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Comparison of Three Eye Tracking Devices in Psychology of Programming Research
... Eye-trackers. The early work on using eye-tracking in computer programming was done on the basis that switching behavior during program comprehension can be effectively monitored using an eye-tracker [7], and the cognitive processes of the subjects can be studied with the support of their focused attention [47]. Eye-trackers used in programming research have some limitations. ...
... ( [54], p. 42) Another issue that eye-trackers had in early years of research is their intrusiveness when mounted on the participants' head, and the effect it might have on creating a comfortable work environment for the subject. An important study evaluating the performance of three types of eye-tracking devices was conducted by [47], using Tobii 1750, ASL 504, and the head-mounted ASL 501 tracker. Given the time needed to set up each device, [47] found that the head-mounted ASL 501 required twice as much time as the stationary devices. ...
... An important study evaluating the performance of three types of eye-tracking devices was conducted by [47], using Tobii 1750, ASL 504, and the head-mounted ASL 501 tracker. Given the time needed to set up each device, [47] found that the head-mounted ASL 501 required twice as much time as the stationary devices. Although less than 10% of invalid data was reported by all the devices, in terms of accuracy, Tobii was the most accurate, followed by the ASL 504 and ASL 501, respectively. ...
Traditional quantitative research methods of data collection in programming, such as questionnaires and interviews, are the most common approaches for researchers in this field. However, in recent years, eye-tracking has been on the rise as a new method of collecting evidence of visual attention and the cognitive process of programmers. Eye-tracking has been used by researchers in the field of programming to analyze and understand a variety of tasks such as comprehension and debugging. In this article, we will focus on reporting how experiments that used eye-trackers in programming research are conducted, and the information that can be collected from these experiments. In this mapping study, we identify and report on 63 studies, published between 1990 and June 2017, collected and gathered via manual search on digital libraries and databases related to computer science and computer engineering. Among the five main areas of research interest are program comprehension and debugging, which received an increased interest in recent years, non-code comprehension, collaborative programming, and requirements traceability research, which had the fewest number of publications due to possible limitations of the eye-tracking technology in this type of experiments. We find that most of the participants in these studies were students and faculty members from institutions of higher learning, and while they performed programming tasks on a range of programming languages and programming representations, we find Java language and Unified Modeling Language (UML) representation to be the most used materials. We also report on a range of eye-trackers and attention tracking tools that have been utilized, and find Tobii eye-trackers to be the most used devices by researchers.
... Drift is also a limitation of eye-tracking technology. Drift is the gradual decrease in time of the accuracy of the eye-tracking data, when compared to the true coordinates of the eye-movements, which indicates the deterioration of calibration over time [30]. Changes in the physiology of the eye in time, e.g., changes in wetness, cause drift. ...
... Changes in the physiology of the eye in time, e.g., changes in wetness, cause drift. To reduce the impact of drift, the light conditions of the experiment environment must remain stable and there must be equal light intensity between calibration and experiment stimuli [30]. Also, the tasks should have reasonable time durations to avoid fatigue. ...
... Accuracy is measured in degrees of visual angle and, usually, ranges from 0.5°to 1°. If a participant is seated 50 cm away from a stimulus and the eye-tracker has 1°o f accuracy, the eye-movement positions could be measured anywhere within a radius of 1 cm of the actual positions [30]. The reported accuracy values for the eye-trackers used in the selected paper are 0.5°or less. ...
... In our study we will use a wearable eye-tracking system that could be easily implemented into an operational environment. This particular wearable system may be beneficial compared to other on and off body eye-trackers because it requires very little if any calibration adjustments, which also lends itself to easily be instrumented by the user himself instead of with assistance (Nevalainen and Sajaniemi, 2004). The tracker also has no difficulty tracking different colors of pupils that is commonly found in other systems (Smith et al., 2000). ...
... The tracker also has no difficulty tracking different colors of pupils that is commonly found in other systems (Smith et al., 2000). Also, compared to other passive trackers, this tracking system allows users to get up and move around freely (Nevalainen and Sajaniemi, 2004), which may be another necessary feature for use in an operational environment. The wearable eyetracker is also not physiologically invasive like some coil systems that must be placed in the eye and can only be worn for very short periods of time (Houben et al., 2006;Nevalainen and Sajaniemi, 2004). ...
