’ preferences and providing greater marketing opportunities for small farmers. This study suggests the intervention of mitigation PHL should include the different actors from the farmers to retailers. Adopting a short supply chain, collective marketing, access to cold transportation and storage services, that could maintain product quality and extending its shelf-life. Agricultural education is essential for disseminating the best agricultural practices including the postharvest operations for perishable products. Therefore, design sustainable intervention strategies require intensive public-private partnership and it should include incentives for small stakeholders. That could raise their knowledge, improve their skills and practices, and change their attitudes to be more sustainable users for the limited natural resources.
... It is estimated that food production will need to increase by 60% by 2050 to feed the estimated 10 billion people expected on Earth (1,2). An increase in production along with a reduction in food loss due to pests and pathogens and food waste will be needed to meet demand (3,4). Global yield losses due to crop pests and diseases on food crops are large, with mean losses ranging from 21.5% (10.1 to 28.1%) in wheat, 30.3% (24.6 to 40.9%) in rice, 22.6% (19.5 to 41.4%) in maize, 17.2% (8.1 to 21%) in potato, and 21.4% (11 to 32.4%) in soybean (3). ...
... Unlike endemic disease that is usually managed, emerging plant diseases can pose shocks to agricultural productivity, and thus we risk undercutting other input investments in agriculture that alleviate hunger unless the deleterious impacts of plant diseases on crop production are considered in policy discussions (1,4,18). Food security exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life (1). ...
Article
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Plant disease outbreaks are increasing and threaten food security for the vulnerable in many areas of the world. Now a global human pandemic is threatening the health of millions on our planet. A stable, nutritious food supply will be needed to lift people out of poverty and improve health outcomes. Plant diseases, both endemic and recently emerging, are spreading and exacerbated by climate change, transmission with global food trade networks, pathogen spillover, and evolution of new pathogen lineages. In order to tackle these grand challenges, a new set of tools that include disease surveillance and improved detection technologies including pathogen sensors and predictive modeling and data analytics are needed to prevent future outbreaks. Herein, we describe an integrated research agenda that could help mitigate future plant disease pandemics.
... Others are based on meta studies or literature surveys (Affognon et al., 2015;Sheahan and Barrett, 2017;Xue et al., 2017;Aragie et al., 2018;Reynolds et al., 2019). A few recent studies have emerged that have proposed and applied improved measurement methodologies (Garrone et al., 2014;Delgado et al., 2017;FAO, 2019) and have influenced the development of new protocols for accounting and reporting standards for FLW to be deployed by companies, governments, and other actors (FLW protocol, 2016). ...
... Inadequate storage conditions and decisions made at earlier stages of the supply chain can predispose products to a shorter shelf life, causing significant losses (FAO, 2011;Liu, 2014). Adequate cold or dry storage, in particular, tend to be crucial to prevent quantitative and qualitative food losses (Delgado et al., 2017). During transportation, good physical infrastructure and efficient trade logistics are vital to prevent food losses (Rolle, 2006). ...
Article
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Despite broad agreement in policy circles on the need to reduce food loss and waste (FLW), considerable gaps in information still exist. This paper identifies policy-relevant information gaps, summarizes recent research that tries to fill these gaps and identifies five challenges for researchers, policymakers and practitioners in reducing FLW. The five challenges identified are: (i) measuring and monitoring FLW, (ii) assessing benefits and costs of FLW reduction and the tradeoffs involved, (iii) designing FLW-related policies and interventions under limited information, (iv) understanding how interactions between stages along food value chain and across countries affect outcomes of FLW reduction efforts, (v) preparing for income transitions and the shifting relative importance of losses and waste as economies develop.
... The current study is focused on the preharvest and harvesting loss. These stages cover the losses in crops caused among others by pests, weather, weeds, crops left in the field, or poor harvesting techniques before and during harvesting (Delgado et al., 2017). The present research aimed to discover and propose a new data collection method for the precision evaluation of food loss based on published scientific works, in addition to fostering the scientific discussion of the new data collection and quantification methods. ...
Article
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The high amount of food loss and waste significantly challenges the sustainable development. The agriculture needs rapid and fundamental transformation to enhance its efficient and sustainabile operation. However, to measure precisely the effect of the new policies and practices is also difficult. The present study analyses the applied methods’ data sources, as one of the key factors regarding the effective estimation of food loss and waste. By conducting a systematic literature review using the PRISMA approach, a lack of scientific focus was found related to the new data collection methods. Based on the selected articles reasonably slight amount joined the application of image processing to food loss estimation related purposes. The reviewed studies principally used the image-based solutions for the prevention and reduction of on-farm food loss. This recognition lighted up the application of image processing in agriculture, but only the thematic map analysis revealed the privileged status of ”plant disease detection” within the studied area. The results suggest the possibility of applying image-based data sources to quantify food loss. Even though the limitations of agricultural image processing, the application of new data sources, and methods could considerably improve the accuracy of food loss and waste quantification in addition to the operation on farm level in short term.
... Among the methods used to measure the food wastage is possible to define two main approaches (Delgado et al. 2017): the macro-approach, using mass and energy balances and micro-approach, where there is not any standard method to measure the food waste issue along the entire food chain, but there is a wide variety of methodologies which could be used such as questionnaires, diaries, direct measurements or observations (Møller et al. 2014). Both approaches could use sample data regarding the entire agrifood chain or specific steps (Betz et al. 2015;Quested et al. 2013;Buzby and Hyman, 2012). ...
Preprint
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The work aims at providing a new methodology to facilitate the process of quantifying the food waste according to European standards all along the agrifood chain combining information that is becoming available at local level. This new methodology generates straightforward and easy-to-interpret results for the decision making process in the framework of the quantification of the food waste at local and supralocal scale and it provides adequate procedures which are easy adaptable to the specific circumstances in each municipality. Moreover, this method could have applications for larger territorial contexts, as the national scale, detecting possible points for improvement of the current official figures at this respect.
... This lack of relevant information about the true extent of loss makes it impossible to measure progress. However, a considerable number of the studies were completed after 2000, indicating a growing interest in PHL research and development (Affognon et al. 2015;Delgado et al. 2017Delgado et al. , 2019. PHLs were primarily gathered by surveys/interviews or sampling/direct measurements (Magalhaes et al. 2021). ...
... Un segundo reto tiene que ver con la necesidad de obtener mayores evidencias y pruebas sobre las variadas causas que dan origen a esta problemática que normalmente se asocia a la carencia de técnicas y procesos agrícolas más tecnificados, a las inadecuadas condiciones de procesamiento y almacenamiento, a la falta de una adecuada infraestructura y a la poca coordinación al momento de comercializar los productos en todas sus etapas, desde la cosecha misma hasta el procesamiento, distribución y consumo. El tercer y último desafío se enfoca en tener claridad y mayor conocimiento sobre cómo actuar para reducir exitosamente la pérdida de alimentos en cada una de las etapas de la cadena de valor (Delgado et al., 2017). ...
Article
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La pérdida poscosecha de cultivos, entendida como la cantidad de cultivos que se pierde a lo largo de la cadena de suministro alimentario después de la cosecha y antes de la venta al por menor, es de interés para las diferentes naciones, ya que ello repercute en la disponibilidad de alimentos para la población. Esta investigación, cuyos resultados se presentan, aquí tuvo como objetivo evaluar la pérdida en los principales cultivos en los diferentes países de Sudamérica durante la década 2010-2019. Su proceso investigativo se clasifica en descriptivo comparado de tipo multidimensional. Se utilizaron las técnicas multivariadas MANOVA y el análisis de componentes principales. Al efectuar el análisis multivariado de la varianza, se detectaron diferencias altamente significativas (p<0.0001) entre las diferentes naciones evaluadas, en relación con la pérdida de cosechas. El contraste canónico de tipo ortogonal estableció la divergencia de Brasil respecto a los demás países, al evaluar de manera conjunta las variables objeto de estudio. De tal manera, se concluye que las frutas, vegetales, legumbres y nueces son los cultivos, en general, con la mayor afectación. Esto tiene implicaciones para la diversidad, la disponibilidad y el costo de la oferta alimentaria en sus países.
... These results also indicate that the YWI played an important role as a driver of PHL reduction in the three value chains [43]. While the geographic location of a SHF can be difficult to modify [44], the various YWI services could be further explored to identify combinations that best reduce PHL. For this purpose, an online dashboard was created and made accessible at https://phldashboard.shinyapps.io/phldashboard/ ...
