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Staying after the storm: How transformational leadership relates to follower turnover intentions in extreme contexts
Abstract
While largely untested, theorizing concerning transformational leadership has suggested that its effects will vary depending on the extremity of the context in which this leadership style is exercised. Further, knowing how to retain employees after they are exposed to the stresses and trauma of extreme events remains a challenge for organizations to address. In this study, we examined the transformational leadership of U.S. Army unit leaders operating within the extreme context of combat to test a multi-level model. Our results show that transformational leadership had an indirect effect on reducing follower turnover intentions via increases in followers' on-the-job embeddedness. This effect was moderated by the unit's level of exposure to extreme events, such that transformational leadership reduced followers' turnover intentions via embeddedness only when the unit experienced a high degree of extreme context exposure. These results have implications for advancing theory related to both leadership and turnover, as well as for advancing the practice of leadership and retention of employees, particularly in extreme contexts.
... Furthermore, the typology introduced the idea that a context has various levels of extremity. In doing so, the framework has paved the way for studies to look at extreme contexts as a more dynamic variable that influences relationships and outcomes (Burke, Shuffler, & Wiese, 2018;Eberly, Bluhm, Guarana, Avolio, & Hannah, 2017;Geier, 2016;Thielen, Decramer, Vanderstraeten, & Audenaert, 2018). ...
... Considering the context as more or less extreme allows for a more dynamic conceptualization of team extremeness because the same team might go through different levels of team extremeness over time when the context changes (e.g., an astronaut team training on earth and then launching into space). However, we believe that current literature definitions, where extreme context is solely defined by the potential occurrence of extreme events (Eberly et al., 2017;Geier, 2016;Hällgren et al., 2018;Hannah et al., 2009), are not sufficient. ...
... Others have argued that a transformational leadership style aimed at building trust, embeddedness, and cohesion predicts team effectiveness in both extreme and non-extreme situations (Dumdum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2013). For example, a recent study by Eberly et al. (2017) of the U.S. Army showed that extremeness moderates the relationship between transformational leadership by unit leaders and perceived on-the-job embeddedness by soldiers. They found that increased job embeddedness reduces turnover intention after extreme events experienced during combat. ...
Work teams increasingly face unprecedented challenges in volatile, uncertain, complex, and often ambiguous environments. In response, team researchers have begun to focus more on teams whose work revolves around mitigating risks in these dynamic environments. Some highly insightful contributions to team research and organizational studies have originated from investigating teams that face unconventional or extreme events. Despite this increased attention to extreme teams, however, a comprehensive theoretical framework is missing. We introduce such a framework that envisions team extremeness as a continuous, multidimensional variable consisting of environmental extremeness (i.e., external team context) and task extremeness (i.e., internal team context). The proposed framework allows every team to be placed on the team extremeness continuum, bridging the gap between literature on extreme and more traditional teams. Furthermore, we present six propositions addressing how team extremeness may interact with team processes, emergent states, and outcomes using core variables for team effectiveness and the well-established input–mediator–output–input model to structure our theorizing. Finally, we outline some potential directions for future research by elaborating on temporal considerations (i.e., patterns and trajectories), measurement approaches, and consideration of multilevel relationships involving team extremeness. We hope that our theoretical framework and theorizing can create a path forward, stimulating future research within the organizational team literature to further examine the impact of team extremeness on team dynamics and effectiveness.
... Several studies have found that in situations of heightened vulnerability (i.e., firefighting operations), followers were more attentive to leader behaviors reflecting their ability (compared to leader benevolence; Freitas et al., 2002;Lapidot et al., 2007;Hannah et al., 2009). In such situations, basic security needs are aroused and followers prefer to be with a leader who is determined (Geier, 2016), and competent (Yun et al., 2005;Eberly et al., 2017), partly because in vulnerable situations, followers usually seek to establish a sense of control and mastery (Lazarus, 1966). Conversely, in situations of lowered vulnerability (i.e., debriefing), followers were more sensitive to leader behaviors reflecting benevolence (compared to leader ability; Yun et al., 2005;Lapidot et al., 2007). ...
... Conversely, in situations of lowered vulnerability (i.e., debriefing), followers were more sensitive to leader behaviors reflecting benevolence (compared to leader ability; Yun et al., 2005;Lapidot et al., 2007). In such situations, relational needs are aroused and followers prefer to be with a leader who is focused on relationship development (Geier, 2016), and nurturance (Yun et al., 2005;Eberly et al., 2017). Thus, trustworthiness in the leader's ability was more salient in action phases, and trustworthiness in the leader's benevolence was more salient in transition phases. ...
... In emergency contexts, the development and operation of trust may include other leadership behaviors. However, research suggests that adaptive and flexible leadership should consider a variety of leadership types, such as transformational and transactional leadership (e.g., Arnold et al., 2016;Geier, 2016;Eberly et al., 2017) and shared leadership (e.g., Klein et al., 2006;Ramthun and Matkin, 2014). ...
In emergency contexts, leaders' ability to develop others' trust in them is critical to leadership effectiveness. By integrating functional leadership and team process theories, we argue that democratic and autocratic leadership can create trust in the leader depending on the performance phase of the action team. We further argue that action and transition phases produce different task demands for leadership behavior to enhance trust in the leader, and different leader characteristics (i.e., leader benevolence and leader ability) mediate these effects. The results of a scenario experiment (N = 125) and field survey (N = 165) among firefighters revealed that autocratic rather than democratic leadership elevates trust in the leader during the action phase by increasing leader ability. In contrast, democratic rather than autocratic leadership enhances trust in the leader during the transition phase by elevating leader benevolence. These findings highlight the importance of leader characteristics in emergencies, demonstrating the value of mixing autocratic and democratic leadership behaviors across different team performance phases to build trust in the leader.
... As the ultimate goal of the largest variety of creative oriented companies [51], the sustainable competitive advantage could be the result of a healthy knowledge-sharing organizational culture mechanism, namely transformational leadership and followers' performance. While largely untested [52], transformational leadership theories suggest that its effects widely vary in accordance with the extremities of the business environments in which it is exercised. ...
... Transformational leadership becomes a construct that is used in order to describe the process used by leaders in influencing and inspiring their followers [52], such as setting objectives that seemed difficult to achieve and determining them to behave beyond expectations. The transformational leadership phenomenon continues to be one of the the most studied leadership subjects within the literature [45,90,91] and was developed at most through a theory [22] according to which this type of leadership drives companies for reaching high and ambitious objectives, within an unsecure and continuously evolving economic environment. ...
... It was important for the questions to be addressed and worded so as to avoid any misunderstandings and misconceptions and for the instrument to be the English version counterpart when adapted for the Romanian language. For this reason, recommendations of the literature were followed and a translation back conversion process was used, thus ensuring the equivalency in regards to the meaning of the items [52]. A pilot study preceded the current research and was developed inside one of the software development companies in Iasi; for testing the instrument, the data collection procedure and answers gathering and interpretation, 21 answers were gathered. ...
Leadership and workforce innovation are the two most glazed over universal phenomenon across time within the management literature. Despite the status of the buzz words, few researchers studied if there is a link between the online leadership behaviors and the de(in)creasing innovativeness of the followers at work. The current research aimed for offering a viable solution for the online-adapted leadership–workforce innovation equation, by answering to the following research question: is online transformative leadership able, and if so, are its instruments sufficient for increasing followers’ organizational and personal innovativeness within an exclusively online work environment? Research used a two-tailed questionnaire as a research instrument and applied it within the IT&C Industry in Iasi, Romania, namely the software development branch. Results were gathered during the first months of the social lockdown due to the COVID-19 pandemic; therefore, the ongoing communication and online work procedures implementation were captured via the subjects’ responses. Data was analyzed by using SemPLS (v3.2.5.) software; results show that transformational leadership instruments, once shifted within an exclusively online working environment, suffer from losing in importance and designated effects. Research provides information in regards to four general hypotheses that prove to be partially supported, sending the reader to the idea that an exclusively online-adapted work environment does not show expected results in terms on transformational leadership, nor workforce innovation. Therefore, online-based transformational leadership instruments need to be reshaped and adapted so that followers correctly perceive their leaders’ actions and behaviors on all the five dimensionalities.
... Our findings shed light on the relevance of trait self-control for leaders by demonstrating that, under high-reliability conditions, trait self-control enhances follower trust in the leader. Second, by demonstrating the critical role of leader trait self-control in high-reliability contexts, we respond to a call in the leadership literature to provide further evidence on effective leadership in HROs (Eberly et al., 2017;Hannah et al., 2009Hannah et al., , 2010Martínez-Córcoles, 2018;Yun et al., 2005). Third, we construct a new framework to integrate fragmented research on met expectations, self-control, and leadership to move forward the trust literature by demonstrating an underlying mechanism of the relationship between self-control and trust (Righetti & Finkenauer, 2011). ...
... Drawing on ILT, we argue that leader trait self-control is a prototypical leadership ability that enhances follower trust within high-reliability contexts. In this respect, research has shown that in a high-reliability context, followers prefer to be with a leader who is determined, effective (Eberly et al., 2017;Waldman et al., 2001), and in control (Gladstein and Reily, 1985;Isenberg, 1981), partly because in environments requiring high reliability, individuals usually seek to reestablish a sense of control and mastery (Lazarus, 1966). Given that selfcontrolled leaders are equipped to enhance followers' sense of control and mastery (Sosik et al., 2019), these leaders can help followers to work effectively in high-reliability settings such as emergencies (Donner et al., 2017). ...
... Second, our study contributes to the leadership literature by advancing understanding of the key components of leading effectively in HROs. By examining the effects of leader trait self-control on follower trust in highreliability contexts, we respond to the call for further evidence regarding effective leadership in high-reliability contexts (Eberly et al., 2017;Hannah et al., 2009Hannah et al., , 2010Martínez-Córcoles, 2018;Yun et al., 2005). While researchers have already shown that the source of error-free operations is a culture of reliability (Vogus et al., 2014;Weick & Sutcliffe, 2001), our findings add to this literature by clarifying that leadership plays a pivotal role. ...
Drawing from the theory of met expectations, this study aims to create new knowledge on the antecedents of follower trust in leaders in the context of high-reliability organizations. We hypothesize that highly self-controlled leaders instill more trust than leaders with less self-control, as the former tend to meet follower expectations. This work combines data from a field survey (N = 256) and a multi-wave field study (N = 106), using samples of professional firefighters to support our hypotheses that met follower expectations mediate the relationship between leader trait self-control and follower trust in the leader. Our research highlights the importance of met expectations in high-reliability contexts and demonstrates the value of leader trait self-control in building trustful relationships.
... However, despite the apparent effectiveness of TL in advancing organizational outcomes, its universal applicability remains a matter of dispute (Andersen, 2015;Dust et al., 2014;Eberly et al., 2017;Kim & Shin, 2019;Mesu et al., 2015). As explained by Eberly et al. (2017), the effectiveness of TL is situational, with this style being more effective in increasing employees' job embeddedness and subsequently reducing turnover intention in the high extreme contexts. ...
... However, despite the apparent effectiveness of TL in advancing organizational outcomes, its universal applicability remains a matter of dispute (Andersen, 2015;Dust et al., 2014;Eberly et al., 2017;Kim & Shin, 2019;Mesu et al., 2015). As explained by Eberly et al. (2017), the effectiveness of TL is situational, with this style being more effective in increasing employees' job embeddedness and subsequently reducing turnover intention in the high extreme contexts. Similarly, Dust et al. (2014) reported that the effects of TL on employee outcomes are facilitated or attenuated by an organization's structural context; that is, an organic structure enhances TL effects, whereas a mechanic structure constrains them. ...
