Metaphors We Live By
Abstract
The now-classic Metaphors We Live By changed our understanding of metaphor and its role in language and the mind. Metaphor, the authors explain, is a fundamental mechanism of mind, one that allows us to use what we know about our physical and social experience to provide understanding of countless other subjects. Because such metaphors structure our most basic understandings of our experience, they are "metaphors we live by"--metaphors that can shape our perceptions and actions without our ever noticing them.
In this updated edition of Lakoff and Johnson's influential book, the authors supply an afterword surveying how their theory of metaphor has developed within the cognitive sciences to become central to the contemporary understanding of how we think and how we express our thoughts in language.
... Pre takýto prístup je náročnejšie vysporiadať sa s viaczdrojovými intertextuálnymi vplyvmi 68 na výsledné dielo. Podobná výzva sa v kognitívnej lingvistike postavila pred teóriu konceptuálnej metafory, kde sa posúva význam medzi zdrojovou a cieľovou doménou (Lakoff & Johnson, [1980. Problém viacerých vplyvov si žiadal komplementárny pohľad v teórii konceptuálnej integrácie (Fauconnier & Turner, 2002, s. 45), kde je rovnocenné postavenie medzi aspoň dvoma vstupmi (input space), ktoré sú cez všeobecné prieniky (generic space) mapované do jedného koherentného výstupu (blended space). ...
... 140) analytického priradenia (sliepka a krava v kategórii zviera) pre zástupcov atď. Čo sa skrýva za metaforami ZDROJA pre prácu a čas, je spôsob, akým naše koncepty PRÁCA a ČAS ovplyvňujú náš koncept oddychu, meniac ho na niečo pozoruhodne podobné práci" (Lakoff & Johnson, [1980. 89 Možno porovnať napríklad vplyvy na Martina Heideggera (pozri ppč. ...
... "Všetky metafory sú štruktúrne (v tom zmysle, že mapujú jednu štruktúru do inej); všetky sú ontologické (v tom zmysle, že vytvárajú entity v cieľovej doméne) a mnohé sú orientačné (v tom zmysle, že mapujú orientačné obrazové schémy)" (Lakoff & Johnson, [1980. Jedine orientačný typ, keďže oproti ontologickému a štruktúrnemu nie je univerzálnou vlastnosťou metafory, nadobúda špeciálnu pozíciu aj napriek tomu, že vzniká v delení, ktoré Lakoff s Johnsonom retrospektívne kritizujú príznakom umelosti. ...
Hlavným cieľom monografie „Pohyb ku kognitívnym adaptačným štúdiám: adaptácia ako hra“ bolo orientovať súčasný výskum adaptačných štúdií vektorom empiricky zodpovednej kognitívnej vetvy neradikálneho konštruktivizmu. Tento zámer vyplýva z prudkej progresívnej diferenciácie výskumu adaptačných štúdií, ktorá sa v tejto oblasti prejavila hlavne v posledných dvoch dekádach. Modelom adaptácie ako hry v kognitívnovednej perspektíve sa poskytuje možnosť predikcie charakteru (aj v širšom zmysle) zážitku experientov adaptácií. Keďže podoba tohto zážitku výrazne formuje produkty adaptačného procesu do ich výslednej podoby, model adaptácie ako hry možno aplikovať aj v štandardnom umenovednom úsilí pri interpretácii jednotlivých adaptácií. Model adaptácie ako hry sa v monografii syntetizuje na základe poznatkov rozmanitých disciplín. V okruhu kognitívnych vied pomáhajú východiská filozofie, lingvistiky, informatiky, psychológie, antropológie, biológie či neurovedy – obzvlášť afektívnej neurovedy, ktorá sa zaoberá aj emočným rozmerom hry. V prieniku s podstatnými interdisciplinárnymi zložkami výskumu adaptácií sa vo veľkej miere využívali aj poznatky klasických i kognitívnovedných variácií literárnej vedy, filmovej vedy (miestami aj teatrológie) či mediálnych štúdií. Konzistentne s inými podobnými výsledkami kognitívnych vied sa dokazuje, že aj zdanlivo seriózne adaptácie, podobne ako je to v mnohých aspektoch našej kultúry, majú ludický základ.
... This comes as no surprise, considering that metaphors serve as a convenient and powerful "framing device" that influences (or even conditions) the manner in which salient phenomena, including social and religious ones, are reasoned with and emotionally reacted to (Hart 2017, p. 3). This is achieved through systematic networks of entailments that foreground and reinforce some aspects of reality and conceal others (Lakoff andJohnson [1980] 2003, p. 157). As such, metaphors prove to be as an effective tool to enhance the level of persuasion or manipulation. ...
... According to the cognitive linguistic approach, metaphors are primarily conceptual 27 in nature and can be instantiated by various modalities, including language, visual imagery, and their combinations. Hence, a given conceptual metaphor may have linguistic, pictorial, and/or multimodal realisations (Lakoff andJohnson [1980] 2003;Forceville 2009). In this section, attention is focused on those metaphorical patterns that have been most frequently employed in the press discourse under analysis, namely: the WAR metaphor, the NATU-RAL DISASTER metaphor, the HISTORY metaphor (Delouis 2014), the DISEASE metaphor (Kövecses 2005, p. 165), the BUILDING metaphor, and the ANIMALISATION metaphor. ...
... According to the cognitive linguistic approach, metaphors are primarily conceptual 27 in nature and can be instantiated by various modalities, including language, visual imagery, and their combinations. Hence, a given conceptual metaphor may have linguistic, pictorial, and/or multimodal realisations (Lakoff andJohnson [1980] 2003;Forceville 2009). In this section, attention is focused on those metaphorical patterns that have been most frequently employed in the press discourse under analysis, namely: the WAR metaphor, the NATU-RAL DISASTER metaphor, the HISTORY metaphor (Delouis 2014), the DISEASE metaphor (Kövecses 2005, p. 165), the BUILDING metaphor, and the ANIMALISATION metaphor. ...
Almost twenty years have passed since the end of John Paul II’s pontificate. The Roman Catholic Church in Poland faces a serious crisis, stimulated not only by secularisation processes, which are characteristic for Western Europe, but also by a whole series of adverse events that unfolded at the end of the year 2020; they resembled a disaster marathon and had a considerable potential to attract media attention. A wide spectrum of Polish opinion-forming weeklies, ranging from left-liberal to ultra-conservative and far-right ones, as well as those associated with the Polish Episcopate, published accounts of the situation within the Catholic Church. In this manner, press discourse shaped the public perception of Catholicism in Poland. An analysis of the periodicals’ content disclosed a strong polarisation of opinions and a variety of interpretations. Differences between the particular weeklies were identified at the level of agenda-setting and prioritisation, framing, persuasion techniques employed, and additional contexts that were evoked, including the legal, moral, historical, philosophical, and religious ones.