... Also, compared to other passive trackers, this tracking system allows users to get up and move around freely (Nevalainen and Sajaniemi, 2004), which may be another necessary feature for use in an operational environment. The wearable eyetracker is also not physiologically invasive like some coil systems that must be placed in the eye and can only be worn for very short periods of time (Houben et al., 2006;Nevalainen and Sajaniemi, 2004). Thus, the tracker used in this study is not as invasive as many other eyetracking systems and conceivably can be worn comfortably for substantially longer periods of time. ...
Research has shown that sustained attention or vigilance declines over time on task. Sustained attention is necessary in many environments such as air traffic controllers, cyber operators, and imagery analysts. A lapse of attention in any one of these environments can have harmful consequences. The purpose of this study was to determine if eye blink metrics from an eye-tracker are related to changes in vigilance performance and cerebral blood flow velocities. Nineteen participants performed a vigilance task while wearing an eye-tracker on four separate days. Blink frequency and duration changed significantly over time during the task. Both blink frequency and duration increased as performance declined and right cerebral blood flow velocity declined. These results suggest that eye blink information may be an indicator of arousal levels. Using an eye-tracker to detect changes in eye blinks in an operational environment would allow preventative measures to be implemented, perhaps by providing perceptual warning signals or augmenting human cognition through non-invasive brain stimulation techniques.
... Although the study found some important differences, a larger sample size may have allowed more precise characterisation of differences between sub-groups. While a larger number of participants would give greater confidence in the findings, we note that studies of small numbers of participants (ranging from 10 to 30 participants) are commonly published in the health services research and survey research literature [34,[48][49][50][51][52]. The nature of eye tracking data also facilitates the collection of a large number of data points within a relatively small sample-i.e. ...
... The Tobii Pro Fusion has a level of tolerance for natural movement of participants during data collection. However, we note that the environment for data collection can have an impact on the quality of the data collected [31,52,56]. Notably, environment in a room can impact the extent to which a participant's eye is able to be tracked at all, or the extent to which it can be tracked over time as data collection progresses. ...
Purpose
Increasingly there are calls to routinely assess the health-related quality of life (HRQoL) of older people receiving aged care services, however the high prevalence of dementia and cognitive impairment remains a challenge to implementation. Eye-tracking technology facilitates detailed assessment of engagement and comprehension of visual stimuli, and may be useful in flagging individuals and populations who cannot reliably self-complete HRQoL instruments. The aim of this study was to apply eye-tracking technology to provide insights into self-reporting of HRQoL among older people in residential care with and without cognitive impairment.
Methods
Residents (n = 41), recruited based on one of three cognition subgroups (no, mild, or moderate cognitive impairment), completed the EQ-5D-5L on a computer with eye tracking technology embedded. Number and length of fixations (i.e., eye gaze in seconds) for key components of the EQ-5D-5L descriptive system were calculated.
Results
For all dimensions, participants with no cognitive impairment fixated for longer on the Area of Interest (AOI) for the response option they finally chose, relative to those with mild or moderate cognitive impairment. Participants with cognitive impairment followed similar fixation patterns to those without. There was some evidence that participants with cognitive impairment took longer to complete and spent relatively less time attending to the relevant AOIs, but these differences did not reach statistical significance generally.
Conclusions
This exploratory study applying eye tracking technology provides novel insights and evidence of the feasibility of self-reported HRQoL assessments in older people in aged care settings where cognitive impairment and dementia are highly prevalent.
... As we outline below, irrespective of measurement method: anything that interferes with obtaining or process- Komínková et al. (2008) Search Coil, Chronos Vision Accuracy, main sequence, torsion Houben et al. (2006) Tobii 1750, ASL, 501, ASL 504 Accuracy, data loss Nevalainen and Sajaniemi (2004) Tobii ET-17, LC EyeGaze Accuracy, data loss, drift Cheng and Vertegaal (2004) EyeLink I, Scleral Search Coil Saccade dynamics Frens and van der Geest (2002) DPI Gen 5, Scleral Search Coil Saccade dynamics Deubel and Bridgeman (1995) ing of a feature used in estimating gaze direction (P, CR, P1, P4, limbus, magnetic induction or retinal features) will affect the data quality of the signal in the data reported by the eye tracker. ...
