No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Examining Stage of Change Differences in NCAA Student-Athletes’ Readiness for Psychological Skills Training
Abstract
To enhance the specificity of psychological skills training (PST) interventions, the purpose of the current study was to examine stage of change and gender differences in the combination of transtheoretical model (TTM) constructs (i.e., decisional balance pros and cons, self-efficacy, cognitive and behavioral processes of change) among collegiate student-athletes. Participants (N = 602) completed all TTM measures, and a factorial multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was conducted to examine the effects of stage of change and gender on the combination of TTM constructs. No significant interaction effect was identified, yet significant main effects of stage of change and gender were identified. Post hoc tests revealed unique linear combinations of decisional balance, self-efficacy, and processes of change for each stage of change contrast. Taken together, study findings may be used to enhance the specificity of behavior change interventions when delivering PST programs to both male and female collegiate student-athletes.
... For instance, after conducting initial assessments, sport psychology professionals might design a 291 foundational, structured "building" plan to teach basic coping strategies (e.g., activation and 292 relaxation techniques to regulate arousal under pressure) to athletes in the Low Psychological 293 Skills profile (Chu & Petrie, 2021). An emphasis on enhancing readiness and self-efficacy may 294 be particularly important for helping these athletes, especially female, overcome barriers to 295 psychological skills training (Gnacinski et al., 2017). On the other hand, athletes in the Moderate 296 ...
... An initial study by Gross and Hen [45] found that female athletes feel more in control and selfsuffcient when it comes to coping and as well report less avoidant coping style than male athletes. In contrast, Gnacinski et al. [46] found that females reported lower self-effcacy in terms of their ability to apply their established coping skills when faced with mentally stressful barriers or obstacles. Female athletes also use more emotion-focus coping than males, and females are more likely to use coping driven by emotion while males use problemoriented coping [18,19]. ...
Background: The study investigated the profile of sport competition anxiety trait and psychological coping skills (PCS) among secondary school athletes in Enugu State, South East Nigeria. Material/Methods: A total number of 420 secondary school athletes participated in a cross-sectional study. The profile of sport competition anxiety trait and psychological coping skills of the participants were measured using a 46-item questionnaire consisting of three socio-demographic factors as part I, a 15-item Sport Competition Anxiety Test (SCAT) as part II and a 28-item Athletic Coping Skills Inventory (ACSI) as part III. Mean, standard deviation and linear regressions were used for analyses. Results: The findings revealed that secondary school athletes had an average level of anxiety (mean±SD=20.79±3.776), and greater strength on psychological coping skills (mean±SD=49.92±19.20) while participating in sport competitions. Coachability, Goal setting and mental preparation, and Freedom from worry had significant association (p<.05) with athletes’ Sport Competition Anxiety. Conclusions: This research proves that increase in psychological coping skills leads to increase in athletes’ competition anxiety while participating in sport. However, sport psychologists, Physical Education teachers, games masters/mistresses and coaches in secondary schools need to acquire psychological skills through specialized seminar or expertise training so as to enable athletes to cope with sport anxiety.
... Despite the demonstrated effectiveness of PST interventions in the athletes' population, resistance to the use of PST has been reported often, and it can be related to the presence of barrier such as gender (Gnacinski et al., 2017). This study confirms that female athletes are more receptive and open to sport psychology consultation than male athletes. ...
Background: The Marathon runners must have the proper technical preparation to reach excellence and to achieve adequate psychological preparation for the race. Against this background, the current study aims to describe the implementation results of a cognitive-behavioral intervention based on psychological skills training for marathon runners.
Methods: Fourteen amateur male marathoners with an average age of 30 (SD = 5.75) were trained with various emotional and cognitive control techniques to enhance their performance in competition. Various psychological variables, related to the subjects level of perceived stress, and to qualitative characteristics of their thoughts were measured before and after the target marathon race. Results were analyzed through non-parametric tests for two related samples. The Cohen's d effect size for single-group pretest-posttest repeated measures were also performed.
Results: Statistical analysis reveals that, controlling for age and running experience, the intervention decreased significantly the level of perceived stress and the occurrence of negative thoughts before the race, during, and after the race.