... The essence of metaphor is to understand one type of thing through another type of thing, a mapping process from one cognitive domain to another, and it is not only a way of expressing people's language, but also a way of thinking and cognitive means (Lakoff & Johnson, 2003). Nowadays, metaphor is not just a linguistic phenomenon, but is given a new meaning: metaphor, i.e. the projection of a word indicating a thing from one conceptual domain (the origin domain) to another conceptual domain (the target domain) of the intended object, taking advantage of the similarity between the thing and another thing, thus forming what cognitive linguistics calls a cognitive projection or mapping (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). This results in what cognitive linguistics calls a cognitive projection or mapping www.scholink.org/ojs/index.php/jetss ...
... Published by SCHOLINK INC. (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980). Through the mechanism of mapping, some of the knowledge structures and features of the origin domain are projected into the unfamiliar target domain, explaining the cognitive process by which people perceive one knowledge experience to another knowledge experience. ...
Cognitive linguistics studies conceptual metaphor as a cognitive approach, which is essentially a mapping of one conceptual domain to another. Depending on the originating domain, conceptual metaphors can be classified into structural metaphors, orientation metaphors and ontological metaphors. In this paper, we analyze the hidden cognitive bases and tendencies behind these three types of metaphors by showing their use in The Economist, and explore the translation strategies of conceptual metaphors in financial discourse.
... A large part of our thinking is carried out using metaphors [73]. In this study, som teacher participants used objects as metaphors to reflect how personal encouragement ha affected their beliefs about teaching and the teacher's role. ...
... A large part of our thinking is carried out using metaphors [73]. In this study, some teacher participants used objects as metaphors to reflect how personal encouragement had affected their beliefs about teaching and the teacher's role. ...
The previous literature has strongly emphasized the professional aspects of teacher identity in terms of knowledge and pedagogical matters. However, teachers' emotions have also been academically discussed in recent decades. The voices of kindergarten teachers are critical for reflecting on professional identities within the community of kindergarten teachers. Regrettably, in Hong Kong, kindergarten teachers have become an oppressed professional community due to the marketization of kindergartens in this neoliberal city. Therefore, this arts-based participatory study aimed to investigate teachers' identities by discovering kindergarten teachers' emotional characteristics in Hong Kong. Teachers' voice has been collected through photo narratives. Twelve in-service kindergarten teachers participated in this study; all of them worked in local kindergartens in Hong Kong. The teachers were invited individually to take a photo of an object in their daily lives and share their own stories. Altogether 1080 min of interview data were recorded. Through a series of oral narratives by members of this marginalized professional community, this study unlocked the emotions and voices of kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong. Through a photovoice approach, the findings revealed how the teachers' personal aspects were a neglected but important part of their teacher identity.
... Drawing from Lakoff and Johnson's (1980) work on of embodied knowledge, this chapter seeks to demonstrate ways in which transformative learning is fundamentally embodied through a case illustration of the transformative potential of a particular, full-force self-defense program. ...
... Based on linguistic evidence and cognitive science, Johnson and Lakoff (1980) found most conceptual systems are understood through metaphorical representations. Metaphors structure how we understand concepts-sometimes in very basic ways. ...
... A basic metaphor around which both Repertoires 2 and 3 were structured was the mind as container (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980). Container metaphors function to highlight the discrete, bounded nature of an object or area (Charteris-Black, 2006). ...
... The main rhetorical device used to construct release as necessary for the management of mental health was the metaphor of the pressure cooker. The metaphor of strong emotions as hot fluids within a sealed container is well-known (Lakoff and Johnson, 1980); and functions to emphasise the uncontrollable, and therefore dangerous, nature of such emotions (Koevecses, 2000). The pressure cooker metaphor also draws upon Romantic and psycho-analytic ideas concerning the harmful effects of the repression of emotions. ...
The COVID-19 pandemic has heightened existing concerns about mental health and illness in Australia. The news media is an important source of health information, but there has been little research into how advice about mental health is communicated to the public via the news media. In this study, we examined how advice about building and maintaining mental health was discursively constructed in the news media during the COVID-19 pandemic. A discourse analytic approach informed by critical discursive psychology was employed to analyse 436 articles published in daily newspapers in Australia between 1 January and 31 December 2020, which contained references to mental health and the COVID-19 pandemic. Three main interpretative repertoires were identified - negative emotions are a risk to mental health and must be managed; risky emotions should be managed by being controlled (based around a 'border control' metaphor); and risky emotions should be managed by being released (based around a 'pressure cooker' metaphor). This study demonstrates that, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, advice constructed negative emotions as risky and problematic; and normalized the habitual management of emotions by individuals through strategies of control and release. Potential implications of such discourses for goals of improving population mental health are discussed.
... Some metaphorical expressions include three typical source particles: from, off, out. More cognitive linguists analyzed particles within the framework of Cognitive Linguistics, who claimed that the distinct senses of a particular particle were related and formed a radial network with a central sense and other extended meanings [10] [11] [12]. The links between the central member and the peripheral members are defined by the transformation of image schema and metaphorical mappings. ...
... One of the extending devices of word sense is metaphorical mapping. Cognitive linguists hold "that metaphor is a thinking device and we human beings, consciously or unconsciously, use metaphors to think and communicate in daily routines [12]". ...
... This theory has been one of the most influential and widely applied theories in cognitive linguistics. According to Lakoff and Johnson [35], metaphors are not only figures of speech but rather cognitive mechanisms which facilitate our understanding of complex phenomena. They are conceptual in nature, which means that they do not only have an ornamental function but structure the way we think, prescribing certain patterns of behavior [52]. ...
... The described CorMet system can find the mappings constituting many conventional metaphors and, in some cases, recognize sentences instantiating those mappings. CorMet is tested on its ability to find a subset of the Master Metaphor List [35]. ...