Article
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Several studies have identified a host of factors to be considered when attempting to reduce food postharvest loss (PHL). However, very few studies have ranked those factors by their importance in driving PHL. This study used the Random Forest model to rank the critical drivers of PHL in maize, mango, and tomato, cultivated in Tanzania, Kenya, and Nigeria, respectively. The study then predicted the maize, mango, and tomato PHLs by changing the levels of the most critical drivers of PHL and the number of farmers at each level. The results indicate that the most critical drivers of PHL consist of pre-harvest and harvest variables in the field, such as the quantity of maize harvested in the maize value chain, the method used to know when to begin mango harvest, and the type of pest that attacks plants in the tomato value chain. Furthermore, changes in the levels of a critical driver and changes in the number of smallholder farmers at a given level both have an impact on PHL, although the impact of the former is much higher than the latter. This study also revealed that the critical drivers of PHL can be categorized as either passive and difficult to manipulate, such as the geographic area within which a smallholder farmer lives, or active and easier to control, such as services provided by the Rockefeller Foundation YieldWise Initiative. Moreover, the affiliation of smallholder farmers to the YieldWise Initiative and a smallholder farmer's geographic location are ubiquitous critical drivers across all three value chains. Finally, an online dashboard was created to allow users to explore further the relationship between several critical drivers, the PHL of each crop, and a desired number of smallholder farmers.
... Так, дослідниками зроблено висновок, що скорочення післяжнивних втрат агропродовольства шляхом поліпшення інфраструктури знижує ціни на продукти харчування і підвищує продовольчу безпеку. Однак, більш результативними є інвестиції в сільськогосподарські дослідження та інноваційні розробки, пов'язані із скороченням післяжнивних втрат [20]. Однак, за результатами інших досліджень, зростання продовольчої безпеки за рахунок зменшення післяжнивних втрат є перебільшеним, порівняно із ефективним функціонуванням елементів розподільчої інфраструктури, яке призведе до скорочення втрат продовольства та зниження роздрібної ціни [21]. ...
Article
The article substantiates the conceptual principles of reducing food loss and food waste from the standpoint of ensuring food security and environmental sustainability. The approaches to the interpretation of the concepts of food loss and waste are summarized, the similarities and differences between them, as well as the reasons for their formation and the connection between them, are noted. The main causes of food losses and food waste, which are caused by human, technical-technological, natural-climatic, economic, market, etc., are considered. factors. It is argued that Ukraine's waging of war caused the deterioration of food security both at the local and national levels, and at the international level. The main factors that lead to the loss of agri-food in the supply chain during wartime and the decrease in its production volumes are systematized, which will negatively affect the provision of food security in the country and the formation of export potential at the level of previous years. The dynamics of losses in terms of individual types of products were analyzed and it was established that the highest losses are observed for potatoes - 18.1 %, vegetables and melons - 12.0 %, fruits and vegetables - 10.0 %, and for livestock products this indicator is not significant It was found that the greatest losses of crop products occur at the stage of growing and harvesting, the value of which varies from 3 to 12 %, as well as sales. In dairy and meat breeding, the greatest losses occur at the stage of livestock breeding, milking and primary processing of products, as well as due to the lack of a full production cycle. It is estimated that the amount of food waste in Ukraine in households is 76 kg per capita, which is almost equal to the indicators of most countries, but the values are higher in the catering sector - 28 kg and retail trade - 16 kg. It was concluded that there is a need to develop effective measures to reduce food waste and losses in order to increase the sustainability and competitiveness of agri-food supply chains. It is substantiated that the conceptual principles of the need to reduce food losses and food waste should be considered in the aspect of ensuring food security and minimizing the negative impact on the environment. Among the priority directions for solving the problem of food losses and waste, the following are highlighted: development of a comprehensive program for the preservation and restoration of agricultural production in the conditions of martial law; development and improvement of market infrastructure elements; technical and technological modernization of agricultural production, processing facilities; improvement of distribution infrastructure elements, especially transportation of live animals; creation of innovative warehouse facilities; formation of a rational consumption culture among the population; development of wholesale food markets, livestock markets, development of public-private partnerships in the implementation of projects to reduce food losses and food waste; development of effective levers of state regulation in the aspect of motivation of chain participants; development of a methodical approach to estimating the amount of food losses; formation of an information array of data, etc. Key words: food loss, food waste, supply chain, food security, environmental sustainability, martial law.
... This lack of relevant information about the true extent of loss makes it impossible to measure progress. However, a considerable number of the studies were completed after 2000, indicating a growing interest in PHL research and development (Affognon et al. 2015;Delgado et al. 2017Delgado et al. , 2019. PHLs were primarily gathered by surveys/interviews or sampling/direct measurements (Magalhaes et al. 2021). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Vegetables and fruits contain many phytochemicals, vitamins and minerals , and dietary fibers that are good for human health. However, on a global scale, a substantial amount (25-50%) of fruits and vegetables is lost from farm to fork, together called post-harvest losses. These losses represent both food security and environmental issue and therefore counteract any effort to build sustainable food systems since they deprive populations of a considerable amount of healthy food and represent a huge waste of resources. A significant obstacle in achieving mitigation of post-harvest losses is the lack of precise knowledge of the actual magnitudes of losses, which makes it impossible to measure progress against any loss reduction targets. After a brief historical sight on how science addressed the issue, this chapter will present the concepts and definitions of fruits and vegetables food loss and waste and finally review the state of knowledge about the magnitude, distribution in the food supply chain, and main causes of fruits and vegetables food loss and waste for this category of products.
... Although it is not possible to combine these different estimates with the additional post-farmgate elements included within the 2019 FAO study [2] due to differences in methodology, the data suggest that between 20 and 25% of global production may be lost across the primary-production and supply-chain stages, up to but not including retail. Given the prevalence of self-reporting rather than direct measurement within underlying farm-stage studies (Figure 2), actual loss rates are likely to be higher due to the tendency of questionnaires and indirect measurement techniques to underestimate harvest and farm-stage post-harvest losses [5,19]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Global statistics on food waste were first reported by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization in 2011, and since that time, more attention has been given to food waste measurements at the consumer, retail and hospitality stages, whilst efforts to quantify losses during primary production have been more limited. To provide an updated view of global losses in primary production, data for the harvest and on-farm, post-harvest stages were reassessed through a systematic review of data sources and a selection of datasets for further analysis. To qualify for selection, food-loss measurements needed to be specific to primary production and to particular food commodities and production regions. The analysis covered a split between losses at the harvest and post-harvest stages linked to activity descriptions within the primary data sources. A cross-sectional sample of ten commodity/region case studies was conducted through stakeholder interviews and literature reviews to triangulate food waste estimates and to understand issues relating to food waste definitions from a farming perspective.
... These initiatives have a conventional production system and sell to large distributors or organizations of producers, thus representing most of the horticultural producers in Catalonia and Europe. The wellstructured production system and the systematic organization of the sales that characterize these farms ensure more reliable data on food loss (Delgado et al., 2017), limiting the underestimation of food loss commonly in qualitative assessments (Baker et al., 2019). Finally, the results of the focus group discussion conducted by the Ministry of Agriculture, Fishery, Livestock, and Environment in collaboration with 100 farmers aimed to assess the loss generated during the harvest were taken for the Unavoidable food Loss (UVL). ...
Article
Full-text available
Introduction Reduction of food loss in the horticultural sector is critical to simultaneously support the transition toward a diet with higher consumption of vegetables and the achievement of policy goals aimed at halving the quantity of wastage by 2030. However, the lack of precise information and the presence of múltiple interconnected factors makes it difficult to assess the potential socioeconòmic benefits and therefore the decision-making process of food loss reduction strategies. Methods A case study approach has been used to assess the econòmic loss and nutrional impact of food loss in the horticulture primary production. The selection of the main vegetable products was based on an historical series while econòmic and nutritional impact were estimated starting from national and European indicator. Results The food loss correspond to 26% of the total production and 14% of the total agricultural production econòmic value. The social analysis confirm the possibility of redistributing food loss among the population even in the most critical months and areas. Discussion The combination of social and econòmic indicator resulted essential to provide key information at the decision-making level to pave the way for the elaboration of short- and long-term food loss reduction strategies. Indeed, no single-bullet strategy can be applied to overcome the problem of food loss as many actor with different needs are involved.