Conclusion: Training in cognitive control and relaxation techniques, as part of the psychological skills training could determine the quality of performance of marathon runners.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of sports stressors and academic performance of student-athletes in selected colleges of education in Ghana. The study was guided by two (4) specific objectives: (a) To assess the influence of sporting stress on the academic performance of student-athletes in Colleges of Education in Ghana; (b) To compare the GPA of student-athletes in the year of competitive sports and the year of no competitive sports in the Colleges of Education in Ghana and (e) to recommend ways of managing stress to enhance student athlete’s academic performance. The study adopted a cross-sectional survey design, in which both quantitative and qualitative data were collected. The study was conducted in Ghana. Simple random sampling was used to select student-athletes while purposive sampling was used to select tutors. The target population for this study was 12 tutors and 768 student-athletes in six (6) Ghana Colleges of Education. The total sample size for the study was 335 (12 tutors & 323 students-athletes). The instruments for data collection were a questionnaire, an interview guide and document analyses. Both, descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS version 20). Descriptive statistics summarized, organized and described the responses when addressing study objectives through the use of means, standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages. Inferential statistics such as ANOVA and Point biserial were used to test the formulated null hypotheses. All hypotheses were tested at p<0.05 alpha level of significance. The study found that competitive sports stressors have a statistically significant influence on the academic performance of student-athletes in colleges of education in Ghana. The study also revealed that competitive sports stress has a statistically significant influence on the academic performance of student-athletes, especially the females, in colleges of education in Ghana. This study therefore, recommends that female student-athletes be given scholarships to motivate and enhance other female students’ participation in competitive sports. The study also recommends that colleges of Education in Ghana introduce stress management strategies to address stressors’ link to academic performance of student-athlete.
An integrative model of change was applied to the study of 872 Ss (mean age 40 yrs) who were changing their smoking habits on their own. Ss represented the following 5 stages of change: precontemplation, contemplation, action, maintenance, and relapse. 10 processes of change were expected to receive differential emphases during particular stages of change. Results indicate that Ss (a) used the fewest processes of change during precontemplation; (b) emphasized consciousness raising during the contemplation stage; (c) emphasized self-reevaluation in both contemplation and action stages; (d) emphasized self-liberation, a helping relationship, and reinforcement management during the action stage; and (e) used counterconditioning and stimulus control the most in both action and maintenance stages. Relapsers responded as a combination of contemplaters and people in action would. Results are discussed in terms of developing a model of self-change of smoking and enhancing a more integrative general model of change. (14 ref)
Presents an integrative theoretical framework to explain and to predict psychological changes achieved by different modes of treatment. This theory states that psychological procedures, whatever their form, alter the level and strength of self-efficacy. It is hypothesized that expectations of personal efficacy determine whether coping behavior will be initiated, how much effort will be expended, and how long it will be sustained in the face of obstacles and aversive experiences. Persistence in activities that are subjectively threatening but in fact relatively safe produces, through experiences of mastery, further enhancement of self-efficacy and corresponding reductions in defensive behavior. In the proposed model, expectations of personal efficacy are derived from 4 principal sources of information: performance accomplishments, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and physiological states. Factors influencing the cognitive processing of efficacy information arise from enactive, vicarious, exhortative, and emotive sources. The differential power of diverse therapeutic procedures is analyzed in terms of the postulated cognitive mechanism of operation. Findings are reported from microanalyses of enactive, vicarious, and emotive modes of treatment that support the hypothesized relationship between perceived self-efficacy and behavioral changes. (21/2 p ref)
This study examined gender differences in the pattern of process use for smoking cessation using the Processes of Change Questionnaire (J. O. Prochaska, W. F. Velicer, C. C. DiCiemente, & J. Fava, 1988). The goals were (a) to determine the degree to which the covariance structure of the Processes of Change Questionnaire is invariant across gender, (b) to test the existence of the theoretical 2-factor process model using confirmatory factor analysis, and (c) to explore mean differences, if found, in the use of the 10 processes of change across 4 stages of change (precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, and action). The sample (N = 516) had an equal distribution of men and women across the stages of change. Results demonstrated that the structure of the measure for men and women was invariant at the level of the variance-covariance matrices and that the hypothesized 2-factor model fit the data. Only stage of change predicted the experiential and behavioral process factors.