The research on dehumanization has primarily relied on qualitative methods and expert annotation. Recent developments in the conceptualization of dehumanization and the dramatic shift in the international security landscape after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine call for the development of new techniques, which can be applied to analysis and detection of this extreme violence-related phenomenon at scale. In this work, we provide an overview of existing dehumanization frameworks and related computational modeling work to identify the line of research which can lead to the development of such techniques.
... And other aspects of communicative competence are communicative skills which are the actual skills used in real communication situations. Yan (2001) pointed out that although the concept of communicative competence is more focused on the social attribute of speech, the interactional and cultural attributes possessed by the cognitive mechanisms of metaphor (Lakoff & Johnson, 1980) above, we can conclude that metaphoric competence (Danesi, 1986) and communicative competence are two theoretic concepts put forward by scholars which are different from but interactive with each other, so they can be seen as a complementary relationship. Therefore, in foreign language teaching activities, teachers should pay more attention to the teaching of these two kinds of competence in a different way, so as to develop students' ability to master their target language in all aspects. ...
Metaphor, as a conceptual and cognitive tool, plays an important role in language learning and teaching. Based on the related research on metaphor, this paper discusses the performance of metaphor in foreign language learning and teaching and the relationship between them. This paper discusses the relationship between metaphor and foreign language learning from three aspects: vocabulary, foreign language communicative competence and culture. Finally, this paper summarizes the implications of metaphor for foreign language teaching: developing metaphoric awareness, strengthening metaphoric competence and using metaphor analysis in teaching evaluation.
... Every sentence could be interpreted as having both literal and figurative meaning. We adopted two metaphorical sentences from Keysar (1989) and wrote 19 metaphorical sentences according to Lakoff and Johnson (1980) and Kojiro (2011). For each metaphorical sentence, we also made a literal and figurative meaning sentence. ...
Metaphor comprehension is a creative process that may lead to the emergence of novel meaning. Several studies have examined the emergence according to the interaction between the topic and vehicle. We focused on the other type of emergence in metaphor comprehension: the interaction between the literal and figurative meanings. This article hypothesized that the whole meaning of some metaphorical sentences can be regarded as a superposition state of their literal and figurative meanings, which cannot be reduced to the simple composition of each meaning. To test this hypothesis, we applied QQ equality to metaphor comprehension and conducted an experiment using 21 metaphorical sentences and 1,000 participants. The model comparisons suggested that about 15% of comprehension of metaphorical sentences can be regarded as resulting from a superposition state of literal and metaphorical understanding. This result sheds new light on the emergent function and cognitive state surrounding metaphor comprehension.
... Our standard conceptual system for expressions that we think, use, and act is metaphorical in our daily life, so the concepts which dominate our thoughts are not only cases of the intellect, but they also dominate our daily life functions, including the religious and cultural matters and the mundane details. Our metaphorical concepts construct what we perceive and respond to the World (Lakoff and Johnson, 2008). Undoubtedly, Marlowe contributed alongside other Western scholars and ordinary people in Europe to demonize the Muslim warriors. ...
As one of the most famous works of Marlowe's plays, Tamburlaine the Great implied the theme of distorting the orient images, particularly Muslims. The orientalist representation of Muslims in the Elizabethan stage was deliberately oriented against Islam. However, more than 50 literary works targeted Islam during the Elizabethan era. Tamburlaine the Great is considered an oriental play that targeted Islam horribly in a Western fashion to depict Islam as being based on cruel, offensive, and barbarian deeds. These horrible images were raised in western literary works after the Crusades as Part of the intellectual invasion; consequently, this research paper attempts to reveal the Greek depiction of Muslims in Tamburlaine the Great based on orientalism theory by Said. The authors reveal how Marlowe used his knowledge of Greek history to demonize the Muslim army and Islamic culture and depict them similarly to Greek myths and how his early skepticism and fallacies contributed to constructing a common ground for hostile ideologies targeting Islam, such as monstrosity and demonization of the other. Marlowe portrayed the Muslim army metaphorically as monsters such as Typhon and Hydra. He chose the negative side of the Greek myths to represent it as Part of Islam. The Islamic culture was also negatively represented as an imitation of Greek history. Moreover, Marlowe reinforced the Greek history, dictions, and beliefs on behalf of the Islamic culture so that Islamic culture was represented with ambiguity and falsifications to be inferior while the Western one was superior.
... The cognitive turn of linguistics launched by Lakoff and Johnson's Metaphors We Live by (1980) offers a new perspective on metaphor and metonymy. Lakoff and Johnson (1980) hold that metaphor and metonymy are conceptual: ...
Metaphor and metonymy, which are treated as two basic cognitive and conceptual mechanisms in cognitive linguistics, are highly interactive to each other. Metaphor from metonymy, as a complicated linguistic device and cognitive mechanism, has long been ignored although it helps create abundant implications and aesthetic value in poetry. This paper explores functions of metaphor from metonymy in meaning construction in classical Chinese poetry in order to offer a new perspective for the research of classical Chinese poetry and provide implications for appreciation, translation and teaching of classical Chinese poetry.
... To analyze the metaphors, I used the theoretical framework of critical metaphor analysis (Charteris-Black 2004), which is primarily based upon insights from the conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff and Johnson 1980) and critical discourse analysis (Fairclough 2001). The conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) holds that our conceptual system is fundamentally metaphorical in nature. ...
A number of scholars have shown the prevalence of multiple metaphors in biological conceptions of the living cell. However, there is little research into unpacking these metaphors to understand their ideological implications for scientific knowledge and science education. In this paper, I perform a critical discourse analysis of the representation of the cell in introductory biology textbooks, with a focus on metaphors. This analysis reveals that the societal hierarchy between mental and manual labor is reflected in the portrayal of the cell. The cell is presented as a centralized and hierarchical system, with the nucleus as the “control center” that provides “instructions” to be executed by the cytoplasmic “machinery.” Following this analysis, I synthesize insights from experiments conducted in diverse fields of biology to show that control and “information” are distributed across the cell rather than localized in the nucleus. Despite these strands of empirical research, textbooks have continued to portray the cell as a centralized system. To understand the allure of centralized metaphors, I attempt to trace their historical and cultural roots and argue that their appeal lies in their congruence with human social and political structures. I further discuss how scientific discourse, otherwise perceived as objective and value-neutral, can serve as a “Trojan horse” for the ideology of centralization and dominance hierarchy. I conclude by highlighting the need to explore newer ways of understanding and describing the cell, a dynamic and self-organizing structure that functions without explicit instructions and coercive control.