... However, the methods use different approaches and, therefore, make the volume comparison process difficult (van der Werf and Gilliland, 2017). Approaches to the estimates can still be classified into macro, when using mass balances, material inputs and outputs, and micro, when the tools are based on diaries, weighing, questionnaires, and scanners (Delgado et al., 2017). ...
Article
Food waste research is growing over the years. Approximately one third of all produced food in the world is lost or wasted annually. However, few studies address food waste in the restaurant's environment. In restaurants, food waste includes leftovers and plate waste. The leftovers are equivalent to prepared but not served food, while plate waste is all the food that was distributed but not consumed. This study quantifies food waste in a chain of industrial restaurants in an industrial park in Brazil. The measurement process covered 14 restaurants that provide around 12,000 meals a day. The data collection lasted 9 months and gathered data for a period of one month for each restaurant during lunchtime. The results indicated daily waste of 1,297 kg, that is, 938 kg for leftovers and 359 kg for plate waste. These numbers indicate excessive production of food and waste of food on plates. The food waste quantified in the present study is equivalent to serving 1,638 meals, considering the same standard offered in the restaurants covered in the research. This food waste, which was measured just during lunchtime, costs the company around U$3,675.99/day. The study focused on the period of lunchtime, which is usually the main meal for Brazilians. However, it would be important to map the other meals to generate data and measurement protocols for reducing food waste. Contributions in the economic, environmental, and social spheres can serve as points of discussion for the implementation of measures that can fight food waste in restaurants.
... We calculated the declared FLW as a percentage of the reported loss out of the reported total amount of tomatoes. Adapting questions on self-reported FLW from Delgado et al. (25), we defined field loss as harvest-ready tomatoes that are left in the field, either remaining on the plant or picked but left in the field; preharvest quality loss as quality deterioration among harvested tomatoes that occurred prior to harvest; postharvest, farm-level loss as loss among harvested tomatoes; and preauction, market-level loss as loss among tomatoes transported to the wholesale market. Vegetable traders declared FLW in terms of their inventory received and sold on survey day. ...
Article
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Background Reducing food loss and waste (FLW) may narrow gaps between fruit and vegetable production and recommended intake. However, FLW estimates are inconsistent due to varying estimation methods. Objectives Using multiple estimation approaches, we examined the extent and determinants of FLW along tomato supply chains in South India, from farm to retail. We also explored tomato quality assessment. Methods We surveyed 75 farm households and 83 tomato traders in Chittoor district, Andhra Pradesh and 52 vegetable traders and 50 vegetable retailers in Hyderabad, Telangana on harvest and market days. We calculated declared FLW using participant-reported loss to estimate pre-harvest quality FLW and quantitative FLW at farmer, vegetable trader and vegetable retailer stages. We calculated destination FLW based on counted crates diverted to loss destinations, using participant-reported destinations (animal feed, field discard), to estimate post-harvest FLW from farm to retail. We used pile sorting with farmers to explore on-farm quality assessment. Results Average pre-harvest quality FLW was 13.9% of harvested tomatoes. From farm to retail, quantitative FLW was greatest at the post-harvest, farm level. Among all harvests, median [IQR] post-harvest, farm level FLW was 0.0% [0.0, 7.9] using the destination FLW approach (tomatoes diverted to non-food uses), and 2.3% [0.0, 12.5] using the declared FLW approach (P < 0.05). Among harvests with non-zero post-harvest, farm level FLW, median [IQR] FLW was 9.1% [2.4, 16.7] using the destination FLW approach (tomatoes diverted to non-food uses), and 10.0% [2.9, 16.7] using the declared FLW approach. Harvesting during peak season was a determinant of post-harvest, farm and pre-auction, market level FLW. Farmers prioritize color/ripeness attributes while harvesting and tomato size while grading. Conclusions Single-point estimates may obscure FLW patterns for perishable indeterminate crops and depend on data collection and estimation methods. Reducing FLW of perishables requires integration of quantitative and qualitative FLW estimation methods.
... Measuring weight loss is difficult because of the logistical challenges of analysing the food commodities' value chains, which might occur at different times in different households, and all the possible scenarios leading to different levels of PHLs. Delgado et al. (2017), and Chaboud and Daviron (2017) explained that weight loss measurements found in literature are often inconsistent and imprecise. In our study, collecting weight loss from the field would have required extensive fieldwork and the data (for instance, obtained in a limited geographical area at a certain season) may still not reflect the entire variation in any single region. ...
Article
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Postharvest losses (PHLs) amplify food insecurity and reduce the amount of nutrients available to vulnerable populations, especially in the world's Low and Middle Income Countries (LMICs). However, little is known about nutrient loss at the various postharvest stages. The objective of our study was to develop a methodology and a tool to estimate nutritional postharvest losses (NPHLs) along food value chains for three distinct food commodities in sub-Saharan Africa. The study used a combination of literature, laboratory and field data to investigate NPHLs caused by both changes in quantity and quality of food material (quantitative and qualitative NPHLs, respectively). The method can be expanded to various other food value chains. A user-friendly predictive tool was developed for case studies involving maize and cowpea in Zimbabwe, and for sweet potato in Uganda. Quantitative and qualitative NPHLs were combined and converted into predicted nutrient loss and nutritional requirement lost due to postharvest losses. The number of people who may not meet their daily nutritional needs, as a result of the food and nutrient losses at country level, was estimated. The estimates consider nutritionally vulnerable groups such as children under five years and pregnant women. The nutrient density of the harvested food material, the level of food production, the postharvest stages along the food value chain, the levels of pest damage along the value chain, and the susceptibility of the nutrients to degradation e.g. during storage, are all important factors that affect NPHLs. Our modelling work suggests that reducing PHLs along food value chains could significantly improve access to nutritious food for populations in LMICs.
... Scott Webster https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4086-8088 ENDNOTES 1 Besides PHL, pre-harvest losses also may occur. According to Delgado et al. (2017), pre-harvest losses may be sizable. Pre-harvest losses happen due to poor agricultural management skills and techniques. ...
Article
This study investigates contract farming's impact on smallholders' profits and post‐harvest losses (PHLs). The study uses an endogenous switching regression (ESR) and farm‐level data from okra growers located in two different districts in India. Results show that okra growers under production contract (PC) or marketing contract (MC) have higher profits and PHLs than independent okra growers. However, under a low rejection‐rate scenario, growers under PC or MC have significantly lower PHLs and increased profits. The reduction in PHLs is not surprising, but the magnitude of the decrease shows that rejection rates are the major contributor to PHLs for contracted growers. Thus, contract farming with low rejection reduces PHLs and increases the profits of smallholders─a win‐win situation for growers and contracting firms.
... Finally, Chegere et al. (2021) measure post-harvest losses pre-intervention of 12 percent in maize, in a relatively small sample in Kilosa district of Tanzania. A more rigorous method is developed by IFPRI researchers through the Policies, Institutions, and Markets CGIAR research program (Delgado et al. 2017). The goals of developing this method were to refine estimates of post-harvest loss-es, to include both quantity and quality losses, and to determine at what point on the value chain losses occur. ...
Chapter
Some transaction costs act to reduce producer incentives to be concerned about the quality of their agricultural products. We present a simple model that demonstrates how those attenuating effects can be reduced and are affected by unobservable factors among both producers and purchasers, particularly in a low trust environment. One way to address quality concerns is through third-party certification schemes, which typically involve either unobservable attributes about the product or the production process. However, these schemes are expensive and actors need to reap higher returns from their activities to make them work. Evaluating the impacts of certification schemes is tricky because farmers self-select into participation, and the poorest farmers do not participate. Present evidence, however, suggests these schemes do have positive income effects for participating farmers.
... Finally, Chegere et al. (2021) measure post-harvest losses pre-intervention of 12 percent in maize, in a relatively small sample in Kilosa district of Tanzania. A more rigorous method is developed by IFPRI researchers through the Policies, Institutions, and Markets CGIAR research program (Delgado et al. 2017). The goals of developing this method were to refine estimates of post-harvest loss-es, to include both quantity and quality losses, and to determine at what point on the value chain losses occur. ...
Chapter
Agricultural value chains take on several different organizational forms, from being dominated completely by spot markets to being vertically integrated within a single company. We consider a conceptual model of factors leading to different value chain governance structures; then we adapt this model to African value chains by considering contextual factors, such as the abundance of smallholders and the fear that market power often resides with the trader in African value chains. We note that relational contracting plays a very important role in African value chains; transactions along value chains in Africa are typically based on implicit, self-enforcing contracts with little or no third-party enforcement. Transaction costs that lead to relational contracting simply reflect the economic and technological conditions at play.