... Holmqvist (2015) report that the video-based eye trackers SMI HiSpeed 1250 and the EyeLink 1000 had the lowest data loss with around 3% of the raw data samples lost on average, while the Tobii T60 XL and the TX300 lost 15% or more. Nevalainen and Sajaniemi (2004) report 3.0-8.7% data loss for the Tobii 1750 and two ASL trackers, while Funke et al. (2016) found 22% in EyeTribe and 24% data loss in Tobii EyeX. ...
In this paper, we present a review of how the various aspects of any study using an eye tracker (such as the instrument, methodology, environment, participant, etc.) affect the quality of the recorded eye-tracking data and the obtained eye-movement and gaze measures. We take this review to represent the empirical foundation for reporting guidelines of any study involving an eye tracker. We compare this empirical foundation to five existing reporting guidelines and to a database of 207 published eye-tracking studies. We find that reporting guidelines vary substantially and do not match with actual reporting practices. We end by deriving a minimal, flexible reporting guideline based on empirical research (Section 6).<br/
... Drift Drift is the gradual decrease over time of the accuracy of the eye-tracking data, when compared to the true locations of the eye gaze. Drift is caused by the deterioration of calibration over time due to the physiology of the eye, e.g., changes in wetness, and other factors (Sajaniemi 2004) . ...
... The room should be calm and with a stable lighting that does not produce glare on the screens or interfere with the infrared light of the eye tracker. Environmental changes (e.g., light conditions and humidity) may result in drift and inaccurate data (Pernice and Nielsen 2009;Sajaniemi 2004). ...
For several years, the software engineering research community used eye trackers to study program comprehension, bug localization, pair programming, and other software engineering tasks. Eye trackers provide researchers with insights on software engineers’ cognitive processes, data that can augment those acquired through other means, such as on-line surveys and questionnaires. While there are many ways to take advantage of eye trackers, advancing their use requires defining standards for experimental design, execution, and reporting. We begin by presenting the foundations of eye tracking to provide context and perspective. Based on previous surveys of eye tracking for programming and software engineering tasks and our collective, extensive experience with eye trackers, we discuss when and why researchers should use eye trackers as well as how they should use them. We compile a list of typical use cases—real and anticipated—of eye trackers, as well as metrics, visualizations, and statistical analyses to analyze and report eye-tracking data. We also discuss the pragmatics of eye tracking studies. Finally, we offer lessons learned about using eye trackers to study software engineering tasks. This paper is intended to be a one-stop resource for researchers interested in designing, executing, and reporting eye tracking studies of software engineering tasks.
... Nowadays, the market offers three main types of the eye tracking devices: tower-mounted devices, remote devices, and head-worn eye-trackers (Nevalainen & Sajaniemi, 2004). Every type has its advantages and weaknesses. ...
Recently, there has been a huge interest in using eye tracking in humanities and it became crucial to address the issue of eye tracking methodology in research with participants with special needs or from clinical populations. We would like to specify some challenges researchers are facing while conducting research with the child population with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), specifically with connection to interpretation and replicability of research. In the article, we provide suggestions for adjusting the data collection situation not only to simplify the data collecting situation for researchers as well as for participants, but also to gain the best possible data quality while working with children with special needs. We base our recommendations on the present state of knowledge in the field as well as our own experience with data collection with autistic population.
... At the beginning of the 2000s, Sajaniemi's research group focused on cognitive science aspects of computing education, especially on the roles of variables and program animation in computing education [17,24,110,121,122]. The group also worked on eye tracking research [104], which later on extended beyond computing education to the medical field, mainly by research and development work of Associate Professor Roman Bednarik. ...
Despite being a small country, Finland has been highly visible in international Computing Education Research (CER). This is demonstrated by the presence of several important research groups, dozens of graduated PhD students in CER during the last 20 years, and the success of the Koli Calling International Conference of CER, which has been running for 20 years now. In this chapter, we present the development of the CER field in Finland, the profiles of various research groups, and the roles of several national level networking activities which have supported the field. We discuss factors behind the strong presence and success of CER in Finnish universities.
... Lost data was mainly from gaze in places that were not relevant for the experiment; for any other reason data were few and very carefully removed in order not to affect the analysis and provide more valid remained data. In their study, Nevalainen and Sajaniemi [80] reported invalid data of less than 10% of all the collected eye-tracking data from three different tracking devices, while Pernilla and Zhai [81] removed data from three out of fifteen participants in their eye-tracking study. Second, the duration of the activity was not strictly equal every day: children were recruited from the local coding clubs (Kodeklubben: https://trondheim.kodeklubben.no/) ...