... Metaphors, together with metonymy, synecdoche, and irony, are regarded as a master trope, "a figure of speech that defines a relationship between terms" (Sapir, 1977;as cited in Nelson & Hitchon, 1999). According to Lakoff and Johnson (1980) metaphors represent the understanding of one concept in terms of another, therefore abstractions, such as feelings or emotions, are typically structured through physical experiences. By and large, self-understanding represents the "search for appropriate personal metaphors that make sense of our lives... ...
The aim of this study is to analyse metaphors of power present in the educational discourse, with specific emphasis on the Romanian educational landscape. The research involved questionnaires and interviews with students preparing to become teachers, teacher trainees enrolled on the teacher education module at the University of Alba Iulia, Romania, with students of other disciplines and with beginning teachers. The insights into the educational discourse and the way in which different metaphors, used almost unawares by the different discourse participants have provided us with a deeper understanding of how our future, our career path, attitudes and ideals are shaped by the way in which teachers talk to us.
This paper investigates the new lexicon of the COVID pandemic period which has semantic components of spatiality and temporality, which is to say, it belongs to the semantic fields of space and time. The aim of this investigation is to connect the categories of space and time that are lexically manifested in the pandemic period, and demonstrate the lexical development of the categories of space and time, as well as the semantic relations between them. Analytical, descriptive, and synthetic methods were used for this purpose, while the theories of semantic localization and conceptual metaphors were applied when necessary. The thematic dictionaries - the Dictionary of Terms from the COVID Epidemic Period and the Dictionary of COVID: Thematic and Associative acted as sources of the corpus, while the electronic corpora formed for the purpose of creating the aforementioned dictionaries served as a control corpus. This paper contributes to the study of the so-called corona lexicon, which the author has been investigating from the onset of the pandemic, as well as of the impact of the pandemic on the Serbian language. The paper shows the development of the semantic fields of space and time through the multiplicity of nominations belonging to said semantic categories that saw prominent use in the COVID pandemic, which speaks to their exceptional importance for human functioning in society, as well as to their universality.
In Part 1 of this wide-ranging interview Heikki Patomäki discusses his early work and career up to the Global Financial Crisis. He provides comment on his role as a public intellectual and activist, his diverse academic interests and influences, and the many and varied ways he has contributed to critical realism and critical realism has influenced his work. In Part 2 he discusses his later work, the predicament of humanity and the role of futures studies.
En la actualidad, uno de los retos que supone el consumo de series o películas provenientes de plataformas en línea es la traducción de palabras y expresiones de índole coloquial que aparecen en dicho contenido audiovisual, por lo que el tratamiento traductológico de estos elementos requiere de un alto grado de conocimiento de factores socioculturales en ambas lenguas de trabajo para lograr una traducción fiel y precisa en el encargo de traducción audiovisual. Acorde a PACTE (2018) estos conocimientos se encuentran implícitos en las subcompetencia lingüística (SL) y extralingüística (SE), y este conocimiento declarativo va de la mano del procedimental, que se manifiesta en la subcompetencia de transferencia, la traducción per se. El objetivo de esta investigación, de corte empírico-experimental, es analizar la correlación existente entre la SL y la SE, del modelo de Competencia Traductora de PACTE (2011), en el proceso de traducción de coloquialismos en textos audiovisuales en dos grupos de traductores con diferente formación traductológica. Dichos grupos están compuestos por 35 estudiantes de la Licenciatura en Traducción y 15 estudiantes de la Especialidad en Traducción e Interpretación, ambos programas de la Facultad de Idiomas – Campus Mexicali de la UABC. Para la medición de la SL en inglés, se solicitó resolver el examen Pre-TOEFL a ambas agrupaciones. Y en el caso de la SL en español, responder una adaptación del examen SIELE.
Por otro lado, la medición de los conocimientos extralingüísticos fue posible gracias a la resolución del Examen de Habilidades y Conocimientos Básicos (EXHCOBA), cuyo propósito es medir el cúmulo de conocimientos que debe poseer un profesionista en cualquier área de profesionalización en México. Acto seguido, los grupos de estudio procedieron con un ejercicio de subtitulación, en el cual se solicita la traducción de diversos videoclips de temáticas variadas cuyo propósito es la traducción de diversas muestras del habla coloquial a nivel social, cultural y jergal en dirección directa e inversa.
Por último, el Coeficiente de Pearson presenta una correlación significativa entre las SE, SL y de transferencia, con base en la triangulación de datos obtenidos por medio de los resultados de las pruebas mencionadas, confirmando la hipótesis que conduce este estudio “a mayor posesión de conocimientos extralingüísticos se obtienen mejores resultados en los encargos de traducción”. Además, el estudio propone la cognición situada y la adopción del paradigma socio-constructivista como metodologías en la enseñanza de la traducción audiovisual.
In the traditional era, the dominant theory concerning the source of knowledge was Rationalism. According to this theory, reason is regarded as the basis for acquiring knowledge. The criterion of truth is not sensory but intuitive and deductive. Knowledge is gained independently of sense experience. Empirical proof and physical evidence were regarded as unnecessary to ascertain the truth. Knowledge is simply part of our rational nature. In language, a similar hypothesis, known as Innateness, was coined by Hilary Putman and adhered to by Chomsky in the 1950s. In light of this, knowledge exists naturally or by heredity rather than by experience. Alternatively, this is termed nativism, which holds that certain mental abilities are innate or hard-wired into the human brain at birth. Humans are born with some knowledge of a language. The ability to learn a language is built into the human brain. The brain contains linguistic information at birth that is triggered by hearing speech. All natural languages share a set of structural rules that are innate to humans, a theory of syntax referred to as Universal Grammar. Such rules are part of an innate human capacity for learning a language. In opposition to this theory, Cognitive Stylistics believes in Experientialism, which maintains that personal experience is the most valuable source of knowledge.KeywordsExperientialismRationalismConceptual structureMetaphorMetonymyImage schemaMental spacesBlending
In the traditional era, the issue of meaning was tackled in terms of realism, a theory of meaning which stipulates that the meaning of an expression relates to an object in the world, separate from the mind. Adherents of realism assign a greater role to language because it is through language that the meaning of an expression can be decided. Adherents of realism assume that meaning is embedded in linguistic knowledge. Meaning is based on the two crucial elements of truth and reference. The meaning of an expression is defined in terms of if-and-only-if conditions. The meaning of an expression can be described by specifying the entity it refers to. Meaning is thus seen as a function of an expression. Meaning captures everyday life as it happens, independent of any human understanding and empirical fact. In reaction to this theory, Cognitive Stylistics anchors meaning in terms of idealization, whereby meaning is not just an objective reflection of the outside world. Meaning goes further than mere reference. Meaning is defined in terms of an appropriate cognitive model.KeywordsIdealizationCognitive modelsBilliard ballStageCanonical eventReference pointRealityForce dynamic
The work analyses the “spatial turn” in recent Australian literature, which has led to a new transnational orientation in many contemporary Australian narratives. To do so, it frames literary production in terms of spatial cognition and analyses spatiality and cognition as presented by several scholars in several realms. This theoretical introduction is followed by a more practical examination of recent Australian literary works and changes. Their features show that they are moving ahead of the postcolonial label and influence into a less ideologised position. They are in tune with the new deterritorialisation of the world, and the critical cognitive approach can provide insightful realisations bridging the gap between the actual world and its fictional representation. Finally, these examples and appreciations of the transnational are returned to theoretical ground to demonstrate that space and place, with their variants, are not only useful to (cognitive) literary studies, but to any socio-cultural approach. One of the key uses in this spatial turn towards the transnational lies in the apprehension of space-place as a pathway. It also speaks to the mobility of Australian society and its cultural productions.