... Finally, Chegere et al. (2021) measure post-harvest losses pre-intervention of 12 percent in maize, in a relatively small sample in Kilosa district of Tanzania. A more rigorous method is developed by IFPRI researchers through the Policies, Institutions, and Markets CGIAR research program (Delgado et al. 2017). The goals of developing this method were to refine estimates of post-harvest loss-es, to include both quantity and quality losses, and to determine at what point on the value chain losses occur. ...
Book
This book provides a thorough introduction to and examination of agricultural value chains in Sub-Saharan Africa. First, the authors introduce the economic theory of agri-food value chains and value chain governance, focusing on domestic and regional trade in (and consumption of) food crops in a low-income country context. In addition to mainstream and heterodox thinking about value chain development, the book pays attention to political economy considerations. The book also reviews the empirical evidence on value chain development and performance in Africa. It adopts multiple lenses to examine agricultural value chains, zooming out from the micro level (e.g., relational contracting in a context of market imperfections) to the meso level (e.g., distributional implications of various value chain interventions, inclusion of specific social groups) and the macro level (underlying income, population and urbanization trends, volumes and prices, etc.).Furthermore, this book places value chain development in the context of a process the authors refer to as structural transformation 2.0, which refers to a process where production factors (labor, land and capital) move from low-productivity agriculture to high-productivity agriculture. Finally, throughout the book the authors interpret the evidence in light of three important debates: (i) how competitive are rural factor and product markets, and what does this imply for distribution and innovation? (ii) what role do foreign investment and factor proportions play in the development of agri-food value chains in Africa? (iii) what complementary government policies can help facilitate a process of agricultural value chain transformation, towards high-productive activities and enhancing the capacity of value chains to generate employment opportunities and food security for a growing population. Alan de Brauw is a Senior Research Fellow at the International Food Policy Research Institute. He was previously a professor of economics at Williams College. He conducts much of his research using primary source data and has previously published over 50 articles in economics, agricultural economics, and nutrition journals. Erwin Bulte is professor of development economics at Wageningen University and Research. He has previously held positions at Oxford University, Cambridge University, Tilburg University and Utrecht University. He has published almost 150 papers in internationally refereed journals, and a previous Palgrave book on institutions and agrarian development in West Africa (with Paul Richards and Maarten Voors).
... Finally, Chegere et al. (2021) measure post-harvest losses pre-intervention of 12 percent in maize, in a relatively small sample in Kilosa district of Tanzania. A more rigorous method is developed by IFPRI researchers through the Policies, Institutions, and Markets CGIAR research program (Delgado et al. 2017). The goals of developing this method were to refine estimates of post-harvest loss-es, to include both quantity and quality losses, and to determine at what point on the value chain losses occur. ...
Chapter
Poor storage causes additional problems for smallholder farmers, as they are pressured to sell crops immediately after harvest. As a result, in Africa in many years prices for major grains fall right after harvest and peak just before the next one. Poor storage can also lead to post-harvest losses. Yet good post-harvest loss measurements are scarce, particularly for vegetables; since information on actual losses is poor, it is difficult to design cost-effective interventions to reduce them. With improved storage, farmers could reap returns to higher prices later in the season. More regional storage can also support warehouse receipts systems, which can be used both as collateral and to develop commodity exchanges. Yet again, transaction costs to using regional storage are high for smallholders.
... Finally, Chegere et al. (2021) measure post-harvest losses pre-intervention of 12 percent in maize, in a relatively small sample in Kilosa district of Tanzania. A more rigorous method is developed by IFPRI researchers through the Policies, Institutions, and Markets CGIAR research program (Delgado et al. 2017). The goals of developing this method were to refine estimates of post-harvest loss-es, to include both quantity and quality losses, and to determine at what point on the value chain losses occur. ...
Chapter
Smallholder farmers in Africa are poor and appear unproductive relative to larger farmers. But once one takes their environment into account, we argue they make rational production decisions given their multiple objectives under the multiple constraints they face. These constraints are shaped by transaction costs, which determine what smallholders can buy and sell. Transaction costs include not just transporting goods to market, but also costs of aggregation, dealing with risk, obtaining liquidity, and costs related to trust, market power, and even storage. The remainder of the book, then, provides historical and institutional reasons why African smallholders face high transaction costs. After explaining why some solutions will likely fail, the book concludes with what we consider promising areas for interventions to catalyze Structural Transformation 2.0 in Africa.
... Finally, Chegere et al. (2021) measure post-harvest losses pre-intervention of 12 percent in maize, in a relatively small sample in Kilosa district of Tanzania. A more rigorous method is developed by IFPRI researchers through the Policies, Institutions, and Markets CGIAR research program (Delgado et al. 2017). The goals of developing this method were to refine estimates of post-harvest loss-es, to include both quantity and quality losses, and to determine at what point on the value chain losses occur. ...
Chapter
Smallholder production in Africa tends to be both low yielding relative to the agronomic potential, and crops are of low or variable quality. These outcomes are largely a result of market conditions that smallholders face. Smallholders lack full property rights over land, and capital markets targeting smallholders are thin, so they may not be able to purchase enough inputs. Inputs are often costly, both because of relatively large distances inputs must travel, because farmers may lack information about the right amounts to use, and because they lack capital, reducing demand. And farmers may not trust inputs either, due to perceived counterfeiting or other risks. In selling on output markets, smallholders often face weak returns to quality due to imperfect competition. And even within households, these challenges can differ; women may face stricter constraints on their production than men do.
... Finally, Chegere et al. (2021) measure post-harvest losses pre-intervention of 12 percent in maize, in a relatively small sample in Kilosa district of Tanzania. A more rigorous method is developed by IFPRI researchers through the Policies, Institutions, and Markets CGIAR research program (Delgado et al. 2017). The goals of developing this method were to refine estimates of post-harvest loss-es, to include both quantity and quality losses, and to determine at what point on the value chain losses occur. ...
Chapter
African agricultural value chains have gradually evolved from informal exchange to more formalization in general, yet this process has not been linear in time. Policy changes between colonial and post-colonial regimes first shifted at least some smallholders into more formalized markets, and then back to selling surplus on spot markets. The colonial era can be characterized as extractive; institutions were developed to extract value from Africa and provide cheap food to Europe, particularly tropical commodities. Many post-colonial governments continued to implicitly tax agriculture through urban bias and pricing, tariff, or exchange rate policies until structural adjustment occurred in the 1990s. Since then, several factors have improved African agricultural performance, including an infusion of FDI and private sector investments and changes in agricultural policy in Europe improving African terms of trade.
... Liu et al., 2013;Wu et al., 2017). Some researchers have expressed concerns about the representativeness of these small samples (Delgado et al., 2018;Bellemare et al., 2017). In particular, a few studies have built econometric models to test the determinants of storage losses (FAO, 2015;Kumar and Kalita, 2017;Wu et al., 2017). ...
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Purpose The purpose of this study was to estimate on-farm maize storage losses and to empirically analyse the main determinants of maize storage losses in China. Design/methodology/approach Based on a nationwide survey of 1,196 households in 23 provinces (autonomous regions and municipalities) in China, the authors estimated on-farm maize storage losses and used a fractional logit model to analyse the main determinants of maize storage losses in China. Findings The results showed that, first, 1.78% of maize was lost during the storage stage in China and that storage loss experienced by smallholders varied across regions. Second, the empirical analysis showed that storage quantities have significant and negative effects on storage losses and that an economy of scale in household storage may exist; the percentage of maize stored for consumption and feed has significant and positive effects on storage losses, which may be related to market requirements and management activities. Third, compared to traditional facilities, silos and warehouses cause lower storage losses, while spraying chemicals and re-drying maize in the storage stage incur higher losses, possibly because to save costs, smallholders conduct loss-reduction activities only when they suffer serious losses, and when taking measures, farmers may sort grains, which also increases losses. Fourth, harvesting maize when it matures is significantly associated with lower storage losses. Research limitations/implications To reduce storage losses, first, farmers' awareness of food saving and loss reduction must be increased. This could be achieved through agricultural training and education regarding food-saving practices. Second, the government could provide subsidies or low-interest credits to encourage farmers to use advanced facilities and promote land transfers to realize economies of scale. Finally, the government should accelerate the construction of smart agriculture systems and the timely monitoring of crop growth to suggest farmers to harvest at the appropriate time. Originality/value Reducing post-harvest loss (PHL) has become an important means of increasing the food supply and reducing resources use in China. This study provides a complete introduction to household maize storage losses and can therefore help characterize the current state of PHL in China, which is of vital importance to food security and food policy.