Computational thinking and coding for children are attracting increasing attention. There are several efforts around the globe to implement coding frameworks for children, and there is a need to develop an empirical knowledge base of methods and tools. One major problem for integrating study results into a common body of knowledge is the relatively limited measurements applied, and the relation of the widely used self-reporting methods with more objective measurements, such as biophysical ones. In this study, eye-tracking activity was used to measure children's learning and activity indicators. The goal of the study is to utilize eye-tracking to understand children's activity while they learn how to code and to investigate any potential association between children's attitudes and their gaze. In this contribution, we designed an experiment with 44 children (between 8 and 17 years old) who participated in a full-day construction-based coding activity. We recorded their gaze while they were working and captured their attitudes in relation to their learning, excitement and intention. The results showed a significant relation between children's attitudes (what they think about coding) and their gaze patterns (how they behaved during coding). Eye-tracking data provide initial insights into the behaviour of children, for example if children have difficulty in extracting information or fail to accomplish an expected task. Therefore, further studies need to be conducted to shed additional light on children's experience and learning duringcoding.
... %; invalid and uncertain frames during reproduction: M = 26.58 %, SD = 20.28 %; see Nevalainen & Sajaniemi, 2004, for reference values). Interpolated gaze data were then smoothed by applying a 5-point running average, after which the number of saccadic eye movements in each trial was calculated by the Microsaccade Toolbox for R (Engbert, Sinn, Mergenthaler, & Trukenbrod 2015). ...
Stimulus properties are known to affect duration judgments. In this study, we tested the effect of motion coherence levels in randomly moving dots on the perceived duration of these stimuli. In Experiments 1 and 2 we tested participants on a temporal reproduction task, using stimuli with varying degrees of motion coherence as the to-be-timed stimuli. Our results in both experiments showed that increasing motion coherence from the encoded (i.e. the first) to the reproduced (i.e. the second) stimulus leads to longer reproduction times. These effects were primarily additive in nature, and their magnitude increased with the difference between the coherence levels in the encoding versus reproduction (decoding) phases. This effect was not mirrored when there was a decrease in motion coherence. Experiment 3 tested if the differential number of exploratory saccadic eye-movements during encoding and reproduction predicted these effects. The behavioral findings of Experiment 1 and 2 were replicated in the third experiment, and the change in the number of eye movements from encoding to reproduction predicted the reproduction time when there was an increase in motion coherence. These results are explained by the effect of attention on the latency to initiate temporal integration that is only manifested when there is an increase in the level of motion coherence.
... That is, participants must walk on a treadmill and be at a set distance from visual targets [9]. However, protocols which limit mobility impact validity of the characteristics measured [28], e.g., restricted head movements during static protocols may facilitate abnormal visual processing, seen through alterations in saccade responses [29]. Some bias may be due to eye curvature induced error [30]. ...
Mobile eye-tracking is important for understanding the role of vision during real-world tasks in older adults (OA) and people with Parkinson's disease (PD). However, accuracy and reliability of such devices have not been established in these populations. We used a novel protocol to quantify accuracy and re-test reliability of a mobile eye tracker in OA and PD.
A mobile eye-tracker (Dikablis, 50Hz) measured the saccade amplitudes of 20 OA and 14 PD on two occasions. Participants made saccades between targets placed 5°, 10° and 15° apart. Impact of visual correction (glasses) on saccadic amplitude measurement was also investigated in 10 OA.
Saccade amplitude accuracy (median bias) was -1.21° but a wide range of bias (-7.73° to 5.81°) was seen in OA and PD, with large vertical saccades (15°) being least accurate. Reliability assessment showed a median difference between sessions of <1° for both groups, with poor to good relative agreement (Spearman rho: 0.14 to 0.85). Greater accuracy and reliability was observed in people without visual correction. Saccade amplitude can be measured with variable accuracy and reliability using a mobile eye-tracker in OA and PD. Human, technological and study specific protocol factors may introduce error and are discussed along with methodological recommendations.
... L'utilisation du système de poursuite de mouvements oculaires peut être divisée en quatre étapes : l'installation du sujet, l'ajustement, la calibration, et l'enregistrement des données oculométriques (Nevalainen & Sajaniemi, 2004). ...