Poetry is a process. While people typically refer to poems as textual objects, our experience of poetry is inherently embodied and enacted, meaning that we experience poems as events that we contextualize as gestalt representations. We experience metaphors, too, as processes, which arise from experiential gestalts, that extend gestalt structures and lay the conceptual foundation for our experience of the world. This article argues that, like metaphors, poetic gestalts can be mapped onto other experiences to help people navigate their worlds. While this kind of poetic thought has largely been considered by scholars to have existed only since the emergence of the modern human mind sometime in the last 60,000 years, the author suggests that poetic thought likely arose prior to modern cognition, and may have in fact given rise to it. A crucial aspect of the embodied and enactive approach to poetry outlined in the article is that people’s experience of poetry is fundamentally contextual and emotional. Furthermore, because emotions are a primary source of meaning, our emotional responses to poetry make it a useful tool for extending our own conceptual apparatuses, enhancing emotional intelligence, and for generating shared values.
The Arma Christi, the instruments of the Passion of Christ, are a fascinating collection of symbols evident throughout the history of Christian art. This article considers the striking re-emergence of visual depictions of the Arma Christi in the contemporary spiritual practice of Bible Journaling. How have these symbols of the Passion made their way back into the popular Christian imaginary and creative expression of Bible readers today? The creative, devotional practice of Bible Journaling is gaining popularity in many countries, notably the US. Almost exclusively practiced by women, Bible Journaling involves making artistic interventions directly in the material artefact of the printed Bible, with different creative media. In considering the value of this practice for women’s spirituality, this article employs a social semiotic approach, multimodal analysis, to survey their visual representations and to analyse in detail one specific creative intervention, “I AM THE NAIL”, as a reception of a contemporary understanding of salvation through the suffering of Jesus Christ on the cross. Also considered are intertextual readings of the Hebrew Bible (Isaiah 53: 3–5) and the NT. The semiotic influence of popular cultural products such as The Passion of the Christ movie on the visual idiom embraced by the journalers forms part of this analysis.
The interplay of language, cognition, and culture has attracted the utmost attention of linguistic anthropologists since the inception of their discipline. By locating a research juncture for these three themes, this study focuses on both verbal and nonverbal elements employed in an interview with victims of the Fukushima disaster. More specifically, this study explores a scale of ‘relevance’ of these individuals to this disaster at four levels; the linguistic, interactional, schematic, and poetic. I closely examine the third and the fourth levels, the schematic and poetic, by exploring binaries (e.g., ‘depart-return’ and ‘action-thought’) and the poetic configurations emerging online through these binaries during the interview regarding the Great East Japan Earthquake. I also consider corporeal actions by the interviewer that support and mediate listenership whereby individuals coordinate gaze and reactive tokens, effectively involving interlocutors in the poetic construction of multimodal texts during the interviews. Grounded on the multiple levels of complementarity addressed throughout this study, I conclude that subsequent scholarship should examine the holistic orchestration of multi-layered achievements in greater depth, in order to elaborate on ways in which such an orchestration takes shape through a preferred ‘fashion of speaking.’
The author questions Wallerstein’s conviction that psychoanalytic concepts are “scientific metaphors.” If one were to adopt his view, psychoanalysis would fall into line with Lakoff and Johnson′s thesis that the conceptual system of our thoughts and actions is basically metaphorically structured. The author rejects both their views by demonstrating how the system inherent in our conceptual structure works, and disproving Lakoff and Johnson’s thesis as an assertion. In his view, if psychoanalytic concepts are understood as metaphors without defining their target domains, they lose their cognitive function and allow general metaphors to be understood in a whole variety of ways. The author suspects that this metaphorization of psychoanalytic concepts serves to suggest that psychoanalysis has a unified theory which would guarantee the community’s scientific unity, despite the theoretical and therapeutic pluralism that currently prevails.
This study measured hand and head action strengths of eight typical emotional states using an authentic but implicit emotion elicitation task. Participants listened to and then retold five stories in which eight typical emotional states were experienced by the narrators. The number of hand and head gestures that occur naturally while experiencing an emotional state was used as an index to determine the hand and head action strength of that emotional state. Results showed a larger number of head gestures than hand gestures, suggesting that head action strengths of the eight emotional states are stronger than their hand action strengths. These findings are consistent with the data extracted from Lancaster Sensorimotor Norms (LSN), although the two sets of data were gathered in two completely different experimental conditions and in two different languages. Furthermore, our data showed a prototypical directionality effect for the typical emotional states, specifically, happiness, anger and pride were primarily accompanied by upward gestures but downward gestures for sadness and shame; surprise was primarily accompanied by forward gestures but backward gestures for fear and disgust.
This paper explores the connection between kinesthetic empathy, embodied cognition, and abstract thought and language as a form of extended cognition in audiences of inclusive dance. The exploration grounds itself in the analysis of primary data collected from interviews with audience members of an inclusive dance performance that studied their critical engagement with the concept of disability. Drawn from the interviews are specific choreographic moments and emotions evoked in those audience members, and associates the choreography and emotions with possible experiences of kinesthetic empathy and ways of understanding ability and disability in the context of dance. The analysis contributes to a greater understanding of the impact that takes place when watching inclusive dance performances, and other dance performances that resist or challenge dominant social identity categories. The research contributes to the reduction of the intrinsic instrumental divide in creative work, expanding the spaces into which cultural value can be considered.