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Neff (‫همناران‬ ‫و‬ 1 ‫بار‬ ‫مبتنای‬ ‫یاا‬ ‫سیساتمی‬ ‫روینرد‬ ،) ‫تغذیه‬ ‫و‬ ‫غذا‬ ‫نظام‬ ، ‫دارد:‬ ‫اصلی‬ ‫مزیت‬ ‫چهار‬ 1 ‫تعیی‬ ‫بر‬ ‫تمرکز‬ ‫و‬ ‫تاکید‬) ‫کننده‬ ‫های‬ ‫وسایع،‬ ‫مفهاوم‬ ‫یاک‬ ‫در‬ ‫ساالمت‬ ‫محیطای‬ ‫و‬ ‫اجتماعی‬ 2) ‫باه‬ ‫توجاه‬ ‫باا‬ ‫تغییار‬ ‫بارای‬ ‫نوآورانه‬ ‫و‬ ‫تازه‬ ‫راهبردهای‬ ‫پیشنهاد‬ ‫امنان‬ ‫پیچیاادگی‬ ‫هااای‬ ‫غیرمنتظااره،‬ ‫شاارایط‬ ‫و‬ ‫واقعاای‬ ‫دنیااای‬ 3 ‫تقویاات‬) ‫همناری‬ ‫و‬ ‫غاذا‬ ‫باه‬ ‫سیساتمی‬ ‫نگارش‬ ‫گسترش‬ ‫ای.‬ ‫رشته‬ ‫میان‬ ‫های‬ ، ‫ا‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫غ‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ص‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ر‬ ‫و‬ ‫ر‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ض‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ب‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ج‬ ‫و‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ب‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ج‬ ‫و‬ ‫م‬ ، ‫ه‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ش‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫گ‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ا‬ ‫ه‬ ‫د‬ ‫ی‬ ‫ط‬ ‫ه‬ ‫ی‬ ‫ذ‬ ‫غ‬ ‫ت‬ ‫ماوثر‬ ‫و‬ ‫مهام‬ ‫عوامل‬ ‫از‬ ‫ینی‬ ‫است.‬ ‫شده‬ ‫عمومی‬ ‫سالمت‬ ‫و‬ ‫کشاورزی‬ (‫اسات‬ ‫باوده‬ ‫جهانی‬ ‫سطح‬ ‫در‬ ‫زیست‬ ‫محیط‬ ‫تغییرات‬ ‫روند،‬ ‫ای‬ ‫بر‬ 1 .) ‫تلقای‬ ‫غاذا‬ ‫تاامی‬ ‫مسئو‬ ‫تنها‬ ‫تغذیه‬ ‫و‬ ‫غذا‬ ‫نظام‬ ‫و‬ ‫کشاورزی‬ ‫امروزه،‬ ‫نمی‬ ‫انتظار‬ ‫بلنه‬ ‫شوند،‬ ‫مای‬ ‫نقاش‬ ‫جامعاه‬ ‫بهاروزی‬ ‫و‬ ‫ساالمت‬ ‫در‬ ‫رود‬ (‫کنند‬ ‫بازی‬ ‫جدی‬ 2 ‫سیاسات‬ ‫گساترش‬ ‫روینارد،‬ ‫ایا‬ ‫نتیجه‬ .) ‫و‬ ‫هاا‬ ‫برنامه‬ ‫گساترده‬ ‫دامنه‬ ‫که‬ ‫است‬ ‫هایی‬ ‫بار‬ ‫در‬ ‫را‬ ‫سالو‬ ‫تاا‬ ‫مزرعاه‬ ‫از‬ ‫ای‬ ‫می‬ ‫مدا‬ ‫مانند‬ ‫گیرند،‬ ‫حاالی‬ ‫در‬ ‫کاه‬ ‫مدرساه‬ ‫تا‬ ‫مزرعه‬ ‫خالت‬ ‫بهباود‬ ‫کاه‬ ‫تغذیه‬ ‫وضعیت‬ ‫تقویات‬ ‫باه‬ ‫حاا‬ ‫عی‬ ‫در‬ ‫دارند،‬ ‫نظر‬ ‫مد‬ ‫را‬ ‫کودکان‬ ‫ای‬ ‫اک‬ ‫کما‬ ‫اذایی‬ ‫غا‬ ‫اایعات‬ ‫ضا‬ ‫ار‬ ‫کنتا‬ ‫ای‬ ‫حتا‬ ‫و‬ ‫ای‬ ‫محلا‬ ‫ااورزی‬ ‫کشا‬ ‫اد‬ ‫تولیا‬ ‫می‬ ‫کنند‬ (1 .) ‫سیاسات‬ ‫و‬ ‫پاووهش‬ ‫حوزه‬ ‫در‬ ‫ایران،‬ ‫در‬ ‫ایا‬ ‫باه‬ ‫هاردو،‬ ‫گاذاری،‬ ‫اسات.‬ ‫نشاده‬ ‫مناسب‬ ‫اقبا‬ ‫روینرد‬ ‫از‬ ‫بخشای‬ ‫خاال‬ ‫ایا‬ ، ‫ن‬ ‫از‬ ‫اشای‬ ‫طرف‬ ‫بی‬ ‫انتظار‬ ‫مورد‬ ‫گفتمان‬ ‫نبود‬ ‫و‬ ‫موضوع‬ ‫از‬ ‫ناکافی‬ ‫شناخت‬ ‫هاای‬ ‫حوزه‬ ‫محققان‬ ‫جمله‬ ‫از‬ ‫و‬ ‫درگیر‬ ‫هاای‬ ‫اسااس،‬ ‫بارای‬ ‫اسات.‬ ‫مختلا‬ ‫و‬ ‫غاذا‬ ‫نظاام‬ ‫موضاوع‬ ‫تغذیاه،‬ ‫و‬ ‫غاذا‬ ‫بحث‬ ‫تریبون‬ ‫نشست‬ ‫چهارمی‬ ‫چالش‬ ‫و‬ ‫مفاهیم‬ ‫و‬ ‫تغذیه‬ ‫های‬ ‫را‬ ‫نظاام‬ ‫پهنه‬ ‫در‬ ‫سیاستگذاری‬ ‫و‬ ‫مطالعه‬ ‫ان‬ ‫بحث‬ ‫محور‬ ‫بعنوان‬ ‫در‬ ‫ت‬ ‫مقاا‬ ‫نشسات،‬ ‫ای‬ ‫طی‬ ‫است.‬ ‫کرده‬ ‫تخاب‬ ‫شد:‬ ‫خواهد‬ ‫ارائه‬ ‫بخش‬ ‫سه‬ ‫ویوگای‬ ‫و‬ ‫سیساتمی‬ ‫تفنر‬ ‫معرفی‬ ‫ضم‬ ، ‫او‬ ‫بخش‬ ‫در‬ ‫هاای‬ ‫آن،‬ ‫ایا‬ ‫گیاری‬ ‫شانل‬ ‫و‬ ‫تنامال‬ ‫سایر‬ ‫و‬ ‫پایدار‬ ‫تغذیه‬ ‫و‬ ‫غذا‬ ‫نظام‬ ‫مفهوم‬ ‫تشریح‬ ‫مفهوم‬ ‫می‬ (‫شود‬ 3 ‫نظام‬ ‫زیر‬ ‫سپس‬ .) ‫های‬ ‫تغذیاه،‬ ‫و‬ ‫غاذا‬ ‫نظاام‬ ‫مص‬ ‫عرضه،‬ ‫و‬ ‫فرآوری‬ ‫تولید،‬ ‫شامل‬ ‫رابطه‬ ‫و‬ ‫معرفی‬ ‫هریک‬ ‫تغذیه‬ ‫و‬ ‫رف‬ ‫ت‬ ‫یا‬ ‫أ‬ ‫و‬ ‫بحاث‬ ‫مورد‬ ‫نظام‬ ‫ای‬ ‫پیامد‬ ‫مهمتری‬ ‫بعنوان‬ ‫سالمت‬ ‫بر‬ ‫آنها‬ ‫ثیر‬ ‫قرار‬ ‫تحلیل‬ ‫می‬ (‫گیرد‬ ۷-۴ .) ‫پووهش‬ ‫از‬ ‫هایی‬ ‫نمونه‬ ‫دوم،‬ ‫بخش‬ ‫در‬ ‫های‬ ‫اجارا‬ ‫دست‬ ‫در‬ ‫معدود‬ ‫سفره‬ ‫تا‬ ‫مزرعه‬ ‫از‬ ‫متقابل‬ ‫تاثیرات‬ ‫و‬ ‫دارند‬ ‫سیستمی‬ ‫روینرد‬ ‫بنوعی‬ ‫که‬ ‫ای‬ ‫طراحا‬ ‫در‬ ‫را‬ ‫الو‬ ‫سا‬ ‫و‬ ‫اث‬ ‫بحا‬ ‫و‬ ‫اه‬ ‫ارائا‬ ‫اد،‬ ‫انا‬ ‫اه‬ ‫گرفتا‬ ‫ار‬ ‫نظا‬ ‫در‬ ‫اه‬ ‫مطالعا‬ ‫می‬ ‫بعناوان‬ ‫را‬ ‫ارگانیک‬ ‫کشاورزی‬ ‫مهدوی،‬ ‫و‬ ‫محمودی‬ ‫جمله،‬ ‫از‬ ‫شوند.‬ (‫سفره‬ ‫تا‬ ‫مزرعه‬ ‫از‬ ‫سالمت‬ ‫راهبرد‬ ‫یک‬ ۸ ‫اناد.‬ ‫داده‬ ‫قرار‬ ‫بحث‬ ‫مورد‬) (‫همناران‬ ‫و‬ ‫عالیپور‬ ‫مقاله‬ ‫در‬ ۹ ‫طراحای‬ ‫در‬ ‫سیستمی‬ ‫نگرش‬ ‫اهمیت‬ ،) ‫سیاسات‬ ‫و‬ ‫هاا‬ ‫برنامه‬ ‫هاای‬ ‫طر‬ ‫از‬ ‫ای‬ ‫تغذیاه‬ ‫برناماه‬ ‫دو‬ ‫مقایساه‬ ‫یا‬ ‫تغذیه‬ ‫روش‬ ‫کاه‬ ‫آنجاا‬ ‫از‬ ‫است.‬ ‫گرفته‬ ‫قرار‬ ‫توجه‬ ‫مورد‬ ‫منظر‬ ‫ای‬ ‫از‬ ‫ای‬ ‫موجاود‬ ‫خالهاای‬ ‫از‬ ‫ینای‬ ‫سیستمی،‬ ‫روینرد‬ ‫دارای‬ ‫و‬ ‫مناسب‬ ‫شناسی‬ ‫محسوب‬ ‫حوزه‬ ‫ای‬ ‫در‬ ‫کار‬ ‫برای‬ ‫می‬ ‫که‬ ‫مطالعه‬ ‫دو‬ ‫بخش‬ ‫ای‬ ‫در‬ ‫شود،‬ ‫دست‬ ‫به‬ ‫پرداخته‬ ‫زمینه‬ ‫ای‬ ‫در‬ ‫ورزی‬ ‫مط‬ ‫برای‬ ‫را‬ ‫پروتنلی‬ ‫ینی‬ ‫اند،‬ ‫العه‬ ‫کارده‬ ‫آزماون‬ ‫و‬ ‫طراحای‬ ‫ایاران‬ ‫روستایی‬ ‫جامعه‬ ‫در‬ ‫تغذیه‬ ‫و‬ ‫غذا‬ ‫نظام‬ (10 ‫اندازه‬ ‫دیگری‬ ‫و‬) ‫را‬ ‫سافره‬ ‫تا‬ ‫مزرعه‬ ‫از‬ ‫غذایی‬ ‫مواد‬ ‫ضایعات‬ ‫گیری‬ ‫نان‬ ‫و‬ ‫گندم‬ ‫مورد‬ ‫در‬ ‫های‬ ‫داده‬ ‫قارار‬ ‫توجاه‬ ‫ماورد‬ ‫را‬ ‫کشاور‬ ‫در‬ ‫گندمی‬ (‫است‬ 11 .) ‫صامیمانه‬ ‫کاه‬ ‫پووهانی‬ ‫دانش‬ ‫و‬ ‫عزیزان‬ ‫همه‬ ‫از‬ ‫جادارد‬ ‫خاتمه‬ ‫در‬ ‫با‬ ‫پووهش‬ ‫نتایج‬ ‫و‬ ‫ها‬ ‫دیدگاه‬ ‫گذاشت‬ ‫اشتراک‬ ‫به‬ ‫نشسات‬ ‫ای‬ ‫هایشان‬ ‫دادند‬ ‫یاری‬ ‫را‬ ، ‫سپاسگز‬ ‫کنم.‬ ‫اری‬ ‫امیدوار‬ ‫نسرین‬-‫نشست‬ ‫علمی‬ ‫دبیر‬ ‫استاد‬ ‫جامعه،‬ ‫تغذیه‬ ‫گروه‬ ‫تغذیه‬ ‫تحقیقات‬ ‫انستیتو‬ ‫کشور،‬ ‫غذایی‬ ‫صنایع‬ ‫و‬ ‫ای‬ ‫و‬ ‫تغذیه‬ ‫دانشکده‬ ‫ایران‬ ‫تهران،‬ ‫بهشتی،‬ ‫شهید‬ ‫پزشکی‬ ‫علوم‬ ‫دانشگاه‬ ‫غذایی،‬ ‫صنایع‬ .