People have attitudes and opinions about most activities in society but few events stimulate their raw emotions as much as competitive sport. Because sport is regularly viewed as a microcosm of society, it provides an excellent forum for examining attitudinal and behavioral differences between various groups of people. Although attitudes toward the field of psychology and one's openness to seeking assistance have frequently been examined in various contexts, less information is available regarding participants' openness to seeking psychological assistance in sport settings. Therefore, the aim of this chapter is to examine sport participants' attitudes toward seeking psychological assistance by reviewing research on the attitudes of athletes, coaches, and other athletic staff personnel.In addition, the chapter provides a proposed multidimensional model for sport psychology service provision, which illustrates how key factors such as personal characteristics of the parties involved (e.g., sport psychology practitioners, athletes, coaches, athletic administrators) and the situation (type of sport, competition level, etc.) influence sport participants' receptivity to using sport psychology and seeking assistance. The model also addresses the potential influences of attitudinal variables, such as stigma tolerance, confidence in sport psychology, personal openness, and cultural preference, on participants' satisfaction with services. Finally, the chapter concludes with suggestions and implications for sport participants, sport psychology practitioners, and future research.
Investigated the generalization of the transtheoretical model across 12 problem behaviors. The cross-sectional comparisons involved relationships between 2 key constructs of the model, the stages of change and decisional balance. The behaviors studied were smoking cessation, quitting cocaine, weight control, high-fat diets, adolescent delinquent behaviors, safer sex, condom use, sunscreen use, radon gas exposure, exercise acquisition, mammography screening, and physicians' preventive practices with smokers. Clear commonalities were observed across the 12 areas, including both the internal structure of the measures and the pattern of changes in decisional balance across stages.
This study used a consumer marketing approach to investigate the market for sport psychology positions in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) institutions. Athletic administrators' (AA) preferences for various sport psychology positions were compared based on time commitment, affiliation, payment, services, and clients. Results indicated that AAs were most attracted to positions that included (a) part-time commitment, (b) athletic department employment, (c) payment via annual salary, (d) both performance and mental health related services, and (d) work with athletes, teams, and athletics staff members. Over two thirds of the 478 AAs sampled were interested in hiring a sport psychology professional to fill that position. It was concluded that the field of sport psychology collaborate across disciplines and emphasize multiple options for meeting the perceived needs of NCAA athletic departments.
To gain a better understanding of factors perceived to have positively and/or negatively influenced Olympic athlete performance and to examine differences in performance factors cited by athletes who met or exceeded performance expectations and athletes who failed to meet expectations, 8 Atlanta and 7 Nagano Olympians were interviewed. Interviews were conducted via telephone, tape recorded, transcribed, and content analyzed by three investigators. Major factors perceived to have positively influenced performance included mental skills and preparation, attitude towards the Olympics, support services and support facilitation, multifaceted preparation, physical preparation, and coaching. Major factors perceived to have negatively influenced performance included departing from normal routine, media distractions, coach issues, overtraining, and injury. The two groups, those who met or exceeded expectations and those who did not meet expectations, differed on only a few positive performance factors, including attitude towards the games, Olympic housing, and team unity. Negative factors that differed between the groups included team selection, coaching, lack of support, and team issues.
This report examines the impact of a psychoeducational workshop on athletes’ stages of change for use of mental skills training. Fourteen teams participated in a sport psychology workshop including seven women’s teams (n = 124) and seven men’s teams (n = 96). Teams were assessed on decisional balance (pros and cons) and stages of change variables before and after the workshop. As hypothesized, athletes reported significantly higher pros and contemplation scores after the workshop, with corresponding decreases in cons and precontemplation scores. Moderate effect sizes (.35 - .68) supported a positive impact of the workshop on athletes’ perceptions of mental training, but data were not collected on how long these effects may last. The results also suggest that research should explore more efficient methods for stage assignment for athletes to maximize intervention effectiveness.
In the current study NCAA Division I student-athletes (n = 2,440) completed a Webbased survey assessing their willingness to seek mental skills training, perceptions of the potential beneits of mental training for their team, and support of possible roles for a sport psychology consultant at their institution. Multiple chisquare tests revealed signiicant (p < .001) dependence of respondents ratings on gender, sport type (individual vs. team), prior experience with a sport psychology consultant, and perceived effectiveness of prior experience (low, moderate, high). Generally, females were more receptive than males, individual and team sport athletes were interested in different types of mental skills, athletes with prior consulting experience were more open than those with none, and athletes with highly effective prior experience were more receptive than those with less effective experience. These indings extend previous research examining collegiate student-athletes attitudes toward sport psychology consulting and provide several important insights for consultants conducting mental skills training for NCAA Division I level athletes.