... More specifically, it illuminated the role of an organization's cultural context in the effects and processes of TL in subsidiaries of foreign multinational companies (MNCs). The organizational contexts of foreign MNCs operating in domestic locations differ because they are influenced by their cultures of origin (Webster & White, 2010), and such differences, in turn, affect the implementation of leadership and its effectiveness (Dust et al., 2014;Eberly et al., 2017). Notwithstanding the potential difference in TL effectiveness in foreign MNCs, leadership in these entities has rarely been investigated. ...
Effectively implementing leadership is critical for organizational success. In consideration of this issue, this study investigated
effective leadership in US- and Germany-based multinational companies (MNCs) operating in South Korea. Drawing on
transformational leadership (TL) theory and leadership contingency theory, the study clarified the contextual dependency
of TL effectiveness. A survey was administered to 258 employees of the target MNCs, during which the participants were
asked to rate their supervisors’ transformational leadership behaviors. The responses were empirically analyzed on the
basis of the research framework. The findings showed that a leader’s group-focused TL behaviors indirectly influenced
organizational commitment and that this relationship was mediated by psychological empowerment in the US-based MNCs.
Conversely, a leader’s individual-focused TL behaviors demonstrated a pronounced effect on organizational commitment
and that this association was also mediated by psychological empowerment in the Germany-based MNCs. The leadership
behaviors that effectively empowered employees and increased their organizational commitment differed depending on the
cultures prevalent in the organizations’ countries of origin. Adopting the two-dimensional model of TL, this study confirmed
the contextual dependency of TL behaviors and suggested the need to incorporate an organization’s cultural context into
predictions regarding the effects of certain leadership behaviors.
... Contrary to this, TL has a negative significant impact on JTI and CBO (Cheng et al., 2016;Yücel, 2021). Many studies documented that TL may not influence the JTI and employee performance (Eberly et al., 2017;Curado and Santos, 2021); however, mediating forces, i.e. social exchange (Herman et al., 2013), trust, social identity (Cheng et al., 2016) and embeddedness (Eberly et al., 2017) are important sources to achieve intended outcomes in health-care sector. However, the role of transformational leaders in reducing JTI is not fully investigated around different sectors (Scuotto et al., 2022), particularly in Thai health-care setting, except, for Yücel (2021), who investigated the mediating role of employee performance between TL and JTI in Turkish private hospitals. ...
... Contrary to this, TL has a negative significant impact on JTI and CBO (Cheng et al., 2016;Yücel, 2021). Many studies documented that TL may not influence the JTI and employee performance (Eberly et al., 2017;Curado and Santos, 2021); however, mediating forces, i.e. social exchange (Herman et al., 2013), trust, social identity (Cheng et al., 2016) and embeddedness (Eberly et al., 2017) are important sources to achieve intended outcomes in health-care sector. However, the role of transformational leaders in reducing JTI is not fully investigated around different sectors (Scuotto et al., 2022), particularly in Thai health-care setting, except, for Yücel (2021), who investigated the mediating role of employee performance between TL and JTI in Turkish private hospitals. ...
... Previous studies narrated a positive (Herman et al., 2013), negative (Labrague et al., 2020;Cheng et al., 2016) and insignificant (Eberly et al., 2017;Curado and Santos, 2021) impact of TL on JTI. According to two-factor theory (Herzberg, 1968), motivators such as individual consideration and recognition encourage employees to work hard and hygiene factors foster dissatisfaction hence leads to high turnover (Thant and Chang, 2021). ...
Purpose
Covid-19 cases are rising at a high rate in Thailand. Thailand’s administration has formulated many initiatives to combat the spread of coronavirus. However, during a pandemic, health-care workers have a diverse range of tasks that make it more challenging to continue working in hospitals. Consequently, the authors modeled the turnover intentions of health-care personnel to capture relevant psychological aspects of employees during the pandemic. Specifically, this study aims to focused on the moderating role of Covid-19 burnout (CBO) in the relationship between transformational leadership (TL) and job turnover intentions (JTI) with job satisfaction (JS) and knowledge hiding (KH) as mediators.
Design/methodology/approach
This research collected data using self-administered questionnaire. A two-stage partial least square–structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) is carried out as an analysis technique to measure the linear relationship among constructs. The study tests hypotheses (direct and indirect effects) using 310 sample size of health-care personnel.
Findings
The findings indicated that CBO intensified the JTI of health-care personnel and strengthened the association of JS and KH with JTI during the Covid-19 pandemic. TL had a negative indirect effect on JTI. In addition, JS had a negative impact on JTI.
Originality/value
The study highlights the importance of TL and JS as ways to reduce or alleviate JTI in health-care personnel during the Covid-19 pandemic in Thailand. Furthermore, CBO and KH can enhance JTI in health-care personnel.
... Although the findings did not discover a strong correlation between the polyvagal theory and leadership theory, moderating factors such as stress and trauma were highlighted as crucial influences of employee behavior. In essence, people tend to experience heightened sensations when exposed to extreme situations (Eberly et al., 2017). This effect is dictated by the polyvagal and sympathetic nerves that determine the basic fight or flight response of the human body. ...
... The transactional and transformation leadership styles target different organizational outcomes. Although the transactional leadership style is considered the most logical leadership style in most organizations, the transformational approach acts as a 'source of psychological comfort' during uncertain times (Eberly et al., 2017). Furthermore, this leadership style promotes self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism in the organizational setting. ...
... Furthermore, this leadership style promotes self-efficacy, resilience, and optimism in the organizational setting. Therefore, modern studies emphasize that transformational leaders strengthen organizational performance by leading from the front, clarifying corporate vision, enhancing unity, and addressing the staff's emotional needs (Eberly et al., 2017). Despite the negative impacts of stress and trauma, these variables serve as crucible moments for nurturing constructive leadership models. ...
Leadership approaches have evolved to incorporate rational and non-rational processes. Traditional leadership research focused on internal and external organizational influences, but this paper underscores the need for adopting modern-day approaches for investigating leadership outcomes. Neuroscience can illuminate different cognitive effects that influence leadership. The research paper highlights the importance of attitudes towards leadership due to the complexity of modern organizational influences. The main forces highlighted are polyvagal theory, underlying stress, and trauma. A literature review provides a description of the fundamental neural and cognitive drivers of leadership. The paper also explains the findings of research studies demonstrating the correlation between neurocognitive processes and three leadership approaches: transactional, transformational and servant leadership. The discussion section elaborates these findings to determine whether insights can be applied in typical organizational settings. Lastly, the conclusion section summarizes the main deductions and explains limitations and recommendations for future exploratory investigations on rational and non-rational leadership choices. Overall, the paper attempts to justify why non-rational drivers carry equal weight as the rational influences.
... The lack of clarity on the role of leaders in the turnover process presents a key knowledge gap in job embeddedness and turnover theory (Sun & Wang, 2017;Han, 2020). Specifically, the current study focuses on transformational leadership because the behaviours of transformational leaders theoretically align with the job embeddedness construct in that the thought of giving up uplifting resources (such inspiration to develop self, new learning opportunities and intellectual stimulation) from transformational leaders may entice employees to stay on the job (Amankwaa et al., 2021;Eberly et al., 2017). Additionally, the relationship between transformational leaders and their followers tends to be built on trust and respect which can be embedding for followers (Lee et al., 2014) particularly in the study context, Ghana, where the need for a harmonious relationship with leaders is an inherent cultural element of the working relationship. ...
... In one of the first studies to connect transformational leadership to job embeddedness, Eberly et al. (2017) demonstrated that in extreme contexts transformational leaders reduce followers' turnover intentions by enhancing followers' organisational embeddednessone of the key predictors of employee turnover (Lee et al., 2014). Correspondingly, Eberly et al. (2017) have called on researchers to explore unique contextual influences on how leadershipparticularly, transformational leadershiprelates to turnover. ...
... In one of the first studies to connect transformational leadership to job embeddedness, Eberly et al. (2017) demonstrated that in extreme contexts transformational leaders reduce followers' turnover intentions by enhancing followers' organisational embeddednessone of the key predictors of employee turnover (Lee et al., 2014). Correspondingly, Eberly et al. (2017) have called on researchers to explore unique contextual influences on how leadershipparticularly, transformational leadershiprelates to turnover. This current study responds to these calls and extends earlier research by theorising and empirically testing a research model that explores the two components of job embeddedness, namely organisational embeddedness, and community embeddedness, as core mechanisms and/or conditions linking transformational leadership to turnover. ...
Research in the last two decades suggests that job embeddedness may reduce employee turnover. However, little is known about whether this is the case in the hotel industry despite its high turnover rates. Besides, most studies have been conducted in the US, where the job embeddedness construct was developed and tested, suggesting the need to test the job embeddedness-turnover link in other contexts to improve its theoretical accuracy and generalisability. Additionally, while appropriate leader behaviours may enhance follower job embeddedness, empirical studies are sparse. Drawing from the Conservation of Resources theory, this study examines how transformational leaders may address hotel employee turnover by exploring organisational and community embeddedness. Following a bibliometric review of job embeddedness literature over the last 20 years and hypotheses development, data was collected from 312 hotel employees across 12 hotels in Ghana as part of a PhD project in the hotel industry. Using structural equation modelling techniques to confirm the study constructs and test the research model, the study found that at all levels of community embeddedness: high, average, and low, there was full mediation effect of organisational embeddedness on the transformational leadership-turnover relationship. Further, both transformational leadership and community embeddedness were found to positively relate to organisational embeddedness, which in turn related negatively to turnover. However, community embeddedness was not found to moderate the proposed relationship between transformational leadership and organisational embeddedness. Theoretically, this paper contributes to the development of embeddedness and turnover theory by understanding the critical role leaders play in motivating and retaining staff. The practical implications of these findings are discussed with suggestions for the hotel industry to develop better systems and incentives to retain talent.
... Indeed, the importance of transformational leaders and their ability to effectively communicate to different stakeholder groups in times of crisis is most evident during the world-wide outbreak of coronavirus epidemic (Argenti, 2020). Empirically, it has been shown that the role of transformational leadership is critical in uncertain (Brooks, 2015;De Hoogh et al., 2004;Pawar & Eastman, 1997) or extreme contexts (Eberly et al., 2017). ...
... Turnover intentions could be defined as one's intent to leave one's jobs or current employment (Mowday et al., 1982;Steel & Ovalle, 1984;Tett & Meyer, 1993). Recent research indicates that transformational leadership can play a critical role in reducing employees' turnover intentions by promoting perceptions of job embeddedness (i.e., combined factors that keep a person from leaving his or her job) (Eberly et al., 2017), mission valence and goal clarity (Caillier, 2016), and collaborative culture (Sun & Wang, 2016). Latest research in Thailand has also shown that trust in the leaders (Ariyabuddhiphongs & Kahn, 2017) and the 'right' speech (i.e., perceptions that leaders are truthful and polite in their speech) (Pravichai & Ariyabuddhiphongs, 2018) can play important mediating roles. ...