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Little is known about the major issues leading to postharvest losses in Peru, which are estimated to be 15–27%. We surveyed 503 farmers from the lowlands and Andean regions of Arequipa to learn more about the major grains produced and issues encountered during drying and storage. Rice, common bean, and quinoa were the most grown crops in the lowlands while starchy maize was the most cultivated crop in the highlands. Most farmers (90%) dried their crops in-field directly on the ground, which exposes them to rodents, birds, and insect pests. The majority of farmers (92%) used subjective methods to assess grain moisture content. About 77% of farmers identified insects as a major challenge during storage but only 44% said they used preventive measures such as the application of insecticides. Among farmers who stored grain, the main reason was for household consumption (61%); while among those who did not store, the main reason was the need for immediate cash at harvest (75%). Farmers who experienced insect problems, who stored seed or grain for sale, who stored longer, or farmers from the lowlands were more likely to apply insecticides on their stored products. These findings provide an opportunity for researchers, development organizations, and government agencies to improve postharvest handling and storage in Arequipa by disseminating drying technologies, moisture assessment tools and hermetic storage solutions among farmers.
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This report provides the latest estimates by USDA's Economic Research Service (ERS) on the amount and value of food loss in the United States. These estimates are for more than 200 individual foods using ERS's Loss-Adjusted Food Availability data. In 2010, an estimated 31 percent or 133 billion pounds of the 430 billion pounds of food produced was not available for human consumption at the retail and consumer levels. This amount of loss totaled an estimated s161.6 billion, as purchased at retail prices. For the first time, ERS estimates of the calories associated with food loss are presented in this report. An estimated 141 trillion calories per year, or 1,249 calories per capita per day, in the food supply in 2010 went uneaten. The top three food groups in terms of share of total value of food loss are meat, poultry, and fish (30 percent); vegetables (19 percent); and dairy products (17 percent). The report also provides a brief discussion of the economic issues behind postharvest food loss.
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The 2008 and 2011 food price spikes sparked concerns about whether the growing global population would be able to feed itself in years to come, and with this came a renewed increase in interest in the level of postharvest losses (PHL)and the potential to improve food security by reducing them. It has been estimated that an additional one billion people could be fed if food crop losses were halved, which could potentially relieve some of the pressure on the significant increase in production that would be required. One way to address food security in developing countries is to ensure the inclusion of infrastructure development and technology improvements in postharvest best practices. However, the extent to which reductions in PHL can cost-effectively improve food security is unclear, and there is a need to understand the existing and potential investments and technologies that affect losses, and their cost-effectiveness. In this paper, we seek to better understand the levels of investment required to effectively reduce PHL.
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The reasons for the non-compliance of fruits and vegetables grown in Latin America and the Caribbean (LAC) with regulatory measures and quality requirements in international markets were investigated. United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) data were analyzed to determine causes of rejection of fruit and vegetables entering that country. Reports from various private associations and researchers were examined to determine the state of postharvest technology used in LAC to assure quality of fresh fruits and vegetables. The major reasons for rejection of the LAC fresh fruits and vegetables are dirtiness, pesticide residues and product/labels with insufficient information. Most LAC countries continue to use limited technology for reducing postharvest losses, which includes low cold chain capacity when compared to the industrialized world. The diverse range of problems which occur during shipment to export markets, such as cold chain breaks at sea ports, pose a high risk to the quality of products reaching international buyers. Using a case study, the importance of identifying the cumulative impact of multiple handling failures in export produce operations is revealed. Solutions to reduce postharvest losses due to non-compliance with safety and quality requirements are provided.