... From the literature review we have identified prior work that compares three different eye tracking devices in psychology of programming experiment. Nevalainen and Sajaniemi [17] studied the ease of use and accuracy of the three devices by having observers examine short computer programs using a program animator. The results showed that there were significant differences in accuracy and ease of use between the devices. ...
... Although most companies report in their manuals accuracy gaze vectors of 0.5°, some work that has been done comparing different eyetracker systems differs from these reports. Results show that, on average, accuracy estimations during "real laboratory" circumstances range from 1.3° to 1.8°, depending on the system (Nevalainen & Sajaniemi, 2004). Differences between reported and actual accuracy happen for a couple of reasons. ...
ExpertEyes is a low-cost, open-source package of hardware and software that is designed to provide portable high-definition eyetracking. The project involves several technological innovations, including portability, high-definition video recording, and multiplatform software support. It was designed for challenging recording environments, and all processing is done offline to allow for optimization of parameter estimation. The pupil and corneal reflection are estimated using a novel forward eye model that simultaneously fits both the pupil and the corneal reflection with full ellipses, addressing a common situation in which the corneal reflection sits at the edge of the pupil and therefore breaks the contour of the ellipse. The accuracy and precision of the system are comparable to or better than what is available in commercial eyetracking systems, with a typical accuracy of less than 0.4° and best accuracy below 0.3°, and with a typical precision (SD method) around 0.3° and best precision below 0.2°. Part of the success of the system comes from a high-resolution eye image. The high image quality results from uncasing common digital camcorders and recording directly to SD cards, which avoids the limitations of the analog NTSC format. The software is freely downloadable, and complete hardware plans are available, along with sources for custom parts.
... From the literature review we have identified prior work that compares three different eye tracking devices in psychology of programming experiment. Nevalainen and Sajaniemi [11] studied the ease of use and accuracy of the three devices by having observers examine short computer programs using a program animator. The results showed that there were significant differences in accuracy and ease of use between the devices. ...
Eye tracking as a quantitative method for collecting eye movement data,
requires the accurate knowledge of the eye position, where eye movements
can provide indirect evidence about what the subject sees. In this study
two eye tracking devices have been compared, a Head-mounted Eye Tracking
Device (HED) and a Remote Eye Tracking Device (RED). The precision of
both devices has been evaluated, in terms of gaze position accuracy and
stability of the calibration. For the HED it has been investigated how
to register data to real-world coordinates. This is needed since
coordinates collected by the HED eye tracker are relative to the
position of the subject's head and not relative to the actual stimuli as
it is the case for the RED device. Result Results show that the
precision gets worse with time for both eye tracking devices. The
precision of RED is better than the HED and the difference between them
is around 10 - 16 pixels (5.584 mm). The distribution of gaze positions
for HED and RED devices was expressed by a percentage representation of
the point of regard in areas defined by the viewing angle. For both eye
tracking devices the gaze position accuracy has been 95-99% at
1.5-2° viewing angle. The stability of the calibration was
investigated at the end of the experiment and the obtained result was
not statistically significant. But the distribution of the gaze position
is larger at the end of the experiment than at the beginning.
... Various studies have addressed accuracy and precision issues in eye tracking recordings [Holmqvist et al. 2011;Hua et al. 2006;Nevalainen and Sajaniemi 2004;Young 1975]. It has, for example, been shown that precision, or "variable errors" as [Hornof and Halverson 2002] calls them, can be reduced by increasing the spatial resolution of the eye camera, leading to a more precise detection of pupil position, or by restricting participants' movements, e.g., by using a head rest. ...
In a typical head-mounted eye tracking system, any small slippage of the eye tracker headband on the participant's head leads to a systematic error in the recorded gaze positions. While various approaches exist that reduce these errors at recording time, only few methods reduce the errors of a given tracking system after recording. In this paper we introduce a novel correction algorithm that can significantly reduce the drift in recorded gaze data for eye tracking experiments that use static stimuli. The algorithm is entropy-based and needs no prior knowledge about the stimuli shown or the tasks participants accomplish during the experiment.
... To study the collaborative aspects of PP at the moment, two sepa- rate eye-tracking cameras are needed to capture the eye movements of both programmers. It has been argued that a head-mounted cam- era -rather than a remote system -is easier to set up for the studies of programming [Nevalainen and Sajaniemi 2004]; however, it can be used only with a single person. To track the visual attention of the other programmer, there currently is a choice of a remote or a head mounted camera. ...