... This multilevel design thus helps to answer whether it is the shared perceptions among school teachers or their unique perceptions, or both, that result in turnover intentions. Although past research indicates that the influence of transformational leaders, safety perceptions, job satisfaction and turnover intentions may operate at both the individual and organizational levels (Chang et al., 2013;Eberly et al., 2017;Kara et al., 2013;Peachey et al., 2014), few studies to date have empirically considered such a possibility. The following sections discuss the role of transformational leadership, perceptions of safety and job satisfaction in reducing employees' turnover intentions. ...
... A transformational leader emphasizes, to his or her employees, the collective outcome of their job behavior and the value of belonging to something larger than themselves (Brown and Treviño, 2006). Eberly et al. (2017) further suggested TFL decreases followers' turnover intentions in extreme contexts, such as natural disasters. In previous internal branding studies, TFL is also shown to contribute to employees' brand-supporting behavior, both in-role (e.g., standard job responsibilities) and extrarole (e.g., helping coworkers) (Buil et al. 2019;Uen et al. 2012). ...
... In addition, TFL also fosters positive social exchanges, instills a sense of community among employees, and helps them view their jobs from a community member's perspective (Chun et al. 2016;Herman et al. 2013;Morhart et al. 2009). Thus, TFL's role in retaining followers can remain strong even in extreme contexts (e.g., military combat, natural disasters) as TFL increases the bond between followers and their roles as well as others in the organization (Eberly et al. 2017). This binding force is likely to be stronger under brand-specific TFL as employees are encouraged to adopt the brand values into their self-concepts (Morhart et al. 2009), which forms a common ground for developing a strong and unique employee brand bond as well as social relationships among employees. ...
The hospitality work environment presents many unique challenges for employees and organizations, such as the intertwined and collective work nature, implicit job expectations, and a shrinking labor market. The demand for highly skilled employees who are sufficient to deliver the unique brand values to customers is on the rise for building successful service brands through employees. The need to retain talented employees is further intensified by the “great resignation” movement in the USA along with the COVID-19 pandemic. This study demonstrates the positive role of brand-specific transformational leadership in promoting employees’ highly engaged brand building behavior (investment-of-self) and their resistance to outside competing job offers. More importantly, drawing upon cognitive dissonance theory, this study shows that the impact of brand-specific transformational leadership is mediated by employees’ sense of brand community internally, as well as moderated by perceived brand promise accuracy. These results supported the essential role of achieving employees’ cognitive consonance in brand communication both internally and externally. These results are supported by 203 US hospitality employee responses from multiple data collections purposefully designed with temporal and cognitive distance.
... Therefore, leaders should tap onto the collective leadership potential of everyone in the organisation (Dirani et al., 2020), and scholarly debate has emerged on transformational leadership effectiveness in enhancing employee outcomes (Saeed et al., 2019). Even though transformational leader behaviour brings benefits to subordinates and organisations (Aga et al., 2016;Eberly et al., 2017;Ul Haq et al., 2020;Saleem et al., 2019), the argument that transformational leadership is universally positive in all situations may be premature (Lin et al., 2019). Researchers have called for further examination of transformational leadership in a project environment (Maqbool et al., 2017;Naeem and Khanzada, 2017;Zaman et al., 2019), especially in different types of crises (Haddon et al., 2015). ...
... Transformational leaders' subordinates showed a level of creativity beyond expectation and confronted multifaceted challenges instead of just depicting directive and managerial styles (Soomro and Shah, 2020). Earlier research found that transformational leadership is more effective than other leadership styles in influencing employees' behaviour (Eberly et al., 2017), team building (Aga et al., 2016) and impact their organisational commitment (Saleem et al., 2019). In this context, transformational leaders encourage their associates to inspire their subordinates further to work beyond ordinary expectations and contractual efforts . ...
Abstract
Purpose – In times of crisis and volatility, especially in the Covid-19 scenario, project organisations are facing
multifaceted threats. Project organisations are inclining towards flatter organisational structures. Employees
are demanding more decision-making authority due to the changing working scenario. Despite the
advancement in project management, a hard skill side, project organisations are still struggling to achieve
successful projects. The project manager’s leadership, employee self-leadership and soft skills are presented as
the solution to these aggravated problems. This article attempts to determine whether a transformational
leadership style can influence project success, directly and indirectly through employee self-leadership.
Design/methodology/approach – The author raises the hypothesis, supported by social cognitive theory,
that transformational leadership impacts project success directly and indirectly through self-leadership. Data
were collected from 289 project team members in the IT sector, and the proposed relationships were assessed
through Partial least squares structural equation modelling PLS-SEM.
Findings – Results show that a project manager’s transformational leadership behaviour and employee
self-leadership positively impact project success. Additionally, self-leadership mediates the relationship
between transformational leadership and project success. Lastly, empowerment demonstrated significant
moderation for self-leadership and project success, and for transformational leadership and project success.
Research limitations/implications – In this study, one obvious methodological limitation is a
cross-sectional design. Future research can be performed while adopting a longitudinal research design.
Another conceptual limitation of the model is that the authors did not include all transformational leadership
dimensions, which can be considered for future studies while replicating this research model. Another future
front can be by examining other leadership styles. Another research limitation may be the single source data
collection, a future study may be conducted by several sources for data collection to adequately test both of the
leadership styles at different hierarchies and for project success.
Originality/value – The paper contributes to the literature by finding that, in crises, a project manager’s
transformational leadership style enhances project success. In practice, project managers are needed to adopt
transformational behaviour and encourage employee self-leadership and empowerment.
... Later, Huning et al. (2020) from a sample of graduate students found that JE mediates the linkage between SL and turnover intentions. However, literature contends that there is no evidence from hospitality industry about the relationship between SL, JE and work outcomes (Bavik, 2020;Kaya and Karatepe, 2020) but this may be the case as scholars suggested to empirically examine the mechanism of JE in presence of SL (Eberly et al., 2017;Kaya and Karatepe, 2020;Lee et al., 2019). ...
... The present study contributes to the body of SL knowledge (in the context of the hospitality industry) that JE mediates the relationship of SL and employees' outcomes. The finding of the study not only filled the gap but also responded to numerous recent calls about the impact of SL on outcome variables via JE specifically in hospitality context (Eberly et al., 2017;Karatepe and Talebzadeh, 2016;Kaya and Karatepe, 2020). On the relationship between SL and employee outcomes, the findings supported the theoretical arguments embedded in SET (Blau, 1964), in which frontline employees reciprocated to leaders' behavior with positive outcomes. ...
Purpose-Drawing from social exchange theory, the purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of servant leadership on organizational citizenship behavior, turnover intentions and work performance through mediating role of job embeddedness. Design/methodology/approach-The data were gathered from 252 frontline employees of Pakistan's hotel industry in two-time lags with an interval of two months by using purposive sampling. PLS-SEM was applied for the analysis of data and hypothesis testing. Findings-The study ascertained that job embeddedness is a potent mediator between the nexus of servant leadership and aforementioned work outcomes. The study results portray that servant leadership promotes job embeddedness, OCB, work performance and reduces turnover intentions. Research limitations/implications-Hotel management can use job embeddedness to boost servant leadership and reduce turnover intentions. In addition, management should also increase servant leadership by organizing training and workshops for their managers, which ultimately improves followers' organizational citizenship behavior and work performance. Practical implications-Hotel management can use job embeddedness to boost OCB, work performance and reduce turnover intentions. In addition, management should also increase servant leadership by organizing training and workshops for their managers, which ultimately improves followers' citizenship behavior and work performance. Originality/value-There are numerous calls for research to ascertain as well as sparse literature available whether job embeddedness act as a mediator in the nexus of servant leadership and work outcomes or not. The current study fills these voids and contributes to the literature by empirically examining the mechanism of job embeddedness between servant leadership and the work outcomes.
... In contrast, transactional leadership has also been extremely successful in guiding and motivating people to execute their assigned duties expertly, thereby reducing the degree of error. It stresses the use of conditional reward behaviors, including requirements for capital (Fletcher et al., 2019;Eberly et al. 2017). This further underlines the usage of common reward patterns, including using well-performing programs. ...
... In addition, according to Chege and Gakobu (2017), any follower who obeys the instructions generally receives a salary as a reward, while any worker who disobeys the instructions receives a punishment. The transactional leader, according to Eberly et al. (2017), is also constantly looking for errors in the follower's work to ensure compliance. This causes frustration in the follower and appears to affect his or her quality of working life adversely. ...
This study presents a critical review of the existing studies on the relationship between leadership styles and innovation culture in the healthcare sector with a focus on transactional, transformational and
collaborative leadership. At a macro level, effective leadership has been positively linked to innovativeness of healthcare organizations as a whole. However, an environment that allows people to use their talents and skills is likely to empower each employee to embrace a culture of innovation and creativity to solve emerging problems. However, there is limited research on the impact of healthcare leadership styles on innovativeness at the micro level in terms of encouraging individual employees to openness of thinking and sharing and implementing new ideas that improve patient outcomes. To address this research gap, a conceptual framework is developed and tested through a quantitative study capitalizing on a unique dyadic data set comprising managers and their employees across multiple hospitals. While controlling for several manager-, employee- and organization-related characteristics, the results reveal that the collaborative leadership style among managers has the highest impact on employee innovativeness.
... Later, Huning et al. (2020) from a sample of graduate students found that JE mediates the linkage between SL and turnover intentions. However, literature contends that there is no evidence from hospitality industry about the relationship between SL, JE and work outcomes (Bavik, 2020;Kaya and Karatepe, 2020) but this may be the case as scholars suggested to empirically examine the mechanism of JE in presence of SL (Eberly et al., 2017;Kaya and Karatepe, 2020;Lee et al., 2019). ...
... The present study contributes to the body of SL knowledge (in the context of the hospitality industry) that JE mediates the relationship of SL and employees' outcomes. The finding of the study not only filled the gap but also responded to numerous recent calls about the impact of SL on outcome variables via JE specifically in hospitality context (Eberly et al., 2017;Karatepe and Talebzadeh, 2016;Kaya and Karatepe, 2020). On the relationship between SL and employee outcomes, the findings supported the theoretical arguments embedded in SET (Blau, 1964), in which frontline employees reciprocated to leaders' behavior with positive outcomes. ...
Purpose
Drawing from social exchange theory, the purpose of this study is to investigate the influence of servant leadership on organizational citizenship behavior, turnover intentions and work performance through mediating role of job embeddedness.
Design/methodology/approach
The data were gathered from 252 frontline employees of Pakistan's hotel industry in two-time lags with an interval of two months by using purposive sampling. PLS-SEM was applied for the analysis of data and hypothesis testing.
Findings
The study ascertained that job embeddedness is a potent mediator between the nexus of servant leadership and aforementioned work outcomes. The study results portray that servant leadership promotes job embeddedness, OCB, work performance and reduces turnover intentions.
Research limitations/implications
Hotel management can use job embeddedness to boost servant leadership and reduce turnover intentions. In addition, management should also increase servant leadership by organizing training and workshops for their managers, which ultimately improves followers' organizational citizenship behavior and work performance.
Practical implications
Hotel management can use job embeddedness to boost OCB, work performance and reduce turnover intentions. In addition, management should also increase servant leadership by organizing training and workshops for their managers, which ultimately improves followers' citizenship behavior and work performance.
Originality/value
There are numerous calls for research to ascertain as well as sparse literature available whether job embeddedness act as a mediator in the nexus of servant leadership and work outcomes or not. The current study fills these voids and contributes to the literature by empirically examining the mechanism of job embeddedness between servant leadership and the work outcomes.