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Reducing postharvest losses (PHL) is a key pathway to food and nutrition security in sub-Saharan Africa. However, knowledge of PHL magnitudes is limited. A meta-analysis has been conducted to expose nature and magnitude of PHL, and the kinds of interventions that have been attempted to mitigate the losses. Findings reveal inadequacies of loss assessment methodologies that result in inaccurate PHL estimates. Moreover, losses are often economic rather than physical product losses. Overall, technologies for loss mitigation fail to address dynamics of supply chains. Consequently, rigorous PHL assessment using systematic methodologies, as well as holistic approaches for losses mitigation are in need.
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A key element in making our food systems more efficient is the reduction of food losses across the entire food value chain. Nevertheless, food losses are often neglected. This paper quantifies food losses in Switzerland at the various stages of the food value chain (agricultural production, postharvest handling and trade, processing, food service industry, retail, and households), identifies hotspots and analyses the reasons for losses. Twenty-two food categories are modelled separately in a mass and energy flow analysis, based on data from 31 companies within the food value chain, and from public institutions, associations, and from the literature. The energy balance shows that 48% of the total calories produced (edible crop yields at harvest time and animal products, including slaughter waste) is lost across the whole food value chain. Half of these losses would be avoidable given appropriate mitigation measures. Most avoidable food losses occur at the household, processing, and agricultural production stage of the food value chain. Households are responsible for almost half of the total avoidable losses (in terms of calorific content).
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Reducing food losses and waste is considered to be one of the most promising measures to improve food security in the coming decades. Food losses also affect our use of resources, such as freshwater, cropland, and fertilisers. In this paper we estimate the global food supply losses due to lost and wasted food crops, and the resources used to produce them. We also quantify the potential food supply and resource savings that could be made by reducing food losses and waste. We used publically available global databases to conduct the study at the country level. We found that around one quarter of the produced food supply (614kcal/cap/day) is lost within the food supply chain (FSC). The production of these lost and wasted food crops accounts for 24% of total freshwater resources used in food crop production (27m(3)/cap/yr), 23% of total global cropland area (31×10(-3)ha/cap/yr), and 23% of total global fertiliser use (4.3kg/cap/yr). The per capita use of resources for food losses is largest in North Africa & West-Central Asia (freshwater and cropland) and North America & Oceania (fertilisers). The smallest per capita use of resources for food losses is found in Sub-Saharan Africa (freshwater and fertilisers) and in Industrialised Asia (cropland). Relative to total food production, the smallest food supply and resource losses occur in South & Southeast Asia. If the lowest loss and waste percentages achieved in any region in each step of the FSC could be reached globally, food supply losses could be halved. By doing this, there would be enough food for approximately one billion extra people. Reducing the food losses and waste would thus be an important step towards increased food security, and would also increase the efficiency of resource use in food production.
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Traditional storage practices in developing countries cannot guarantee protection against major storage pests of staple food crops like maize, leading to 20-30% grain losses, particularly due to post-harvest insect pests and grain pathogens. As a result, smallholder farmers end up selling their grain soon after harvest, only to buy it back at an expensive price just a few months after harvest, falling in a poverty trap. The potential impact on poverty reduction and greater livelihood security will not be realized, however, if farmers are unable to store grains and sell surplus production at attractive prices. Apart from causing quantitative losses, pests in stored grain are also linked to aflatoxin contamination and poisoning. To address this problem, a metal silo was developed as a valid option and proven effective in protecting stored grains from attack by storage insect pests. A metal silo is a cylindrical structure, constructed from a galvanized iron sheet and hermetically sealed, killing any insect pests that may be present. The impact of metal silo technology in Africa. Asia and Latin America includes, improving food security, empowering smallholder farmers, enhancing income opportunities and job creation, and safeguarding the agro-ecosystems. The metal silo can be fabricated in different sizes, 100 kg-3000 kg holding capacity by trained local artisans, with the corresponding prices of 35to35 to 375. The use of metal silo, therefore, should be encouraged in order to prevent storage losses and enhance food security in developing countries. (c) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
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Food waste in the global food supply chain is reviewed in relation to the prospects for feeding a population of nine billion by 2050. Different definitions of food waste with respect to the complexities of food supply chains (FSCs)are discussed. An international literature review found a dearth of data on food waste and estimates varied widely; those for post-harvest losses of grain in developing countries might be overestimated. As much of the post-harvest loss data for developing countries was collected over 30 years ago, current global losses cannot be quantified. A significant gap exists in the understanding of the food waste implications of the rapid development of 'BRIC' economies. The limited data suggest that losses are much higher at the immediate post-harvest stages in developing countries and higher for perishable foods across industrialized and developing economies alike. For affluent economies, post-consumer food waste accounts for the greatest overall losses. To supplement the fragmentary picture and to gain a forward view, interviews were conducted with international FSC experts. The analyses highlighted the scale of the problem, the scope for improved system efficiencies and the challenges of affecting behavioural change to reduce post-consumer waste in affluent populations.
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"We need to use our water prudently – no one will argue with this statement. But in fact we are wasteful. This need will become more pronounced, and the cost of bad water management will get higher in the future with increasing water demands from increasing population, cities, agriculture, and the environment. Moreover water management will become more difficult with climate change. New solutions and fast actions are required now. Agriculture is the largest human use of water. Clearly, agricultural practices need to be targeted to reduce wastage of water. This has been the center of attention for water saving practices for years. But there are additional ways to save water. Food consumers and businesses have a key role. Losses of food between the farmers’ field to our dinner table – in food storage, transport, food processing, retail and in our kitchens – are huge. This loss of food is equivalent to a loss in water. Reducing food loss and wastage lessens water needs in agriculture. We need to pay more attention to this fact. Our Key Message: Make the Food Chain More Efficient to Save Water to Facilitate the Achievement of Multiple Development Objectives"
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Qualitative losses (such as loss of caloric and nutritive value, loss of acceptability by consumers, and loss of edibility) are more difficult to measure than quantitative losses of fresh fruits and vegetables. While reduction of quantitative losses is a higher priority than qualitative losses in developing countries, the opposite is true in developed countries where consumer dissatisfaction with produce quality results in a greater percentage of the total postharvet losses. Providing consumers with fruits and vegetables that taste good can greatly increase their consumption of the recommended minimum of five servings per day for better health. Development of new cultivars with better flavor and nutritional quality plus adequate productivity should be given high priority in all countries. Strategies for reducing postharvest losses in developing countries include: (1) Application of current knowledge to improve the handling systems (especially packaging and cold chain maintenance) of horticultural perishables and assure their quality and safety; (2) Overcoming the socioeconomic constraints, such as inadequacies of infrastructure, poor marketing systems, and weak R&D capacity; and (3) Encouraging consolidation and vertical integration among producers and marketers of horticultural crops.
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A large share of the World's poor is self-employed. Accurate measurement of profits from microenterprises is therefore critical for studying poverty and inequality, measuring the returns to education, and evaluating the success of microfinance programs. However, a myriad of problems plague the measurement of profits. This paper reports on a variety of different experiments conducted to better understand the importance of some of these problems, and to draw recommendations for collecting profit data. In particular, we (i) examine how far we can reconcile self-reported profits and reports of revenue minus expenses through more detailed questions; (ii) examine recall errors in sales, and report on the results of experiments which randomly allocated account books to firms; and (iii) asked firms how much firms like theirs underreport sales in surveys like ours, and had research assistants observe the firms at random times 15–16 times during a month to provide measures for comparison. We conclude that firms underreport revenues by about 30%, that account diaries have significant impacts on both revenues and expenses, but not on profits, and that simply asking profits provides a more accurate measure of firm profits than detailed questions on revenues and expenses.
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This paper describes a new method for the assessment of weight loss due to insect pests in stored maize cobs. The method involves scoring each cob in the sample on a visual damage scale and then using a simple equation to estimate overall sample weight loss. The coefficients in the equation are determined in advance of field work by calibrating the visual scale against a laboratory loss assessment technique. The visual scale method was found to be rapid, simple and had many advantages for on-farm work. Precision of the results was shown to be similar to that of existing weight loss assessment methods.