The previous research of visual attention has mostly considered the situations in which a single person performs a task. The current eye-tracking devices and software support this research situation. Applications of eye-tracking in the research of collaborative tasks have been rare to date. We present a methodological framework of a research in which visual attention of pair programmers with a sin- gle display has been studied. We discuss the challenges of such re- search when conducted in real-world settings and the requirements on the eye-tracking setups. The hardware setups and software solu- tions to the problems of acquisition and synchronization of streams of eye-tracking data are presented. We outline the methodological questions of future visual attention research of collaborative tasks. CR Categories: D.1.3 (Programming Techniques): Concurrent Programming—Distributed programming;
Computer science education has been researched in Israel for a few decades, both at the K-12 and the undergraduate levels. The rich variety of the investigated topics addressed from the very beginning issues beyond the introductory course and programming, including the nature of the discipline and its fundamental ideas and concepts, which are stable, unlike the more technological aspects. Understanding the nature of the discipline and mapping its fundamental ideas and concepts constitute the basis on which curricula stand. Therefore, we chose to organize this chapter around ideas and concepts of CS. In line with this perspective, we will discuss research of all age levels: K-12, undergraduate, and even the graduate level, as well as research relating to teachers. We will present design-based research, which accompanied the design of new curricula, as well as studies aiming at identifying phenomena, or investigating educational hypotheses. We will also point out current challenges and possible future directions.
Eye-tracking technology allows to capture real-time visual behavior information and to provide insights about cognitive processes and autonomic function, by measuring gaze position and pupillary response to delivered stimuli. Over the recent years, the development of easy-to-use devices led to a large increase in the use of eye-tracking in a broad spectrum of applications, e.g. clinical diagnostics and psychological research. Given the lack of extensive material to characterize the performance of different eye-trackers, especially latest generation devices, the present study aimed at comparing a screen-mounted eye-tracker (remote) and a pair of wearable eye-tracking glasses (mobile). Seventeen healthy subjects were asked to look at a moving target on a screen for 90 s, while point of regard (POR) and pupil diameter (PD) were recorded by the two devices with a sampling rate of 30 Hz. First, data were preprocessed to remove artifacts, then correlation coefficients (for both signals) and magnitude-squared coherence (for PD) were calculated to assess signals agreement in time and frequency domain. POR measurements from remote and mobile devices resulted highly comparable (ρ > 0.75). PD showed lower correlation and major dispersion (ρ > 0.50), besides a higher number of invalid samples from the mobile device with respect to the remote one. Results provided evidence that the two instruments do share the same content at the level of information generally used to characterize subjects behavioral and physiological reactions. Future analysis of additional features and devices with higher sampling frequencies will be planned to further support their clinical use.
The Department of Basic Education in South Africa has identified factorisation as a problem area in Mathematics teaching. Learners in earlier grades are exposed to mathematical tasks, involving concepts, such as factors of integers, fractions, equivalent fractions and prime numbers, that are easier to solve when the divisibility rules are applied. An experiment was designed to investigate the effect of learners’ knowledge and their application of the divisibility rules on their gaze behaviour. Seventy-eight learners in Grades 4–7 participated in an eye-tracking study where questions on divisibility were presented on a computer screen. Learners were expected to indicate whether a five-digit dividend was divisible by a divisor and provide reasons for their answers. Gaze behaviour (expressed as the percentage of total fixation time that was spent on each digit), along with learners’ verbal responses were used to determine whether a given divisibility rule was applied correctly. The findings show that learners apply different strategies to inspect the dividend when they know the divisibility rules and apply them correctly as opposed to when they do not know the rules and/or apply them incorrectly. It is argued that, since knowledge of the divisibility rules is a reliable predictor for gaze behaviour, gaze behaviour can in turn be used to assist teachers to identify a lack of knowledge and/or the incorrect application of the divisibility rules. Teachers can then cautiously intervene with revision to assist learners whose gaze behaviour indicates that they need assistance.
Eye movement can systematically facilitate the detection of brain activities for the discovery of neurologic diseases. However, the traditional techniques such as electrooculography requires expensive equipments, technical handling skills and fairly invasive. This research work aims to test the validity of the low-cost smooth pursuit experimental setup to track eye movement when presented with different stimuli. The setup is constructed based on open system concept.
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