... Idealized influence encompassed some leadership characteristics and behaviors. Leaders who used idealized influence gained followers' respect and trust through actions while emphasizing purpose and commitment (Ariyabuddhiphongs & Kahn, 2017;Breevaart et al., 2014;Eberly, Bluhm, Guarana, Avolio, & Hannah, 2017;Gottfredson & Aguinis, 2017;Ng, 2017). Transformational leaders who used idealized influence increased employees' performance by providing workers clear and challenging mission-related goals (Caillier, 2014a). ...
... Leaders used successful communication to motivate followers. Through inspirational motivation, supervisors praised employees in public, encouraged followers to take ownership of jobs, and gave tangible-intangible rewards to challenge subordinates to work harder (Aldatmaz, Ouimet, & Van Wesep, 2018;Eberly et al., 2017). Motivation takes place when managers communicated positive statements about the organization and these messages aroused followers' emotions (Keskes, 2014). ...
Organizational leaders must examine human capital and business practices to position themselves for stability and competitive advantage (Anitha & Begum, 2016; Kim & Park, 2014; Watty-Benjamin & Udechukwu, 2014). Because of the new global workforce environment, employers compete for employees with the same skills, capabilities, and experience levels for the organizations (Asch, Mattock, & Hosek, 2014; Elanain, 2014; Kim & Park, 2014). Therefore, managing turnover is imperative because it has negative organizational consequences such as reduced profitability and productivity, increased replacement costs, and the loss of institutional knowledge (Bester, Stander, & Van Zyl, 2015; Brewer & Kovner, 2014; Elanain, 2014; Hur, 2013; Ozturkoglu, Saygili, & Ozturkoglu, 2016). To obtain a competitive advantage, leaders must deliberately focus on managing turnover within the organization.
Automation, the need for skilled employees, and the demographic changes within the workforce required managers to use various leadership behaviors. The end of the Cold War led to the automation of some jobs for the less skilled or exportation through globalization of these occupations to Third World countries (Bass, 1999). The jobs that remained in the United States required educated professionals and well-trained employees (Bass, 1999). Changes in the United States workforce caused leaders to use more transformational behaviors than transactional behaviors to keep the organizations sustainable (Bass, 1999). Leaders used different leadership styles because of the changes in job requirement the new workforce.
Leadership consists of two types of leadership styles. Burns (1978) conceptualized leadership into two categories: (a) transactional leadership and (b) transformational leadership. According to Burns (1978), transactional leaders lead through social change. For example, politicians exchanged one thing for another when running for office: employment for votes or subsidies for campaign contributions (Burns, 1978). Transformational leaders stimulated and inspired followers through (a) charisma or idealized influence, (b) inspiration or inspirational motivation, (c) intellectual stimulation, and (d) individualized consideration (Bass, 1985, 1990, 1999; Kerdngern & Thanitbenjasith, 2017). Leaders who used transactional leadership placed emphasis on social change, while leaders who used transformational leadership sought to motivate and inspire employees.
... Surprisingly, and in the firefighting literature, few empirical studies have established a relationship between fire chiefs' leadership styles and behaviors and critical variables, such as firefighters' well-being [11]. In line with previous research, one established leadership theory that can provide valuable insight into the relationship between leadership and firefighters' well-being in fire events is the transformational leadership theory [12]. Although there is evidence of a relationship between transformational leadership and well-being [13], these findings are not related to the firefighting context, and therefore, context specific research is necessary to establish an empirical link. ...
This study sought to examine how operational demands hinder individual well-being in firefighters, and also the extent to which fire chiefs’ transformational leadership style acts as an operational resource to attenuate this relationship. A total of 115 firefighters participated in the study and completed surveys over seven consecutive days. The results suggest that individuals’ well-being trajectories are not influenced by operational demands while individuals’ well-being is enhanced over time by team leaders’ transformational leadership. The implications of these findings are discussed and future research directions are advanced.
... The online adapted leadership instruments and workforce engagement perceptions emphasize also the amount of stress faced by young entrepreneurs coming from the challenge of adapting business ideas to both physical and online environments [139], especially since it was proven that the followers' performance is higher [140] when related to SS and AUT. The current results are an obliteration coming from the conceptualization of the business and entrepreneurship literature, a model that succeeds to explain how leadership and workforce engagement contribute to the job performance of young entrepreneurs in the NE development region of Romania. ...
There is rising awareness regarding the entrepreneurship evolution within underdeveloped regions across the world and how it is affected by leadership initiatives regarding the work engagement of young entrepreneurs; an underlining series of studies should be performed, considering the job performance attributes specific to each given area. Entrepreneurship is a source of economic vitality that must be subject to correctly performed leadership initiatives that need to strive for training young entrepreneurs to understand and assess the strong and weak points of their business (idea) in order to successfully compete with larger organizations. The current study aims for explaining the relationship between leadership behavior (as transformational and transactional) and the underlying mechanism of work engagement (with a special focus on job resources). The current research used a convenience sample based on a voluntary response sampling method, engaging 508 young entrepreneurs from the NE region of Romania. Results prove that transformational leadership and work engagement are active contributors to the job performance. The current study is one of the few in the literature that enhances simultaneously both transformational and transactional leadership, along with work engagement as predictors of job performance, since previous research has only considered transformational leadership and disregarded the role of transactional leadership in followers’ job performance.
... However, several previous studies have shown that there is an inconsistency between perceived organizational support and turnover intention (Shafique et al., 2018;Nadeem et al., 2019;Wong & Wong, 2017;Paul & Hung, 2018), and research inconsistencies between transformational leadership and turnover intention (Kim et al., 2021;Gyensare et al., 2016;Eberly et al., 2017). These inconsistent results provide a gap for researchers to form a new conceptual model and close the research gap by adding another variable as a mediating variable, namely organizational commitment in bridging the relationship between perceived organizational support and transformational leadership on turnover intention. ...
This study examines the effect of perceived organizational support and transformational leadership on the turnover intention of health workers at Hospital X, Mimika Regency through mediating organizational commitment. This research was conducted in ten work units at Hospital X Mimika Regency, Papua. This study uses saturated sampling. Primary data was obtained by distributing questionnaires to 103 health workers. Data analysis used partial least square (SEM-PLS) structural equation modeling with Smart-PLS 3.0 application. The results show that the perceived organizational support and transformational leadership had a negative and significant effect on turnover intention. The results of this study show a positive significant effect of perceived organizational support and transformational leadership on turnover intention and a negative significant effect organizational commitment on turnover intention. This study also found that organizational commitment has not been able to mediate the effect of perceived organizational support on turnover intention. From these findings, it should be underlined that the turnover intention of health workers will be high, if the organization and leaders do not pay attention to the welfare and needs of health workers, such as bonuses or benefits and salaries that are in accordance with the level of education, workload, and years of service. Equitable training and fair career promotion, giving authority and delegation to health workers in the decision-making process, providing advice, evaluation, and positive feedback.
... Empirical evidence affirms that positive forms of leadership increase affective commitment and decrease turnover intentions. For example, management researchers have demonstrated that ethical and transformational leadership positively impact affective commitment (Demirtas & Akdogan, 2015;Korek et al., 2010;Loi et al., 2015;Stinglhamber et al., 2015) and negatively impact turnover attentions (Dermitas & Akogan, 2015;Eberly et al., 2017;Herman et al., 2013;Lam et al., 2016). The rationale of these studies is that working with ethical and transformational leaders establishes positive interpersonal exchanges, thus, employees reciprocate inkind. ...
The purpose of this study is to extend goal-focused leadership research. To accomplish our objective, we raise the questions: When do leaders work to foster and support the goal achievement of followers and can leaders’ efforts toward followers’ goal achievement impact followers’ attachment to the organization? Subsequently, this study asserts that leaders’ own psychological states – specifically organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) – influence leaders’ motivation to provide goal-focused leadership, but that leaders’ skills – particularly political skill – are important as well. Whereas leader OBSE (i.e., want to) represents a leader’s heightened motivation and belief that he or she can make a positive impact within an organization, leader political skill (i.e., can do) captures a leader’s ability to be an effective leader who encourages and supports organizationally-valued follower goal attainment. Further, using social exchange theory, we argue that the outcomes of goal-focused leadership include an enhanced attachment to the organization, as followers recognize and reciprocate the effort and resources given to them by the leader. Findings from a multi-source cross-sectional field survey of leader and follower dyads demonstrate that leader OBSE impacts follower affective commitment and turnover intentions via goal-focused leadership. Moreover, this particular indirect effect is enhanced when leader political skill is relatively high compared to relatively low. Implications, limitations, and future research are discussed.
... Robyn, et al; further states that the strength of an organisation lies in its human capital and that it is therefore important to align human resource policies and procedures so as to attract and retain skilled employees. Eberly, Bluhm, Guarana, Avolio, and Hannah (2017) asserted that employee retention is a key factor in improving organization performance and enhance the business process. Hence, retaining employees in their jobs is necessary for all organizations. ...
This paper investigated effect of employee mobility on skills retention in upstream oil and gas companies in Nigeria. A review of pertinent conceptual, theoretical, and empirical literature was done and a hypothesis was formulated. Three upstream oil and gas companies were surveyed using proportionate and stratified random sampling techniques. A total population of 9,437 regular and contract employees were investigated with a sample size of 807. The validity of the instrument was determined using content and construct validity while Cronbach Alpha was used to ascertain the reliability of the instrument. Multiple linear regression Analysis was used to analyse the hypothesis with the aid of Statistical Package for Social Science (V26.0). The study found that employee mobility components have positive and significant effect on skills retention of selected upstream oil and gas companies in Nigeria. Findings further revealed that employee buy-in has the highest contribution to skills retention in the selected upstream oil and gas companies in Nigeria. It concluded that employee mobility affects skills retention in selected upstream oil and gas companies in Nigeria. Based on the findings, the study recommends that management of upstream oil and gas companies in Nigeria should keep update on the employee retention policies and strategies to retain talented and skilled employees. Keywords: Employee Mobility, Knowledge Sharing, Hedge Relationships, Knowledge Transfer, Reward System, Skill Retention
... The leader's behavior intensifies and soothes the outcome of intense conditions and traumatic happenings. 63 A study in the aftermath of a terrorist attack in Oslo established the connection of a "higher level of supportive leadership with a lower level of PD. 64 Research is incomplete to generalize the daily routines where workers have an exceptional probability of distress from higher PD. 65 In contrast, healthcare workers experiencing an epidemic in the capital city of Pakistan, Islamabad, and connected city of Rawalpindi are more likely to have PD in the duration of intense conditions because of the jobs required with diminishing resources during interaction with patients. ...
Purpose:
This study aims to investigate the impact of servant leadership on the psychological distress of healthcare staff during the Covid-19 crisis. The authors propose that work engagement mediates and mindfulness moderates the direct relationship between servant leadership and psychological distress.
Methods:
Time-lagged data were collected from 277 healthcare staff working at different hospitals in Pakistan. Process Macro version 3.1 on SPSS 23 was used for statistical analysis. For model fitness, we used AMOS V 22.
Results:
The results show that servant leadership is negatively related to psychological distress. Furthermore, work engagement mediates the relationship between servant leadership and psychological distress. Moreover, mindfulness is anticipated to moderate the direct relationship between servant leadership and psychological distress, drawing on the social exchange and conservation of resources theory.
Discussion:
This study finds that servant leadership is vital for the mental health of healthcare staff. Thus, it extends the utility of the concept of servant leadership to the psychology and crisis management literature.