Developed a test designed to measure 4 stages of change hypothesized to account for a temporal dimension in the change process occurring in psychotherapy: (1) precontemplation, (2) contemplation, (3) action, and (4) maintenance. An initial pool of items was reduced to a final test of 32 items on the basis of principal components analysis, Chronbach's coefficient alpha, and item analysis results. 155 Ss commencing psychotherapy were administered the questionnaire; they returned it before their 3rd therapy session. A cluster analysis was performed on the standardized scores for each S on each of the 4 scales. The resulting 18-cluster solution produced 7 major and 2 minor client profiles that were highly distinct and that represented 90% of the Ss. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Traditionally smoking cessation studies use smoker and nonsmoker categories almost exclusively to represent individuals quitting smoking. This study tested the transtheoretical model of change that posits a series of stages through which smokers move as they successfully change the smoking habit. Ss in precontemplation (
n = 166), contemplation (
n = 794), and preparation (
n = 506) stages of change were compared on smoking history, 10 processes of change, pretest self-efficacy, and decisional balance, as well as 1-mo and 6-mo cessation activity. Results strongly support the stages of change model. All groups were similar on smoking history but differed dramatically on current cessation activity. Stage differences predicted attempts to quit smoking and cessation success at 1- and 6-mo follow-up. Implications for recruitment, intervention, and research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Offers transtheoretical therapy as one alternative when seeking a synthesis for the increasing proliferation of therapeutic systems. From a comparative analysis of 18 leading systems, 5 basic processes of change were identified by the present 1st author (1979). They are consciousness raising (feedback, education), conditional stimuli (counterconditioning, stimulus control), catharsis (corrective emotional experiences, dramatic relief), choosing (self-liberation, social liberation), and contingency control (reevaluation, contingency management). Each process can be applied at the level of either the individual's experience or environment. The present authors (see record
1982-31158-001) have identified the following stages of change: contemplation, termination, action, and maintenance. The verbal processes of change—consciousness raising, catharsis, and choosing—are most important during the 1st 2 stages, while behavior therapies (conditional stimuli and contingency control) are needed once a commitment is made. It is suggested that in the transtheoretical model, cognitive restructuring is seen as the result of the individual effectively applying the appropriate processes of change during each of the appropriate stages of change. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
We applied the model of the stages and processes of change to exercise adoption and maintenance. This model has shown promise in advancing theory and treatment of the addictions and other negative health behaviors, but there have been few systematic attempts to apply the model to positive health behaviors, such as exercise adoption. Questionnaires dealing with the stages and processes of exercise change were developed and administered to a sample of 1,172 participants in a worksite health promotion project. The sample was split randomly into halves for (a) initial model development and testing and (b) confirmatory measurement model testing. Additional model confirmation was obtained by examining the hierarchical structure of the processes of change and by conducting Stage × Process analyses. Results suggest that the underlying constructs derived from smoking cessation and other addictive behaviors can be generalized to exercise behavior. Understanding the stages and processes of exercise behavior change may yield important information for enhancing exercise adoption, adherence, and relapse prevention at both individual and public health levels.
Key words: stages of change, processes of change, exercise adoption and maintenance
The multidimensional approach to the study of anxiety considers subcomponents of anxiety, specifically cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence. Much of the research based on this theory has utilized the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory (CSAI-2). Findings have been inconsistent, with some research suggesting that the 3 subcomponents have separate relationships with performance and other studies failing to find any relationship between the anxiety subcomponents and performance. This meta-analysis of 29 studies examined the effect of state anxiety as measured by the CSAI-2 (i.e., cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence) on athletic performance. Studies were coded for characteristics that could potentially moderate the effects of anxiety on performance (i.e., features of design, subjects, sport). Interdependency between the 3 subscales was examined using multivariate meta-analytic techniques. Relationships among cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, self-confidence, and performance appeared weak. Exploratory modeling showed that self-confidence displayed the strongest and most consistent relationship with performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
High group cohesion is considered to be beneficial and lead to better performance. This qualitative case study describes a case in which high social cohesion led to a deterioration in a team's performance. The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationships between performance in a team sport and social psychological group phenomena such as cohesion, conformity, groupthink, and group polarization. The participants were members of a junior-league ice-hockey team, consisting of three adult coaches and 22 players aged 15 to 16 years. The data were derived from an interview with the main coach, continuous observation by the principal researcher, and a diary based on observations during one ice-hockey season. The group environment Questionnaire was used to assess group cohesion quantitatively. The qualitative data were analyzed by identifying themes that illuminated the research problem. In this study, the team did not perform as expected, and their performance deteriorated during the autumn. Social cohesion was high. In addition, the need to evaluate performance declined because of increased pressure to conform. Pressure to conform, groupthink, and group polarization increased owing to the high level of social cohesion which in turn was associated with the deterioration in the group's performance. Based on the findings it appears that high group cohesion may not always be beneficial to the team and does not necessarily lead to better performance in all situations.