Including the potential losses across the value chains as part of the definition of food losses
  • L Delgado
  • M Schuster
  • M Torero
Delgado, L; Schuster, M; and Torero, M; (2017). Including the potential losses across the value chains as part of the definition of food losses. IFPRI, Mimeo.
Addressing food losses due to non‐compliance with quality and safety requirements in export markets: the case of fruits and vegetables from the Latin America and the Caribbean region Rome: UN FAO FusionsReport on review of (food) waste reporting methodology and practice Available at: https://g20
  • J Fonseca
  • D. Njie Rome
Fonseca, J. and D. Njie. 2009. "Addressing food losses due to non‐compliance with quality and safety requirements in export markets: the case of fruits and vegetables from the Latin America and the Caribbean region". Rome: UN FAO Fusions. 2013. "Report on review of (food) waste reporting methodology and practice". Fusions EU Project. Available at : http://www.eu‐fusions.org/index.php/publications G20 Agriculture Ministers Meeting. 2015. Final Communiqué. 7‐8 th May, Istanbul. Available at: https://g20.org/wp‐content/uploads/2015/05/G20‐Agriculture‐Ministers‐Final‐Communique.pdf HLPE. 2013. "Biofuels and food security. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security". Rome.
Postharvest weight loss estimates for cereal supply calculations in East and Southern Africa
  • R Hodges
Hodges, R. 2010. "Postharvest weight loss estimates for cereal supply calculations in East and Southern Africa". Natural Resources Institute: Chatham, UK.
Postharvest Losses of Fruits and Vegetables in Developing Countries: A Review of the Literature
  • A Kader
Kader, A. 2009. "Postharvest Losses of Fruits and Vegetables in Developing Countries: A Review of the Literature". Presentation at UC Davis (November 10th).
Working Paper, Installment 2 of Creating a Sustainable Food Future
  • B Lipinski
  • C Hanson
  • J Lomax
  • L Kitinoja
  • R Waite
  • T Searchinger
Lipinski, B., C. Hanson, J. Lomax, L. Kitinoja, R. Waite, and T. Searchinger. 2013. "Reducing Food Loss and Waste." Working Paper, Installment 2 of Creating a Sustainable Food Future. Washington, DC: World Resources Institute. Available at http://www.worldresourcesreport.org.
Food losses and food waste in China: a first estimate
  • G Liu
Liu, G. 2014. "Food losses and food waste in China: a first estimate". OECD Food, Agriculture and Fisheries Papers. No. 66. OECD Publishing (http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jz5sq5173lq-en)
Wastage in Food Value Chains in Developing Countries: Evidence from the Potato Sector in Asia
  • B Minten
  • T Reardon
  • S Das Gupta
  • H Dinghuan
  • K Murshid
Minten, B, T. Reardon, S. Das Gupta, H. Dinghuan, and K. Murshid. 2016a. " Wastage in Food Value Chains in Developing Countries: Evidence from the Potato Sector in Asia. " In Food Security in a Food Abundant World. http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/S1574‐871520150000016010
How big are post-harvest losses in Ethiopia? Evidence from teff
  • B Minten
  • E Engida
  • T Seneshaw
Minten, B, E. Engida, and T. Seneshaw. 2016b. "How big are post-harvest losses in Ethiopia? Evidence from teff." ESSP WORKING PAPER 93. Washington DC: IFPRI.
Preparatory Study on Food Waste across EU 27". European Commission (DG ENV) Directorate C-Industry
  • V Monier
  • M Shailendra
  • V Escalon
  • C O'connor
  • T Gibon
  • G Anderson
  • M Hortense
  • H Reisinger
Monier, V., M. Shailendra, V. Escalon, C. O'Connor, T. Gibon, G. Anderson, M. Hortense, nd H. Reisinger. 2010. "Preparatory Study on Food Waste across EU 27". European Commission (DG ENV) Directorate C-Industry. 2010. Final Report. ISBN: 978-92-79-22138-5
We collected 1758 surveys (1209 farmers, 325 middlemen, and 224 wholesale buyers) in the departments of Solola
  • Guatemala
Guatemala: We collected 1758 surveys (1209 farmers, 325 middlemen, and 224 wholesale buyers) in the departments of Solola, Quetzaltenango, Totonicapan, San Marcos, Guatemala, Sacatepequez, Chimaltenango and Escuintla; the following map shows the distribution.
HLPE Report on Food Losses and Waste in the Context of Sustainable Food Systems
  • Public Consultation
  • Electronic
Consultation, Public Electronic. 2014. "HLPE Report on Food Losses and Waste in the Context of Sustainable Food Systems." No. April 2013: 1-6.
  • Ministerio De Agricultura
  • Ganaderia
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia (MAGAP). 2014. Boletin Situacional Papa. http://sinagap.agricultura.gob.ec/phocadownloadpap/cultivo/2014/kboletin-situacional-de-papa-2014actualizado.pdf.
We collected data from 1203 surveys for farmers in the regions of Oromia and Amhara; the following map shows the distribution
  • Ethiopia
Ethiopia: We collected data from 1203 surveys for farmers in the regions of Oromia and Amhara; the following map shows the distribution.
Food Waste Composting Regulations White Paper California Integrated Waste Management
  • Calrecycle-California
CalRecycle-California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery. 2009. "Food Waste Composting Regulations White Paper California Integrated Waste Management Board" http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/LEA/Regs/Review/FoodWastComp/FoodWastcomp.pdf
Report on review of (food) waste reporting methodology and practice
  • Fusions
Fusions. 2013. "Report on review of (food) waste reporting methodology and practice". Fusions EU Project. Available at : http://www.eu-fusions.org/index.php/publications
Food losses and waste in the context of sustainable food systems. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition
  • Hlpe
HLPE. 2014. "Food losses and waste in the context of sustainable food systems. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition". CFS -Committee on World Food Security.
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia (MAGAP)
Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganaderia (MAGAP). 2014. Boletin Situacional Papa.
Household Food and Drink Waste in the UK
WRAP. 2009. "Household Food and Drink Waste in the UK". Banbury: WRAP. Available at: http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Household_food_and_drink_waste_in_the_UK_-_report.pdf
EIB-121, US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service CalRecycle -California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery
  • J C Buzby
  • H F Wells
  • J Hyman
Buzby, J.C., Wells, H.F. and Hyman, J. 2014. "The estimated amount, value, and calories of postharvest food losses at the retail and consumer levels in the United States". EIB-121, US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service CalRecycle -California Department of Resources Recycling and Recovery. 2009. "Food Waste Composting Regulations White Paper California Integrated Waste Management Board" http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/LEA/Regs/Review/FoodWastComp/FoodWastcomp.pdf
Encuesta de Superficie y Produccion Agropecuaria Continua. Dirección Responsable de la información estadística y contenidos: Dirección de estadísticas agropecuarias y ambientales
  • Espac
ESPAC. 2015. Encuesta de Superficie y Produccion Agropecuaria Continua. Dirección Responsable de la información estadística y contenidos: Dirección de estadísticas agropecuarias y ambientales. Quito, Ecuador.
Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganaderia y la Unidad de Planeamiento y Evaluación de la Gestion
  • Copenhagen Consensus Center
  • Upeg
Copenhagen Consensus Center SAG/UPEG 2015. http://sisem.sag.gob.hn/. Secretaria de Agricultura y Ganaderia y la Unidad de Planeamiento y Evaluación de la Gestion. Tegucigalpa, Honduras.
Ecuador: We collected 631 surveys (302 farmers, 182 middlemen, and 147 wholesale buyers) in the provinces of Carchi
  • Wrap
WRAP. 2009. "Household Food and Drink Waste in the UK". Banbury: WRAP. Available at: http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Household_food_and_drink_waste_in_the_UK_-_report.pdf ______. 2010. "Waste arisings in the supply of food and drink to households in the UK". Available at: http://www.wrap.org.uk/sites/files/wrap/Waste%20arisings%20in%20the%20supply%20of%20food%20a 1. Ecuador: We collected 631 surveys (302 farmers, 182 middlemen, and 147 wholesale buyers) in the provinces of Carchi, Imbabura and Pichincha; the following map shows distribution.
Waste: Uncovering the Global Food Scandal
  • Copenhagen Consensus Center Stuart
Copenhagen Consensus Center Stuart, T. 2009. Waste: Uncovering the Global Food Scandal. London:W.W. Norton Co.