... EL relates to stand-alone basis follower performance across working standards, viewing strong bonding among performance and a motivated behavioral act that go beyond job domains to achieve mutual goals than the actual task performance as per job domain (Wang, 2011). In study which includes around 93,576 subordinates' staffs which indicates strong reinforcement over health nutrition by ethical leadership (Zwingmann, 2014).Under serious situations such as combats ethical leadership is indirectly proportional to follower's turnover intentions (Eberly, 2017). Based on the previous discussion, the following hypothesis is proposed: ...
... The implementation of transformational leadership theories has been widely proven by studies of the concepts of transformational leadership and organizational performance which have produced many theoretical and empirical models over the last few decades (Chen, Yuan, Cheng, & Seifert, 2016;Garcia-Guiu, Moya, Molero, & Moriano, 2016;García-Morales, Jiménez-Barrionuevo, & Gutiérrez-Gutiérrez, 2012;Getachew & Zhou, 2018). Transformational leadership in the field of human resource management (García-Morales et al., 2012;Herman & Chiu, 2014;Herman, Huang, & Lam, 2013;Sharma, Nagar, & Pathak, 2012), leader dynamics and organizational performance (Eberly, Bluhm, Guarana, Avolio, & Hannah, 2017;Getachew & Zhou, 2018;Nemanich & Keller, 2007;Wang, Law, Hackett, Wang, & Chen, 2005), the relationship between transformational leadership, corporate social responsibility, information and telecommunications, organizational learning, and organizational performance (Abazeed, 2018;Alrowwad, Obeidat, Tarhini, & Aqqad, 2017) Previous studies have attempted to complete the inconclusive research by including mediation such as human resource management practices, exploitation, exploration, incremental innovation, radical innovation, organizational learning, market orientation, organizational innovation and moderators such as firm size, CEO founder status, CEO tenure, organic structure, and mechanic structure (Muterera, Hemsworth, Baregheh, & Garcia-Rivera, 2018;Obeidat & Tarhini, 2016). Transformational leadership creates an environment characterized by a high level of trust, commitment, and inspiration provided by subordinates which leads to performance that exceeds expectations (Pradhan & Pradhan, 2015). ...
Embroidery MSMEs in Tasikmalaya are still running well, although many have had to close their business activities or switch to other industries. Along with organizational performance is good, it is supported by the role of transformational leadership and organizational learning in it. The purpose of this study was to find out how transformational leadership and organizational learning affect organizational performance on Embroidery MSMEs in Tasikmalaya, both simultaneously and partially. The research method used is explanatory research to test the correctness of data collection in the field and test hypotheses about the influence of the two variables independent transformational leadership and organizational learning and one variable dependent is performance organizational using path analysis. This study shows that transformational leadership and organizational learning have a significant simultaneous effect on organizational performance.
... Transformational leaders know how to inspire the high-level needs of their subordinates, establish an atmosphere of mutual trust, and encourage subordinates to sacrifice their own interests for the benefit of the organization (Longshore and Bass, 1985;Burns et al., 1999;Galante and Ward, 2017;Oluwatosin and Olumide, 2017;Spies et al., 2018). Transformational leadership is conducive to improving the work efficiency of employees (Boamah et al., 2017), stimulating their employment opportunities (Wang et al., 2017), promoting the promotion of employees' positions (Hetland et al., 2018), and reducing their intention to leave (Eberly et al., 2017). Clearly, transformational leadership has a positive impact on the organization (Elrehail et al., 2018;Ojha et al., 2018). ...
Leadership is generally considered helpful for team knowledge sharing. However, differences in the influence of different leadership styles on team knowledge sharing mechanism is still unclear. To understand different leadership style foster team knowledge sharing, this study focuses on leader–follower trust during team interactions. From the perspective of leadership as social problem solving, we argue that transformational leadership and authoritative leadership are different linked to team knowledge sharing. Through the collection of a sample of 791 valid questionnaires in China, we used the structural equation model to test the theoretical model. Results showed that: (1) Transformational leadership was positively linked to explicit and implicit knowledge sharing, while authoritative leadership was positively linked to explicit knowledge sharing. (2) Trust tendency mediates the relationship between authoritative leadership and knowledge sharing. (3) Supportive and bureaucratic culture moderate the influence of trust tendency on implicit knowledge sharing, such that the positive relationship is stronger for the low-quality of supportive culture and the high-quality of bureaucratic culture. Finally, The study’s implication for theory and practice were discussed, its limitations were identified, and directions for future research were suggested.
... Researchers attempted to identify partial or full mediating variables to better understand the underlying process of the influence of transformational leadership on employee-related outcomes. For example, a study found that transformational leaders contribute to reducing employees' turnover intention by increasing employees' job embeddedness (Eberly, Bluhm, Guarana, Avolio, & Hannah, 2017). The conservation of resources theory supports that people seek resources from their external environment to gain resources that influence their well-being and performance. ...
Employees' quality of work life is a significant issue during a crisis since employees are made vulnerable due to the significant changes in their work conditions. Based on the conservation of resources theory, this study proposed the model that introduces employees' commitment to change as a personal coping resource during a crisis and transformational leadership as a social resource that contributes to the commitment to change and quality of work life. An online survey was conducted among full-service restaurant employees in the United States. The results indicated that transformational leadership increases the commitment to change and quality of work life. Moreover, employees' commitment to change mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and employees' quality of work life. The study findings propose ways in which restaurant practitioners can support employees’ quality of work life during a crisis.
... Job embeddedness is a gathering of social, psychological, financial and environmental powers that involve employees into an emotional ground [4]; [48]. Job embeddedness is distinctive because it emphases on both work and non-work forces [54] that root employees to become involved in their current job [15]; [24]; [95]. [63], affirm that employees who have many links recognize good fits and expect substantial personal sacrifices related with leaving are likely to be embedded in their organizations. ...
Today, the issue in organizational commitment can be clearly seen in abseentism of staff, non challant attitude towards work, making other personal business a priority allowing ones primary obligation to suffer. It is quite obvious in academic environment, in an attempt to meet up with family and social needs, most academic staff have side businesses that compete with their research and teaching responsibilities in the school. This has become necessary because the government has failed in its duties to higher institutions, which are constraint that made many academics work under difficult circumstances. This study assesses the mediating effect of job embeddedness on the relationship between work life balance and organizational commitment. Literatures were reviewed related to the variables in the research with consistent findings. This study selected different combination of variables peculiar to Nigerian environment pioneered by previous authors, the selected determinants of quality of work life revealed positive relationship with job embeddedness and organizational commitment. Hence, it is concluded based on the literature reviewed that quality of work life has significant relationship with job embeddedness and organizational commitment. It is therefore advised that employers should encourage employees in the higher institution of learning to be embedded in the organization, because highly embedded employees are needed to achieve improved future organizational commitment. Index Terms-Organizational Commitment, Quality of work life, Job embeddedness.
... Job embeddedness embodies a broad cluster of factors that explain employees' reasons for staying in an organization. As leaders can more readily influence on the employees' job embeddedness through these numerous factors (Eberlya et al., 2017;Hairudinor et al., 2017). ...
Purpose
This paper aims to evaluate how transformational leadership can increase job embeddedness in their employees that persuade them to stay in their organization and how this relationship is contingent upon the job characteristics.
Design/methodology/approach
Sample of 328 useable responses was available for analysis. Questionnaires were distributed to the employees who are working in different Pakistani organizations. Regression analysis was used to test for hypotheses.
Findings
The findings support that there is a significant impact of transformational leadership for shaping job embeddedness, and the results endorsed the role of job characteristics as a moderator in describing the relationship of transformational leadership and job embeddedness. Transformational leaders would motivate employees to work together in productive manners in challenging work settings.
Originality/value
This paper makes three key contributions to the literature on job design. First, this inquiry shows that a strong link does exist between transformational leadership in creating organizational job embeddedness. Second, it highlights how job characteristics of highly challenging work settings may shape employees’ job embeddedness. Third, this paper offers a novel perspective in leadership research by incorporating high challenging work setting (i.e. job characteristics) as moderator. Managers may get new insight by opting for transformational leaders' attributes and concentrating on high challenging work settings for creating embeddedness in employees to prolong their stay with the job and firm.
... Transformational leaders deeply affect the emotional behaviors of the followers (Bass 1985). Transformational leadership demonstrates dominance over other leadership styles when predicting organizational performance and organizational citizenship behaviors (Banks et al. 2016;Eberly et al. 2017). Transformational leaders get the ability to analyze the skills of the followers according to their abilities while anticipating and predicting the increased responsibilities of the followers. ...
The citizenship behavior of academicians in higher education is of pronounced significance that certainly requires consideration. Nevertheless, such behavior can be stimulated through a leadership style that has received rare attention. Therefore, this study proposed an integrated research model that explores how transformational leadership influences citizenship behaviors through rarely used dimensions Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Organization and Organizational Citizenship Behaviour Individual by addressing the mediating role of workplace spirituality and emotional intelligence. We integrated two theoretical models of social exchange and transformational leadership to describe the underlying linkages. Using data from 408 academicians working in public sector universities and by employing Partial Least Squares-Structural Equation Modeling we provided support for our hypothesis to validate the research model. This study focuses on a typology of the second-order hierarchical latent variable model that includes reflective—formative relationships with emphasis on the repeated indicator approach. The findings of this study provide empirical evidence and encouraging justifications for the substantial influence of workplace spirituality and emotional intelligence on the relationship between transformational leadership and citizenship behaviours.
... Transformational leadership is a construct used to describe how leaders influence and inspire followers to commit to demanding objectives and perform beyond expectations (Eberly et al., 2017;Piccolo et al., 2012). Currently, transformational leadership seems the most dominant leadership construct in organizational behavior research (see for instance Gottfredson and Aguinis, 2017). ...
The relationships between transformational leaders and several follower outcomes have been well investigated, but the mechanism through which these leadership behaviors relate to such outcomes are relatively unexplored. By investigating the mediating role of interactional justice, using structural equation modeling (SEM) analyses, and data collected from supervisors and direct reports at various organizational levels, the present study provides insight into the psychological processes underlying transformational leadership and its effectiveness on follower outcomes. In line with social exchange theory, the main takeaway from the present study is suggesting that leaders, who display transformational leadership behavior in a manner perceived by followers as respectful, fair, and consistent with moral and ethical standards, may expect greater follower organizational attachment as an appropriate response to interactional justice.
... They argue that it can be categorised into four main dimensions: idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration (Mittal & Dhar, 2015). Idealised influence refers to transformational leaders' ability to influence followers by demonstrating high levels of competence, values and ethical standards and displaying self-confidence to followers in their ability to accomplish organisational tasks, leading followers to respect and admire their leaders (Eberly, Bluhm, Guarana, Avolio, & Hannah, 2017). Inspirational motivation includes communication, interaction and discussion of a meaningful vision with followers to work towards the organisation's current and future vision; the leader also needs to demonstrate optimism and enthusiasm for that vision and to inspire followers to overcome challenges that may exceed their expectations (Engelen, Gupta, Strenger, & Brettel, 2015). ...
Orientation: Scholars long debated the importance of transformational leadership, talent acquisition and talent retention.
Research purpose: The purpose of this study was to analyse transformational leadership, talent acquisition and talent retention of engineers at Eskom by investigating the demographic differences, relationships and transformational leadership as the mediating variable.