This study examined the mediating effects of the self-stigma associated with seeking counseling and attitudes toward seeking counseling on the link between perceived public stigma and willingness to seek counseling for psychological and interpersonal concerns. Structural equation modeling of data from 676 undergraduates indicated that the link between perceived public stigma and willingness to seek counseling was fully mediated by self-stigma and attitudes. Perceptions of public stigma contributed to the experience of self-stigma, which, in turn, influenced help-seeking attitudes and eventually help-seeking willingness. Furthermore, 57% of the variance in attitudes toward counseling and 34% of the variance in willingness to seek counseling for psychological and interpersonal concerns were accounted for in the proposed model.
Background/Purpose
Identifying mediators of physical activity change requires measurement instruments that are reliable, valid, and generalizable to multiple populations. Despite continued application of the transtheoretical model (TTM) to the study of physical activity, the structural components of the TTM measurement instruments have been understudied in diverse populations.
Methods
A multiethnic sample (N = 700, M
age = 47, 63% women, 38% Caucasian) of participants living in Hawaii completed TTM measures. The factor validity and measurement equivalence/invariance (ME/I) of decisional balance, barrier self-efficacy, temptations, and processes of change instruments were explored between men, women, age groups, and ethnicities.
Results/Conclusions
Measurement models of barrier self-efficacy and revised models of temptations and processes of change demonstrated sufficient evidence for ME/I among all subgroups. A revised model of decisional balance demonstrated sufficient evidence for ME/I between genders and among ethnicities, but not among age groups. Future research should examine the stability of these constructs across time.
Based on the premise that what people think influences their actions, self-talk strategies have been developed to direct and facilitate human performance. In this article, we present a meta-analytic review of the effects of self-talk interventions on task performance in sport and possible factors that may moderate the effectiveness of self-talk. A total of 32 studies yielding 62 effect sizes were included in the final meta-analytic pool. The analysis revealed a positive moderate effect size (ES = .48). The moderator analyses showed that self-talk interventions were more effective for tasks involving relatively fine, compared with relatively gross, motor demands, and for novel, compared with well-learned, tasks. Instructional self-talk was more effective for fine tasks than was motivational self-talk; moreover, instructional self-talk was more effective for fine tasks rather than gross tasks. Finally, interventions including self-talk training were more effective than those not including self-talk training. The results of this study establish the effectiveness of self-talk in sport, encourage the use of self-talk as a strategy to facilitate learning and enhance performance, and provide new research directions.
© The Author(s) 2011.
How people intentionally change addictive behaviors with and without treatment is not well understood by behavioral scientists. This article summarizes research on self-initiated and professionally facilitated change of addictive behaviors using the key transtheoretical constructs of stages and processes of change. Modification of addictive behaviors involves progression through five stages—pre-contemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance—and individuals typically recycle through these stages several times before termination of the addiction. Multiple studies provide strong support for these stages as well as for a finite and common set of change processes used to progress through the stages. Research to date supports a transtheoretical model of change that systematically integrates the stages with processes of change from diverse theories of psychotherapy.