Similar to product design of function and quality, product emotional appeal becomes a more and more important factor influencing consumer purchases. This paper proposes a two-step method for product emotional elements reasoning based on image metaphor. It aims to solve the depth deficits and boundary constraints of traditional methods. Firstly, based on image metaphor and guided interview, the emotional needs of consumers for products are initially extracted. Secondly, tacit emotional needs are transformed into explicit design elements by using a three-level image metaphor decoding method of symbolic-index-perceptual. The effectiveness of the proposed method is implemented and verified by taking the emotional design of electric vehicle as an example. The results could be a reference for electric vehicle development. The findings suggest that image metaphor could be one of the ideal ways to reduce the deviation between designers’ goals and users’ emotional needs, and the proposed method can provide more innovative support for designers and engineers.
Highlights
• The concept of image metaphor is introduced into the field of product emotion design, and a cross-domain mapping method of emotional needs based on image metaphor is proposed. This method can describe consumers’ emotional needs easily and provide the possibility to mine extra-domain elements.
• A three-level emotional needs decoding method based on image metaphor is proposed, which can convert users’ implicit emotional needs into explicit product design elements.
• The feasibility of the proposed method is verified by a case study of emotional design of electric vehicle.
• The findings suggest that image metaphor can solve some depth deficits and boundary constraints of traditional methods in emotional design, so as to provide more innovative support for product designers and engineers.
El vals criollo es un género musical que se practica en el Perú desde finales del siglo XIX y tiene una función importante en Valses y otras falsas confesiones (1972), de la poeta peruana Blanca Varela, integrante de la denominada generación del cincuenta. Sobre la base del concepto de desmitificación (planteado por Umberto Eco) y del marco teórico de la Retórica General Textual de Stefano Arduini, se analizan algunos poemas representativos de Valses y otras falsas confesiones. Nuestro propósito central es plantear que, para Varela, hay dos tipos de vals: el criollo y el que defiende a los grupos marginales. Varela desmitifica el vals criollo y, a la vez, formula otra clase de vals que toma partido por los grupos periféricos.
Several efforts have been made to study metaphors of different colors in various languages of the world. The studies of metaphors have been conducted from different viewpoints. Metaphor is regarded as a literary method, the best poetic one that is used by numerous writers. Things, plants, animals, phenomena and colors are used as objects to give the message indirect ways. Consequently, I assume that there could be numerous similar metaphors in various languages. My study aims to compare the similarities and differences in the conceptualization of black color metaphors in both languages. Moreover, another goal of this paper is to support foreign researchers and students to comprehend the similarities and differences of English and Mongolian and to give valuable support during their research work and studies. In addition, I am trying to show that there must be some culture/language-specific metaphors. I have found that there are more similarities than differences between the metaphorical expressions in English and Mongolian.
This paper introduces a method of cognitive translation analysis of English-Ukrainian translation of fiction simile. Our analysis of Ukrainian and foreign research on fiction simile translation has revealed that such papers are mostly based on traditional structural-semantic translation analysis. Cognitive translation analysis of fiction simile, which allows identifying cognitive models that underpin simile functioning in speech and affect its translation, has been done in very few papers and therefore it requires developing. This paper aims at establishing correlations between linguacultural specificity or, conversely, similarity of cognitive models of English fiction similes and a choice of a translation strategy to render English similes into Ukrainian. The research sample consists of 1200 English similes, collected from D. Tartt’s novels, The Goldfinch and The Secret History, and M. Atwood’s novel, The Blind Assassin, and their Ukrainian translations, performed, respectively, by V. Shovkun, B. Stasiuk and O. Oksenych. Achieving this goal involves fulfilling the following tasks: 1) identifying and comparing cognitive models of English similes and their Ukrainian translations; 2) revealing translation procedures used to render fiction similes – retention, replacement, reduction, omission or addition; 3) establishing correlations between translation procedures and translation strategies – the foreignization strategy and the domestication strategy. A fiction simile is addressed as an explicit conceptual metaphor structured by a propositional model (A is like B), where A is the target concept / domain representing the entity that is compared, B is source the concept / domain representing the entity to which the target is compared (its language / speech instantiation is called a vehicle). Simile can also explicate the characteristic, which is the basis for comparison (A (target) is like B (source / conductor) by characteristic B). Conducting the translation analysis, we take into account the type of fiction simile. We distinguish between conventional simile, grounding on universal knowledge, and original simile, reflecting individual knowledge and creative imagination of an author. Among conventional similes, we differentiate between allusive similes that are mostly based on subcultural knowledge, and idiomatic similes that can be based on both universal and culturally specific knowledge embodied in idioms. Our cognitive translation analysis led to the following conclusions. Retention of similes realizes different translation strategies depending on the type of the simile and the presence / absence of its linguacultural specificity. Retention of conventional and original similes correlates with neutral translation strategy, as neither the former nor the latter has linguacultural specificity that would indicate the inconsistency of their cognitive models and thus constrain the translator's choice, causing a translation problem. Retention of allusive similes can also correlate with neutral strategy if the allusion is part of universal knowledge although more often retention of allusive simile realizes foreignization strategy as such similes are based on subculturally specific knowledge and thus rest on cognitive models that are unestablished in the minds of most representatives of both cultures. If a translator adds a commentary, foreignization is neutralized by domestication. Replacement, reduction, omission or addition of similes correlate with domestication, which can be compulsory if English and Ukrainian similes are based on different cultural cognitive models, or optional if they are based on similar cognitive models. Moreover, domestication can be complete if the simile cognitive model is replaced or partial if the concepts of the model are specified or explained, but the model remains unchanged. These results call for further research, specifically, conducting a quantitative analysis to establish quantitative correlations between the procedures and strategies of English-Ukrainian translation of fiction similes.