Motivation for the study: Eskom has improved the remuneration of engineers over the years but continued encountering challenges to attract and retain them. The researcher investigated whether the perceived lack of transformational leadership caused the challenges experienced by the organisation.
Research approach/design and method: This was quantitative study, which used convenience-sampling method to obtain 585 completed questionnaires from the engineers.
Main findings: The researcher performed a one-way Anova test to establish if engineers from a gender and educational qualification perspectives were different from each other on the eight sub-factors identified through exploratory factor analysis. The p-values were greater than 0.05, meant that there was no statistical difference between genders and between engineers with different educational qualifications. The researcher conducted a post-hoc pairwise test (p-values 0.05) on different age groups and results revealed that older respondents (31 – 40 years of age) had greater positive attitude on the perception of before-selection, during-selection and development than the younger group (18 – 30 years of age). In addition, the study revealed that transformational leadership mediated the relationship between talent acquisition and retention of engineers.
Practical/managerial implications: The study emphasises that not only salaries are important to attract and retain engineers, but also effective leadership is essential, especially the transformational leadership philosophy.
Contribution/value-add: South Africa has a dearth of engineers. The study results illustrates the importance of transformational leadership philosophy in addressing the challenge the organisation faces. Therefore, the organisation must consider designing programmes to help leaders embrace the transformational leadership philosophy.
... An empirical study on transformational leader attributes, interpersonal skills, and engagement evaluated the relationship between emotional skills, work engagement, and transformational leadership using participants in managerial position (Eberly, Bluhm, Guarana, Avolio, & Hannah, 2017;Mencl, et al. 2016). The complete research model offered an integrative, individual framework of what leaders can do (interpersonal skills) and what leaders want to do (work engagement) to affect their transformational leadership behaviors. ...
Effective leadership roles of police professionals in America today are critically difficult (Fine, Padilla, & Tapp, 2019; Meares, 2017). The purpose of this research was to determine if and to what degree perceived effective leadership attributes are affected by predictor variables of police professionals when adapting to critical situational environments. Leadership attitude test data of 182 officers (134 men and 48 women) was conducted. An approximate normal distribution was evident for the M, Cronbach's α and Test-retest Stability µ composite score data to confirm suitability for parametric statistical analyses. Factors were extracted using principal component analysis (PCA) to generate description of results. A 5-way independent MANOVA with the Bonferroni post hoc test was used to calculate differences between groups. Results suggested that differences exist in main and interaction effects between and among predictor variables of police officers on effective leadership characteristics, expanding Kouzes and Posner's (2002) model as a theoretical framework. Linear discriminant analysis revealed factors that shaped predictor variables. Factor loadings after Oblimin with Kaiser Normalization rotation showed the eigenvalue of the CAL Scale reduced to 18 items and three components explained 63% of the variance. Box's Test of Equality of Covariance Matrices revealed statistically significance for Purpose-driven subscale, p = .040, and Reason over Emotion subscale, p = .004 (p< .001). The subscale group effects demonstrated that Purpose-driven and Reason over Emotion leadership attribute subscales influenced police professionals. The study supported previous research results and submitted recommendations for future research and practice on leadership characteristics for police professionals.
Purpose
This study investigates the mediating role of organizational change capacity (OCC) in the relationship between the perception of extreme contexts and firm product and process innovation, which was not empirically investigated in the literature. In addition, this study explores the moderating role of the perception of extreme contexts-related variables, which were not operationalized in ordinary firms, on the relationship between OCC and firm product and process innovation.
Design/methodology/approach
A questionnaire-based research was conducted to test the suggested hypotheses. The data were gathered from 90 firms during the peak period of COVID-19.
Findings
This study shows that OCC, which covers contexts, process and learning dimensions, fully mediates the relationship between the perception of extreme contexts and firm product and process innovation. Also, this study discovers that the perception of extreme contexts, including temporal ordering of extremity, the magnitude of consequences, proximity among people and operational deficiencies, positively moderate the relationship between OCC and firm product innovation.
Research limitations/implications
This study has constraints inherited in survey design, primarily sampling and country context.
Originality/value
This study identifies, conceptualizes and operationalizes the term extreme context, conceptually argued for particular organizations/units in ordinary/mundane organization settings so far. In addition, this study extends the current understanding of how the perception of extreme contexts interacts with a firm's capability to increase innovation efforts. Further, this study shows how OCC mediates the relationship between extreme contexts and firm product and process innovation.
This study examined the relationships among school principals' distributed leadership, teachers' psychological capital, trust in the principal, work engagement, and turnover intention. The research sample consisted of 397 primary and secondary school teachers. The study employed a cross-sectional survey design using quantitative methods. Distributed Leadership Scale, Psychological Capital Questionnaire-Short Form, Utrecht Work Engagement Scale-Ultra short version, Trust in the Principal Scale, and Teachers' Intent to Move to Another School Scale were used to gather the data. Multiple mediator analysis in structural equation modeling (SEM) with the bootstrapping method was used to analyze the direct and indirect effects of dependent variables on teachers' turnover intentions. 95 % confidence intervals were calculated using 2000 samples to examine the mediating effects. The results indicated that the direct effects of distributed leadership and psychological capital on teachers' turnover intentions are insignificant. Psychological capital negatively and indirectly affects turnover intentions through work engagement while distributed leadership negatively and indirectly influences turnover intentions via work engagement and trust in principal. The study emphasized the role of job and personal resources in understanding teachers' turnover intentions. Based on the results, principals are recommended to demonstrate distributed leadership behaviors to build trust and use intervention strategies to strengthen teachers' psychological capacities if they want to lower teachers' turnover intentions.
The purpose of this research is to determine and assess the impact of transformational leadership (TL) and organizational culture (OC) on employee performance (EP). The study uses a quantitative research method combined with the survey technique to react to the test hypotheses formulated. The study's population consisted of 1002 village government employees, with 100 of the research samples employed as research respondents drawn using cluster random sampling in the Kuningan region of Western Java, Indonesia. The assumption was tested using the AMOS PLS in this study. The findings revealed that TL had a favourable and significant direct impact on EP, while OChad a positive and significant direct impact on village government employees' performance. TL inspires and motivates employees and helps create a culture that adapts to the changes that occur within the organization. This study develops a more integrated concept and model of the effect of TL and OC on EP, which has been carried out separately by previous researchers. This document assists local government offices in improving EP of Village government by strengthening the efficacy of TL and creating a suitable OC. Future Studies: A number of contradictory results have been found in previous studies on the effect TL and OCon EP. Because this gap is unique, it is critical to conduct integrated research and assessment with diverse populations and research objects, and it must be widely disseminated, particularly in the bureaucracy of government institutions. © 2022, SRAC - Romanian Society for Quality. All rights reserved.
COVID-19 has prompted diverse responses from governments and created an extreme context for organizations to operate. In this context, company leaders face fluctuated macrolevel policies, endure physical separation from their members, and must rely on virtual communication to conduct teamwork. Yet little is known about what and how leader communication can be effective in inducing team creativity to survive the extreme context. Building on the affective events theory and the literature on media richness, we develop a theoretical model explicating how leaders’ rich (as opposed to lean) virtual communication can mitigate the negative impact of stringent government responses to COVID-19 on work team creativity via a sequential mediation process: first by inhibiting team anxiety and then by facilitating team information elaboration. Data from a three-stage eight-day longitudinal field experiment, in combination with an experience sampling method with 251 employees, on a chain preschool in eight Chinese cities, provide strong support for the hypothesized model.
Higher education plays an important role and has become a priority in creating and enhancing skills in developing countries. However, there are many challenges and problems faced in carrying out educational visions. This study was to investigate the coherency of transformational leadership, organizational commitment, and employee performance. This study uses a quantitative method with the questionnaire administered to collect data from 120 employees at the ministry of higher education at Timor Leste, using SmartPLS3 as the data analysis. These studies state that beneficial role of transformational leadership on organizational commitment, however transformational leadership is not proved on intensify employee performance. Moreover, the commitment organization has an essential role on intensify employee performance. The relationship transformational leadership on employee performance is fundamentally mediated by commitment organizational. Whereas, implication of this study revealed that the leader should be ability to enhance the commitment of employees to the organization, so that intensify employee performance
The current article examines the emergence and dynamics of leadership during an extreme situation—a terrorist attack at the foreign subsidiary of a multinational energy corporation—and the crisis response undertaken at the corporate headquarters. The inductive analysis reveals that the in-situ crisis leadership involved impromptu interactions between multiple individuals leading collectively. Multiple sources of leadership emerged to carry out four critical leadership functions, namely strategic framing, ad hoc structuring, relational coping, and instant developing. These functions were carried out by several formal and informal leaders together, enhancing the overall leadership capacity in the crisis management organization (CMO). With increased capacity to lead efforts in different domains came specialization, which could have led to misalignment and fragmentation. But this was avoided by leaders acting as “role boundary transgressors,” expanding the boundaries of their responsibilities across roles, functions, and levels to foster the alignment of collective efforts across the CMO. Based on rich data from a leadership situation that researchers rarely have access to, this study contributes to the understanding of leadership during extreme situations by illustrating who leads (the emergence of multiple leadership sources), what leaders do (leadership functions), and how leadership plays out over time and across levels (through dynamic role boundary transgressions).
Effectively implementing leadership is critical for organizational success. In consideration of this issue, this study investigated effective leadership in US- and Germany-based multinational companies (MNCs) operating in South Korea. Drawing on transformational leadership (TL) theory and leadership contingency theory, the study clarified the contextual dependency of TL effectiveness. A survey was administered to 258 employees of the target MNCs, during which the participants were asked to rate their supervisors’ transformational leadership behaviors. The responses were empirically analyzed on the basis of the research framework. The findings showed that a leader’s group-focused TL behaviors indirectly influenced organizational commitment and that this relationship was mediated by psychological empowerment in the US-based MNCs. Conversely, a leader’s individual-focused TL behaviors demonstrated a pronounced effect on organizational commitment and that this association was also mediated by psychological empowerment in the Germany-based MNCs. The leadership behaviors that effectively empowered employees and increased their organizational commitment differed depending on the cultures prevalent in the organizations’ countries of origin. Adopting the two-dimensional model of TL, this study confirmed the contextual dependency of TL behaviors and suggested the need to incorporate an organization’s cultural context into predictions regarding the effects of certain leadership behaviors.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to investigate the effects of transformational leadership on employee creativity through psychological empowerment, creative process engagement and intrinsic motivation.
Design/methodology/approach
Data were collected from 420 employees at 21 telecommunications enterprises in Vietnam directly by questionnaire survey. Statistical methods, such as confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation model (SEM), were used to analyze the data.
Findings
This paper shows that transformational leadership indirectly affects employee creativity through the mediating variables. Transformational leadership has a positive relationship with psychological empowerment. Psychological empowerment has a proportional relationship with both creative process engagement and intrinsic motivation. Creative process engagement and intrinsic motivation have been shown to have positive effects with the employee creativity.
Research limitations/implications
The main limitation of this paper is that the study only explores the relationship between transformational leadership and employee creativity through a number of the mediating variables.
Practical implications
The telecommunications industry is an industry that requires constant innovation, so managers need to aim for a leadership style that promotes employee creativity. Therefore, transformational leadership is a style that should be considered during the appointing and recruiting.
Originality/value
This paper contributes to the existing literature by focusing on understanding the relationship between transformational leadership and employee creativity in telecommunications enterprises in an Asian country with an emerging economy like Vietnam.