A highly effective method for disseminating knowledge is to observe the most experienced individuals in the field of interest. Although business, teaching, and coaching have been mentoring and apprenticing students for years, the field of applied sport psychology does not have a long formal history of doing so. The puipose of this article is to capture and present the thoughts, theories, and techniques employed by highly experienced applied sport psychology consultants to formally record what they believe "works when, working with athletes." General topics discussed include: gaining entry, techniques of assessment, delivery of information, and approaches for preparing athletes for "major competitions." Common ideas and practical guidelines are summarized from the authors and discussed in light of current scientific and professional practice knowledge in the field. These consultants do not claim they have all the answers, but rather share their experiences in hopes of providing ideas and facilitating self-reflection concerning consulting effectiveness on the part of the reader.
Seventy-two college athletic directors (ADs) participated in a survey about (a) previous experience with sport psychology consultants (SPCs), (b) previous exposure to the field, and (c) attitudes toward sport psychology consulting. ADs were confused about appropriate training for SPCs, highlighted by the fact that 66.7% were unaware of any certification for SPCs. Although ADs' attitudes toward SPCs did not differ based on previous experience with SPCs, there was a statistically significant difference between ADs who were aware of the Association for Applied Sport Psychology (AASP) and those who were unaware. Results demonstrate the need to educate potential employers regarding appropriate qualifications for SPCs. The discussion culminates with suggestions for future research and recommendations for enhancing effectiveness of outreach programs.
Research has demonstrated the efficacy of psychological skills training (PST), yet many athletes do not appear ready to do whatever it takes to improve the mental aspects of performance. Although the transtheoretical model of behavior change (TTM), generally, and readiness to change, specifically, have received considerable attention in a range of allied health fields, few studies have been conducted to examine this construct in applied sport psychology. The purpose of the current study was to examine National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division I athletes’ readiness for PST as it relates to their stage of change, decisional balance, self-efficacy, and use of processes of change. The data trends observed in the current study were consistent with the theoretical underpinnings of the TTM as well as previous research on NCAA Division I athletes. The results of the current study highlight the need to consider readiness to change when designing and implementing PST interventions.
Applied sport psychology has entered an "age of accountability" (Smith, 1989) and the need to develop appropriate methods to evaluate practice has been well documented (Grove, Norton, Van Raalte, & Brewer, 1999; Strean, 1998). In this paper, we have developed a framework within which practitioners can assess the effectiveness of their practice and collect evaluative information that will increase their accountability to the stakeholders. We argue that a practitioner administered case study approach to evaluation, using a number of effectiveness indicators in triangulation, is appropriate to accommodate the constraints of a practice setting and fulfill the functional criteria for evaluating practice. Further discussion on when to evaluate practice and criteria for determining effectiveness is undertaken.
A multidimensional scaling analysis was used to investigate the psychological structure underlying college students’ perceptions of 12 practitioners: sport psychologist, clinical psychologist, psychotherapist, coach, psychiatrist, counselor, performance consultant, nutritionist, sports medicine specialist, strength coach, hypnotist, and technical equipment advisor. For this analysis, 200 male and female undergraduates completed 66 scales rating the psychological similarity between all possible pairs of the 12 practitioners. The R2 of .84 and stress value of .17 indicated that a two-dimensional solution was the best fit for the similarity ratings. The first dimension was identified as separating practitioners specializing in the mental aspects of performance from those specializing in the physical aspects of performance. The second dimension separated sport practitioners from nonsport practitioners. Interestingly, subjects perceived sport psychologists as being concerned with mental, nonsport issues. The r...
This study provides a preliminary investigation of the role of stress management in multiple behavior change. Risk status on stress management and five health behaviors (healthy eating, exercise, alcohol, smoking, and depression management) was assessed before and after a multiple behavior change intervention. Findings suggested a link between stress management and a worse health risk behavior profile at baseline. Results also showed relationships between improved stress management over 6 months and heightened odds of improving on specific behaviors as well as improving one's overall behavioral risk profile. Particularly strong links between stress management and energy balance and other affective behaviors were observed.