The debate about whether, and in what sense, there is 'spiritual intelligence' remains unresolved. We suggest it will be helpful to make a distinction between strong and weak versions of the claim. The strong version proposes that there is a separate and distinct spiritual intelligence that meets the criteria set out by Howard Gardner in his 'multiple intelligences' framework. This involves evidence from neuroscience, evolutionary psychology, cognitive psychology, developmental psychology, individual differences, experimental tasks, and psychometrics. We review the relevant evidence and conclude that there is no support for the strong proposal. The weak version of the claim assumes that the intelligence that is apparent in spiritual contexts is the same as is found elsewhere, but it is nevertheless deployed in a distinctive way. We suggest that the evidence supports the claim, and we review six key marks of spiritual intelligence: ineffability, embodiment, open-minded attention, pattern-seeking meaning-making, participation, and relationality. Our approach makes use of a cognitive architecture, Interacting Cognitive Subsystems (ICS), which has been proved useful in modelling spiritual practices. It will be helpful in the future to bring this approach into dialogue with other scientific approaches to spiritual intelligence from psychometrics and from experimental research.
This study examines the role of figurativeness and conceptual tension in the effectiveness of visual metaphors. It proposes that the level of figurativeness is rooted in both visual structure and visual context. An experimental study was conducted to test the effectiveness of contextual fusion over simple fusion and contextual replacement respectively in both low and high conceptual tension conditions. The results showed an interaction between metaphor type and conceptual tension. When conceptual tension is low, contextual fusion metaphors are more artful, more humorous and generate more favorable ad attitude than simple fusion and contextual replacement. When conceptual tension is high, simple fusion metaphors are more artful, more humorous and generate more favorable ad attitude than contextual fusions. For low conceptual tension metaphors, there is a simple mediation through artfulness to ad attitude, and a serial mediation from metaphor type to artfulness, humor and to ad attitude. For high conceptual tension fusion metaphors, artfulness and comprehension both mediate the effect of simple fusion (vs. contextual fusion) on ad attitude, and there is a serial mediation from metaphor type to comprehension, humor and to ad attitude. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
Este artigo, resultante de uma revisão bibliográfica, tem como objetivo proporcionar uma alternativa epistemológica que permita ampliar a compreensão do conceito de discurso e a produção de sentido, a partir da metáfora dos sistemas adaptativos complexos (SAC), sustentada em alguns dispositivos propostos por Orlandi (1999, 2020), como, por exemplo, a memória, a historicidade, o interdiscurso e as condições de produção para a produção de sentido. Nesse sentido, é importante entender o discurso e a produção de sentido, analisando-os a partir das propriedades dos SACs tais como heterogeneidade, dinamicidade, não-linearidade, abertura e adaptação. Tal análise permite ao leitor compreender os sentidos existentes em discursos materializados historicamente através das relações de poder. A partir das discussões realizadas neste trabalho, depreendemos que o discurso, como prática de linguagem, possui sentido aberto e incompleto, evidenciando sua abertura e dinamicidade por meio do interdiscurso e da historicidade, para além das relações causais e lineares entre sujeitos e sentidos. A compreensão desses aspectos contribui para identificar e enfrentar as desigualdades nas relações de poder articuladas através dos discursos.
Genetic testing can detect whether an individual carries a harmful variant in the BRCA1 or BRCA2 (Breast Cancer 1 or 2) gene which, if present, drastically increases a woman's risk for breast and ovarian cancer. The experience of BRCA gene testing can be an emotionally laden process yielding significant uncertainty. In this study, we examined women's experiences of BRCA gene testing by exploring how participants communicatively framed and made sense of this process through the use of metaphors. Comparing uncertain and unfamiliar experiences to familiar references through metaphor can help people in challenging health-related situations with sense-making and communicating complex emotions. Furthermore, metaphors can be employed as a therapeutic tool by health care professionals, but their use has not often been studied regarding experiences of genetic testing, including BRCA gene testing. We conducted in-depth interviews with 42 women who have undergone BRCA gene testing (regardless of results), and analyzed data using constant comparative techniques. Eight categories of metaphors that women used surrounding BRCA gene testing were evident in the data, including those related to (a) knowledge is power; (b) gambling; (c) a journey; (d) a rollercoaster; (e) battle, disaster, or wreckage; (f) Pandora's box or a can of worms; (g) doom and gloom; and (h) the release or placing of a weight. Results enhance our understanding of women's experiences related to the uncertainty-inducing process of BRCA gene testing and lead to valuable theoretical implications and practical recommendations, including regarding the potential use of metaphors in patient-provider communication about BRCA genetic risk.
To get access to the resources-rich central Asian states and to nip in the bud the state of Afghanistan, that had proclaimed itself under the Taliban regime to be a state run solely under the ideology and system of Islam- the next threat to The US after the socialism-the US, after the 9/11 incident, took resource to using the linguistic weapon of metaphor before and along the surgical strikes and managed to beset the thoughts of every individual on the globe. It was successfully used as a justification to approve finances from the US Parliament for mongering an uncalled for war, to enlist moral support of its citizens by means of instilling fear in them, to elicit active financial and personnel support of its European allies and to silence the international community from raising its voice against the attack. It is the domain of cognitive linguistic where these conceptual metaphor, or cognitive metaphor, are used to the understanding of one idea, or conceptual domain, in terms of another. This study focused on identifying the conceptual metaphors used in the War on Terror discourse for influencing opinion against the enemy and dehumanizing it. Metaphors are used in the conceptual domain of covering the false ideas of the US and influencing the world to manipulate and pursue their ulterior motives. There actual motive was to get the justified war on terror as legal and the only source of getting away with it. They influenced the world with their justified war on terror policy and gained their motives.
This chapter explores readers’ internal approaches to understanding metafictional features of works of these genres and provides a critical approach to the mythologies of writing in the wake of French philosophical tales by authors including Cyrano de Bergerac and Voltaire, to question traditionally expressed formulations of the mythologies of writing. This includes questioning the metaphors of the book (the book of life, of nature, and of the world) to rethink the idea within humanity’s limits. The chapter explores a recurrent concern regarding these very limits at posthuman ideology’s core which could be summarized as a trend, termed here a “longing to be written”; demonstrates that the symbolism of the metaphors of the book can be closed or open; and explains the relationship of insect animalism to metamorphoses and human mutations.
Background
The uptake of the human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines has been controversial among religious parents due to beliefs that their children are expected to practice sexual purity and so do not need protection from a sex-related infection. Also, if at all they get infected in the future, God can protect them from sickness without a vaccine. Yet, most HPV vaccination messages are secular, lacking spiritual themes. This study compared the effectiveness of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) Vaccine Information Statement (VIS) on HPV with our intervention message- a scripture-embedded HPV vaccination message (using a randomized controlled trial design) on vaccination intention.