With the high level of importance placed on service delivery and the elevated turnover rate experienced in the hotel industry, this study was conducted to explore the influences of perceived transformational leadership on the cross-cultural psychological capital and turnover intentions of frontline employees working in four- and five-star hotels in Sabah, Malaysia. Data were collected from 162 frontline employees using the purposive sampling method. Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) was performed to test the hypothesized relationships. The findings clearly demonstrate that transformational leadership positively affects cross-cultural psychological capital and negatively influences turnover intention. Cross-cultural psychological capital, on the other hand, has no substantial link with turnover intention and does not act as a mediator between transformative leadership and turnover intention. This study extends the hospitality literature by offering a new conceptual model representing the perceptions of frontline employees toward transformational leadership and cross-cultural psychological capital that influence the turnover intention of these employees based on the job demands–resources and conservation of resources theories. These findings have implications for the advancement of transformational leadership and cross-cultural psychological capital toward a sustainable approach to reducing employee turnover in the hotel industry.
Taking an upper echelon theoretical perspective in public sector higher education, this systematic literature review had quadruple objectives. First, to identify the gap in the existing literature on transformational leadership (TL). Second, to suggest a comprehensive instrument for a higher-order construct of TL. Third, to propose a rigorous research framework for future empirical research, and fourth, to propose an appropriate research methodology for that empirical research. Using a systematic literature review approach, various databases were accessed to obtain current literature on the topic. Transformational leadership constructs were extensively explored for current concept developments and available measurement scales. A research model was proposed according to transformational leadership, and upper echelon theoretical frames and appropriate research methodology was recommended. The study found that the research on the TL, its antecedents, factors, and outcomes were still being developed. Various dimensions with different conflicting and complementing questionnaires and numerous instruments from the literature on TL construct have been identified. As a result, a research framework was proposed to conduct future research on transformational leadership and organisational effectiveness with a mediating role of technology innovation to fill the acknowledged gap. This study is among the first research to propose technology innovation in higher education context. Two of the newly launched techniques IPMA and CTA are recommended to enhance the robustness of any study involving technology innovation.
تعد القروض والتمويل الذي تمنحه المصارف الى زبائنها لغرض تنفيذ المشاريع من اهم العمليات التي تقوم بها ولكن يجب على المصارف التاكد من الاثار المستقبلية لهذه المشاريع على صحة الفرد والمجتمع و البيئة قبل منح القروض او الموافقة على منح التمويل للحفاظ على الموارد المستقبلية والاموال للاجيال القادمة.
لذا فان ظهور ما يعرف بالمصارف الخضراء بدات بالانتشار لغرض حماية كافة المخلوقات والكائنات والمجتمعات والبيئة وضمان ديمومتها لأجيال مستقبلية والمحافظة عليها من الدمار.
يؤثر الانفاق الحكومي على النشاط الاقتصادي بشكل مباشر وعلى النشاطات الغير اقتصادية بشكل غير مباشر فبعد تطور مفهوم الحكومه وزياره دورها في مجمل مجالات الحياة اصبح الانفاق العام ذو اثر بالغ الاهمية على المستوى الاقتصادي والاجتماعي وحتى الصحي وان هذا الاثر يكون ايجابيا ويلتمس نفعه على النشاط الاقتصاي بانخفاض مستوى البطالة والسيطره على التضخم وذو نفع مستقبلي محققا تنمية مستدامة من خلال تهيئة البيئة المناسبة لاستمرار التطور الاقتصادي
Team learning orientation magnitude and strength are important to sustain group effectiveness and adaptability, but scant research has investigated them simultaneously. We examine how transformational leadership, behavioural integration, and the degree of team personality heterogeneity in extraversion and agreeableness contribute to the magnitude and strength of team learning orientation. In study 1, using a time‐lagged survey sample of 50 work teams, we found that transformational leadership was associated with two team learning orientation aspects through the mediation of behavioural integration. In study 2, in a survey sample of 72 teams, we replicated these findings and further demonstrated that the relationship between transformational leadership and behavioural integration is enhanced when there is greater personality homogeneity in agreeableness. Our findings suggest that transformational leadership is able to converge a high and strong learning orientation in work teams through prompting behavioural integration among members, yet the influence of transformational leadership is contingent on the degree of team personality heterogeneity. Our research conclusions highlight important insights for team leaders about how to create a strong team climate of learning in order to sustain the long‐term success of their work teams. Transformational leadership is shown to be associated with high levels of team learning orientation magnitude and strength. Thus, to encourage team learning, adopting transformational leadership training is an effective strategy. To converge team learning orientation (i.e., promoting strength), it is important for transformational leaders to encourage information exchange, collaboration, and joint decision‐making (i.e., behavioural integration) among team members. The influence of transformational leadership can be amplified when the team is homogenous on members’ personality. As a result, providing leaders with knowledge of the ‘deep‐level’ composition of team members could help them better foster team behavioural and learning dynamics
Recent narrative reviews (e.g., Hom, Mitchell, Lee, & Griffeth, 2012; Hom, Lee, Shaw, & Hausknecht, 2017) advise that it is timely to assess the progress made in research on voluntary employee turnover so as to guide future work. To provide this assessment, we employed a three-step approach. First, we conducted a comprehensive meta-analysis of turnover predictors, updating existing effect sizes and examining multiple new antecedents. Second, guided by theory, we developed and tested a set of substantive moderators, considering factors that might exacerbate or mitigate zero-order meta-analytic effects. Third, we examined the holistic pattern of results in order to highlight the most pressing needs for future turnover research. The results of Step 1 reveal multiple newer predictors and updated effect sizes of more traditional predictors, which have received substantially greater study. The results of Step 2 provide insight into the context-dependent nature of many antecedent-turnover relationships. In Step 3, our discussion takes a birds-eye view of the turnover “forest” and considers the theoretical and practical implications of the results. We offer several research recommendations that break from the traditional turnover paradigm, as a means of guiding future study. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Using multilevel structural equations modeling, we examine the extent to which the influence of transformational leadership on work group effectiveness flows through follower perceptions of person-organization or person-supervisor value congruence. Results indicate that the group-level effect of transformational leadership on work group effectiveness was fully accounted for by the group-level impact of transformational leadership on follower perceptions of person-organization value congruence, not by its impact on follower perceptions of person-supervisor value congruence. These results are discussed in the context of leadership as a "sense-making" process and the practical barriers faced by transformational leaders in modern organizations.
Sensegiving—shaping how people understand themselves, their work, and others engaged in that work—is critical to the work of organizational leadership. We propose the “cognitive shift,” a change in how an organizational audience understands an important element of the organization's work, as a desired outcome of the sensegiving process. Organizations try to spur these shifts in two categories: about their issue and about their primary constituency, the population it is designed to serve or mobilize. This approach makes two contributions: It re-directs attention from individual leaders' behaviors and characteristics to the work of leadership, as opposed to the agents through which it is carried out. Second, it operationalizes the intangible process of meaning-making by breaking it down into discrete units that are relatively equivalent and, therefore, comparable, providing a systematic way to analyze and map cognitive leadership processes.
The validity of organizational research relies on strong research methods, which include effective measurement of psychological constructs. The general consensus is that multiple item measures have better psychometric properties than single-item measures. However, due to practical constraints (e.g., survey length, respondent burden) there are situations in which certain single items may be useful for capturing information about constructs that might otherwise go unmeasured. We evaluated 37 items, including 18 newly developed items as well as 19 single items selected from existing multiple-item scales based on psychometric characteristics, to assess 18 constructs frequently measured in organizational and occupational health psychology research. We examined evidence of reliability; convergent, discriminant, and content validity assessments; and test-retest reliabilities at 1- and 3-month time lags for single-item measures using a multistage and multisource validation strategy across 3 studies, including data from N = 17 occupational health subject matter experts and N = 1,634 survey respondents across 2 samples. Items selected from existing scales generally demonstrated better internal consistency reliability and convergent validity, whereas these particular new items generally had higher levels of content validity. We offer recommendations regarding when use of single items may be more or less appropriate, as well as 11 items that seem acceptable, 14 items with mixed results that might be used with caution due to mixed results, and 12 items we do not recommend using as single-item measures. Although multiple-item measures are preferable from a psychometric standpoint, in some circumstances single-item measures can provide useful information. (PsycINFO Database Record
(c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
Australian employers are increasingly reliant on migrants, but turnover among migrants is significantly higher than turnover among Australian-born workers. Job embeddedness theory emphasises the role of employee attachment in understanding retention. We interviewed migrants to learn the different kinds of attachments they created on- and off-the-job. Migrants generated on- and off-the-job fit and links using strategies suggested by job embeddedness theory, but they also actively increased cultural distance from their countries of origin, used spiritual similarity to create attachments at work and engaged with their communities by hosting social gatherings. However, in contrast to predictions from job embeddedness theory, good fit and many links were not accompanied by a sense of sacrifice – migrants perceived few costs associated with leaving their employers and communities. We use these results to suggest ways in which organisations might be able to increase the embeddedness of their migrant employees.
This study addressed the unresolved issue of how differentiated leadership (leaders treating individuals within a group differently) affects group effectiveness. We developed and tested a group-level model involving group-focused and individual-focused leadership using three-phased survey data from 70 work groups in eight companies. Results showed that differentiated leadership within groups diminished group effectiveness through creating divergence in leader identification and member self-efficacy and lower group collective efficacy. At the same time, group-focused leadership facilitated group identification and collective efficacy, which positively contributed to group effectiveness. We discuss theoretical and managerial implications of the potential cost of differentiated leadership behaviors in groups.
The current study examines the empowering effects of transformational leaders and the extent to which these effects differ across mechanistic–organic organizational contexts. Psychological empowerment is hypothesized to provide a comprehensive motivational mechanism explaining the relationships between transformational leadership and employee job-related behaviors. In addition, the relationships between transformational leadership, employee psychological empowerment, and job-related behaviors are hypothesized to be stronger in organizations with more organic as opposed to mechanistic structures. Results based on a cross-organizational sample of employees and their immediate supervisors provide support for the hypothesized relationships. Psychological empowerment mediated relationships between transformational leadership and employee task performance and organizational citizenship behaviors. The mediating role of psychological empowerment was then found to be conditional upon mechanistic–organic contexts. More specifically, organic structures enhanced, whereas mechanistic structures constrained, the empowering influence of transformational leaders. In highly mechanistic contexts, the indirect effects were no longer statistically significant. Implications for theory, research, and organizational management are discussed. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Purpose
This study explores whether follower perceived need-supply (N-S) job fit, demand-ability (D-A) job fit, and person-organization (P-O) fit mediate the relationships between individual-level, unit-level transformational leadership (TFL), and follower task performance.
Design/Methodology/Approach
Data were collected from multiple sources, comprised 85 leaders and 343 followers in 85 bank branches. Hierarchical linear modeling analysis (HLM) was employed to test the proposed hypotheses.
Findings
Our results indicate that both individual-level and unit-level TFL positively predict follower task performance. In addition, follower N-S and D-A job fit perceptions mediate the association between individual-level TFL and task performance. However, follower P-O fit perception did not mediate the unit-level TFL-performance linkage.
Implications
Our results show that: (1) TFL is positively related to follower task performance; (2) TFL is positively associated with follower N-S and D-A job fit perceptions; and (3) follower perceived fit with their job (e.g., N-S and D-A job fit) positively predicts their task performance.
Originality/Value
Leadership researchers have attempted to clarify the mechanisms linking TFL and follower task performance. However, whether follower fit perceptions toward the job and the organization explain this association has been neglected in past studies. This study contributes to the leadership and fit literature by examining the mediating roles of follower perceived N-S job fit, D-A job fit, and P-O fit within the TFL-follower task performance link.
This article reviews the leadership literature from 1990–2005 in twenty-one major journals in order to determine the nature and extent of attention to the organizational context as a factor affecting leaders' behavior and their effectiveness. Both conceptual and empirical articles were rated as having “moderate/strong,” “slight,” or “no” emphasis on the organizational context. Those articles classified in the moderate/strong category were analyzed under seven organizational context components. Suggestions are included for improving the breadth and depth of empirical knowledge about the interaction of leadership and the organizational context.
71 Navy mothers (aged 20–47 yrs) of 6-mo- to 8-yr-olds were interviewed before and after a scheduled deployment. Overall intentions to reenlist did not differ between the 2 groups. Results show that women who experienced deployment are more likely than women in the nondeploying control group to report commitment to a Navy career as a reason for planning to stay in the Navy. Women in the control group, however, more often report dissatisfaction with the Navy as a reason for planning to leave the military. Women in both groups are less likely to report commitment to a Navy career as a rationale for reenlistment intentions in the time between the initial and final assessment. Commitment to a Navy career, satisfaction with benefits, and a perception that workday separations may benefit children predict intentions to reenlist at the initial assessment. Dissatisfaction with the Navy, concerns about balancing a Navy career with family responsibilities, and higher commitment to the motherhood role predict intentions to leave the military. Significant predictors of reenlistment intentions at the final assessment were Time 1 reenlistment intentions, commitment to a Navy career, satisfaction with benefits, work–family concerns, and dissatisfaction with the military. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2013 APA, all rights reserved)
Unpleasant events are a fact of organizational life. The way in which people respond to such events, however, varies. In the present study, we hypothesized and found that some individuals choose to respond to negative events in ways that helped the organization. Instead of withdrawing in an attempt to “get even” by reducing work outputs, these individuals improved their in-role and extra-role performance. The study examined the role that job embeddedness plays in creating this work enhancement reaction. Specifically, we discovered that on-the-job embeddedness helps reduce the impact of negative shocks on organizational citizenship and overall job performance. The findings of this study have important implications for both theory and practice.
Testing multilevel mediation using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) has gained tremendous popularity in recent years. However, potential confounding in multilevel mediation effect estimates can arise in these models when within-group effects differ from between-group effects. This study summarizes three types of HLM-based multilevel mediation models, and then explains that in two types of these models confounding can be produced and erroneous conclusions may be derived when using popularly recommended procedures. A Monte Carlo simulation study illustrates that these procedures can underestimate or overestimate true mediation effects. Recommendations are provided for appropriately testing multilevel mediation and for differentiating within-group versus between-group effects in multilevel settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
I: Background.- 1. An Introduction.- 2. Conceptualizations of Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination.- II: Self-Determination Theory.- 3. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Perceived Causality and Perceived Competence.- 4. Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Interpersonal Communication and Intrapersonal Regulation.- 5. Toward an Organismic Integration Theory: Motivation and Development.- 6. Causality Orientations Theory: Personality Influences on Motivation.- III: Alternative Approaches.- 7. Operant and Attributional Theories.- 8. Information-Processing Theories.- IV: Applications and Implications.- 9. Education.- 10. Psychotherapy.- 11. Work.- 12. Sports.- References.- Author Index.
We integrated affective events theory, the unfolding model of turnover, and job embeddedness theory to build and test a model specifying the relationship between negative shocks, on-the-job embeddedness and important employee behaviors. The results showed that embeddedness mediates the relationship between negative shocks and job search behaviors as well as counterproductive work behaviors. The results further indicate a moderating effect of negative affectivity on the relationship between negative shocks and embeddedness, and embeddedness and job search behaviors.
Transformational leadership (TFL) has been shown to affect employees' job performance, and the literature offers a large variety of explanatory processes. Integrating the diverse literature related to the mechanisms that mediate the TFL-performance relationship, the current study identified five core mechanisms—affective, motivational, identification, social exchange, and justice enhancement—that are consistent with established social and psychological theories. Meta-analysis involving > 600 samples was conducted to test these mechanisms. General support was found for each of the five mechanisms. The findings showed that TFL was related to variables that represented these mechanisms, which in turn were associated with non-self-report measures of employees' task performance, citizenship behavior, and innovative behavior. An integrative model was further proposed and tested to show the central role of leader-member exchange in the relationships between TFL, other mediating variables, and performance outcomes. This study contributes to the literature by strengthening researchers' theoretical understanding of the major social and psychological processes by which transformational leaders promote followers' job performance.
While authentic leadership (AL) has seen a dramatic increase in scholarly attention over the last decade, its contribution relative to more established leadership constructs merits investigation. We employ meta-analytic techniques to compare AL and transformational leadership theories using 100 independent samples and 25,452 individuals. The findings reveal that (1) the relationship between authentic and transformational leadership is large in magnitude, suggesting construct redundancy (ρ = .72); (2) neither AL nor transformational leadership add noticeable incremental validity beyond the other construct; (3) AL has a lower relative weight than transformational leadership for the outcomes of follower satisfaction, follower satisfaction with the leader, task performance, and leader effectiveness; and (4) AL demonstrates dominance over transformational leadership when predicting group or organization performance and organizational citizenship behaviors. We recommend future research examine AL at the component level and its relationships with related ethical constructs to potentially differentiate it from transformational leadership.
Testing multilevel mediation using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) has gained tremendous popularity in recently years. However, biases could arise when no centering or grand-mean centering is used in these models. This study first summarizes three types of HLM-based multilevel mediation models, and then explains that in two types of these models, biases are produced when using current procedures of testing multilevel mediation. A Monte Carlo study was conducted to illustrate that HLM applied to grand-mean-centered data can under- or overestimate true mediational effects. Recommendations are provided with regard to the differentiation of within-group versus between-group mediation in multilevel settings.
This study extends the sparse research on the connection between leadership and follower turnover by investigating the effects of group-level transformational leadership on the withdrawal process. Through an examination of 375 Chinese employees from 96 work groups, we used hierarchical generalized linear modeling (HGLM) analyses to test our proposed model. Findings reveal that, even when we control for the effects of leader–member exchange and contingent reward leadership, transformational leadership predicts turnover through quit intentions. In addition, our test of cross-level moderation reveals that transformational leadership can weaken the effect of quit intentions on turnover. Thus, employees are less likely to carry out quit intentions when they have transformational leaders.
We develop a model in which transformational leadership bolsters followers' internalization of core organizational values, which in turn influences their performance and willingness to report peers' transgressions. The model also specifies a distinct process wherein transformational leadership enhances follower performance by promoting followers' role self-efficacy. We tested the model on 2 large units (i.e., companies) of soldiers undergoing training and socialization. The study bracketed changes in soldiers' internalization of the organizational values and role self-efficacy over a 14-week period. The results support the widely held but empirically unestablished views that transformational leadership promotes change in value internalization and that this partially explains its influence on follower performance. Findings also indicate a distinct intervening process through which transformational leadership promotes performance by enhancing followers' beliefs in their own capabilities (i.e., self-efficacy). This research thus shows that 2 key processes both contribute to the understanding of how transformational leadership transforms followers and influences their behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record
(c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
Purpose
The aim of the present study is to give insights into the interplay between leadership, well‐being and occupational success by examining the indirect effect of transformational leadership on subjective occupational success mediated by work engagement.
Design/methodology/approach
A gender‐sensitive approach was applied in order to reveal possible differences in the relations and to deduce gender‐specific recommendations. Data were retrieved from 530 women and 602 men. The participants were questioned on their leader's behavior, their work engagement, and occupational success.
Findings
Results show significant positive relations between transformational leadership, work engagement, and subjective occupational success for men and women. Work engagement is found to partially mediate the relation between transformational leadership and subjective occupational success. A significantly higher mediation effect was found for women, although the mediation is present in both gender groups.
Practical implications
Both for men and women transformational leadership training, as well as interventions promoting work engagement, are promising approaches for the enhancement of occupational success.
Originality/value
The findings advance the understanding of how leaders enhance employees' occupational success and provide gender‐specific insights into the mediating mechanism of work engagement regarding this relation.
In this article, we examine the history and development of job embeddedness, beginning with the story of the idea's conception, theoretical foundation, and original empirical structure as a major predictor of employee voluntary turnover. We then consider more recent expansions in the theoretical structure and empirical measurement of job embeddedness, exploring job embeddedness as a causal indicator model versus a reflective model. Next, we review some promising expansions of embeddedness to new domains (e.g., family embeddedness) as well as important contingency factors that enhance or diminish its impact. Finally, we describe how job embeddedness affects important organizational outcomes beyond turnover, including job performance, organizational citizenship behavior, innovation, and the development of social and human capital. Throughout the article, we provide our opinions on how the theory and research on embeddedness have progressed as well as ideas on how it can be improved.
Integrating the expanding job embeddedness (JE) literature, in this article we advance a multifoci model of JE that is theoretically grounded in conservation of resources (COR) theory. From COR theory, we posit that employees' motivation to acquire and protect resources explains why they become embedded and how they behave once embedded. Our COR-based JE model highlights contextual antecedents that clarify how employees become embedded within different foci. Its multifoci theoretical lens also illustrates how different forms of work-focused embeddedness differentially affect work outcomes and how they interact with nonwork foci to influence those outcomes. Along with directions for further research, we further discuss theoretical and practical implications of our integrative formulation. (PsycINFO Database Record
(c) 2015 APA, all rights reserved).
The use of control variables plays a central role in organizational research due to practical difficulties associated with the implementation of experimental and quasi-experimental designs. As such, we conducted an in-depth review and content analysis of what variables and why such variables are controlled for in ten of the most popular research domains (task performance, organizational citizenship behaviors, turnover, job satisfaction, organizational commitment, employee burnout, personality, leader-member exchange, organizational justice, and affect) in organizational behavior/human resource management (OB/HRM) and applied psychology. Specifically, we examined 580 articles published from 2003 to 2012 in AMJ, ASQ, JAP, JOM, and PPsyc. Results indicate that, across research domains with clearly distinct theoretical bases, the overwhelming majority of the more than 3,500 controls identified in our review converge around the same simple demographic factors (i.e., gender, age, tenure), very little effort is made to explain why and how controls relate to focal variables of interest, and control variable practices have not changed much over the past decade. To address these results, we offer best-practice recommendations in the form of a sequence of questions and subsequent steps that can be followed to make decisions on the appropriateness of including a specific control variable within a particular theoretical framework, research domain, and empirical study. Our recommendations can be used by authors as well as journal editors and reviewers to improve the transparency and appropriateness of practices regarding control variable usage.
A meta-analysis of single-item measures of overall job satisfaction (28 correlations from 17 studies with 7,682 people) found an average uncorrected correlation of .63 (SD = .09) with scale measures of overall job satisfaction. The overall mean correlation (corrected only for reliability) is .67 (SD = .08), and it is moderated by the type of measurement scale used. The mean corrected correlation for the best group of scale measures (8 correlations, 1,735 people) is .72 (SD = .05). The correction for attenuation formula was used to estimate the minimum level of reliability for a single-item measure. These estimates range from .45 to .69, depending on the assumptions made.
In the existing transformational leadership research, little attention has been paid to contextual influences on transfo