Methods
The study was conducted online. Participants were 342 Christian parents (from any denomination) of unvaccinated adolescents aged 11-17 years. The intervention message used the Cognitive Metaphor Theory to map the constructs of the Biblical story of Noah and the Ark to HPV vaccination. We framed Noah as the parents, the flood as HPV, and the ark as the vaccination. Multiple linear regression was used to analyze the changes in vaccination intention before and after the intervention.
Results
Our findings showed that parents who received the scripture-embedded message reported a higher intention to vaccinate their children than those who received the CDC VIS (β= 0.31, 95% confidence interval [95%CI] = 0.11-0.52; p=0.003).
Conclusion
Our findings support the need for equitable messaging regarding HPV vaccination. Faith-based messaging interventions that seek to increase HPV vaccination should be framed to address religious anti-vaccination beliefs.
Qualitative research methods aim to produce some form of narrative for analysis and many alternative forms of narrative analysis exist, mostly informed by social constructionist perspectives. This creates a dilemma for personal constructivist researchers, who now have access to a plethora of methods for understanding and intervening in people’s sensemaking processes but are faced with a distinct absence of a uniquely personal constructivist method for analyzing the emerging narratives. This paper aims to outline a Personal Construct Psychology (PCP) (Kelly, 1955) view of the person as an agentic being and provide a contextualized, step by step guide for analyzing personal narratives from a Kellian perspective that encompasses identification and analysis of constructs, metaphors, roles, implicit beliefs and emotions. Kelly advocated working with the ‘whole’ person by credulously exploring their lived reality through the entirety of their emotions, cognitions and behaviors, which goes beyond an extraction of narrative themes or phenomenological interpretations contained in the realm of the person’s known world. In PCP, language is regarded as symbolic, contextual, performative, and incomplete but, unlike social constructionist approaches, the focus favors the identification and explanation of internal identity processes, social cognitions, and personal meanings, rather than how language is utilized externally as a cultural tool. By articulating an explicit process, we aim to improve the accessibility of PCP as a full research process and overcome the current limitations posed by utilizing qualitative analytical methods drawn from alternative epistemologies.
The analysis of metaphors delivers further findings regarding the strategic use of metaphors to legitimise neoliberal ideology and the deagentalisation of policy makers through dominant metaphorical frames of disease and natural disaster. Crisis was naturalised and eventualised as something that “just happens”, a natural cause of development or an event that comes unexpected and without anyone’s fault—a natural part of the economic cycle. The two most frequently used metaphors—natural disaster and disease—did not assign agency to political leaders to keep them responsible for their policies, and at the same time portrayed the crisis as unpredictable and unexpected.
This chapter introduces theoretical concepts, relevant contexts and previous research that served as a foundation for the analysis. The chapter operationalises the Critical Discourse Analysis approach aiming to shed light on the discursive aspect of power and domination in case of neoliberalism, which is seen as a major social and political process and analysed as a partly linguistic-discursive phenomenon. The main concepts such as discourse, text, context, power and ideology are defined. Moreover, the chapter gives a brief overview of crises in the EU history, including the origins of the financial crisis of 2008 and introduces Giorgio Agamben’s notion of a state of exception as a dominant paradigm of government in contemporary politics, creating ground for deagentalisation of political decisions. Finally, the concepts of mediatisation and Europeanisation, and the dominant media models in the three EU member states concerned—Germany, Poland and the United Kingdom—are discussed to demonstrate their impact on the reporting on the Euro crisis.
COVID-19 pandemic struck the world on a large scale and no nation could skip out from. Conforming to this, the authorities worldwide made their concerns public, measuring out those undertaking which were directed toward tackling the consequences of the pandemic. On that account, they delivered speeches and voiced their thoughts on the events in the wake of pandemic judiciously. The article goes through conceptual metaphors by analyzing metaphoric concepts used to describe the events and consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic by American and Chinese presidents. The article briefly introduces the theoretical basis of the study from the cognitive approach. Then, the analysis of the chosen material provides the means to evaluate the areas of knowledge that served as a source domain for metaphorically expressing the pandemic. The data accessed prove the pervasiveness of metaphors in two superpower countries’ presidential discourse and their importance for understanding tough situations, effectively influencing the audience. The findings revealed that the most common used source domains in both political discourses are Unity Metaphors, Spatial Metaphors, Object Metaphors and War Metaphors. Nonetheless, American political discourse is much more persuasively and metaphorically expressed than Chinese political discourse.
In this paper I explore the multifaceted relationship between violence, speech and power in the most graphic of Shakespeare’s plays, Titus Andronicus. I take my cue from Hannah Arendt’s reflections on violence as opposed to power, and as something “incapable of speech,” but I read the play through the lens of Giorgio Agamben’s notion of sovereignty as the suspension of the law. I consider the dichotomy speech/muteness as an example not only of the dichotomy power/violence (Arendt) but also of the opposition between bios and zoe, that is the difference between a life worth to be included in the political realm and a life understood as the mere condition of being alive, a condition common to human beings and beasts (according to classical philosophy). In Titus Andronicus, these distinctions are blurred, and zoe becomes fully exposed to the sovereign decision. While the image of a mutilated and mute body cannot match Arendt’s idea of politics as the combination of speech and action bereft of violence, Agamben has developed the notion of a politics that renders life disposable, mute, bare, and can still be called politics or power, and precisely biopower. From this perspective, I argue, Lavinia and the other characters of Titus Andronicus are the embodiment of the concept of “bare life” as developed by Agamben, and Shakespeare’s Rome is a State of exception and of exceptional violence.
The aim of this paper is two-fold: a) look into the socio-cultural background of the most common twenty five sub-technical multiword naval units in a pilot corpus of 250,000 words, some of them metaphorical & metonymic expressions (Kovecses, 2002; Wray 2002); b) study ten of these metaphorical units in their contexts of production (EU maritime discourse, textbooks and http://www.sailingscuttlebutt.com/news/04/ras/. Multiword units have been chosen with WORDSMITH TOOLS, regarding frequency of use a key factor. The conclusions point out that these multiword units are highly productive in oral and written maritime discourse and worthy of investigation. They reveal that both denotative (in terminological collocations) and evaluative meanings may be embedded in lexical-semantic structures. The lexicographical description of these collocations in learner’s dictionaries available in Maritime English ends with the recognition that development of collocations seems necessary if we are to witness some further progress for ESL learners in productive mode.Â
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any references for this publication.