This study investigated whether approach‐avoidance goals predicted enjoyment, concentration disruption, and worry, and compared approach‐avoidance versus task/ego goals in predicting these variables. British youth athletes (139 males, 110 females, 5 did not report gender), with a mean age of 13.57 (SD = 1.69) years and a mean sport experience of 4.81 (SD = 2.80) years, completed questionnaires measuring approach‐avoidance and task/ego goals, enjoyment, concentration disruption, worry, and perceived competence. Mastery‐approach goals positively predicted enjoyment, and negatively predicted concentration disruption and worry. The two avoidance goals positively predicted concentration disruption and worry, while performance‐approach goals did not predict any outcome variable. In hierarchical regression analyses, task/ego goals were the most important predictors of enjoyment, whereas approach‐avoidance goals were the most important predictors of concentration disruption and worry. Both sets of goals accounted for unique variance in the variables examined, suggesting the approach‐avoidance distinction is a valuable addition to achievement goal theory
The nature and extent of stigmatization attached to individuals who seek outpatient psychotherapy for depression was investigated. Three hundred and eighty undergraduates were presented one of four case vignettes that were identical, with the exception of the last paragraph in which the treatment history (sought help vs. did not seek help) and type of problem (depression vs. back pain) of the target were manipulated. Participants rated the target on various personality dimensions. An interaction between help-seeking behavior and problem type in perceptions of emotional instability was found, Specifically, whereas an individual experiencing depression was viewed as more emotionally unstable than one who had a back injury, the target who sought help for his depression was viewed as particularly unstable. The findings are discussed in the context of disorders that might go untreated due to stigmatization.
In an effort to apply the transtheoretical model of change to the area of psychological skills training, questionnaires measuring stage of change, decisional balance, and self-efficacy were developed and cross-validated on two samples of NCAA Division I intercollegiate student-athletes. The measures showed good internal reliability and construct validity and exhibited hypothesized functional relationships with each other. In addition, the stage of change measure predicted sport psychology consultations initiated by athletes during the year following questionnaire administration and may prove to be a useful tool in predicting subsequent initiation of individual sport psychology consultation. Several potentially useful lines of research are discussed and recommendations are made regarding the development of sport psychology interventions tailored according to athletes' stage of change.
The purpose of the present study was to explore attitudes about sport psychology consulting of high school and college athletes living in the United States. The Sport Psychology Attitudes–Revised form (SPA-R; Martin, Kellmann, Lavallee, & Page, 2002) was administered to 362 high school and 431 college athletes. A 2 (Gender) × 2 (Age Group: High School and College) × 2 (Type of Sport: Physical Contact and Physical Non-contact) MANCOVA was conducted with past sport psychology consulting experience as a covariate and attitudes about sport psychology as dependent variables. Follow-up univariate and discriminant function analyses were then performed to identify the attitudes that maximized differences related to gender, age group and type of sport. Results revealed that male athletes, younger athletes and athletes who have been socialized in sports that involve physical contact may have a stigma toward seeking sport psychology consulting. Sport psychology consultants must be sensitive to how personal characteristics, experience and attitudes influence help-seeking to improve the services they offer.
Although the motivational technique of goal setting has consistently and reliably improved performance in industrial psychology research, the beneficial effect has not been demonstrated in the sport domain. Many proposed explanations have resulted in a controversy, but scientists have overlooked the importance of statistical power. A meta-analytic review of the literature investigating the effects of goal setting on performance in sport and exercise could clarify the state of knowledge. The meta-analytic procedures described by L. V. Hedges and I. Olkin (1985) were used to statistically combine 36 studies identified as meeting inclusion criteria. Overall, setting goals improves performance in sport by 0.34 of a standard deviation. Moderate, absolute, and combined short- and long-term goals were associated with the greatest effects. Additional moderator variables were identified, and how they alter the relationship is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A 50-item questionnaire measuring athletes' attitudes toward seeking a sport psychology consultant (SPC) was initially developed and then administered to 48 African American and 177 Caucasian 17–23 yr old student-athletes at a NCAA Division I university. Principal components factor analyses were conducted to extract initial factors and then varimax orthogonal rotation was performed. The analyses produced three dimensions of athlete attitude that accounted for 35% of the variance: stigma tolerance, confidence in a SPC/recognition of need, and interpersonal openness/willingness to try a SPC. A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and follow-up discriminant function analyses were then performed to identify the factors that maximized differences between gender and race. Significant differences in stigma tolerance were found for both gender and race. SPCs were stigmatized more by male athletes than by female athletes and more by African American athletes than by Caucasian athletes. No other significant effects were obtained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Outlines a new procedure for computing a composite competitive orientation score for the Competitive Orientation Inventory by R. S. Vealey (see record
1988-00161-001) and presents norms for the new composite score. The analyses from the original study were extended to examine gender differences in the personality disposition of trait sport confidence and competitive orientation based on the level of sport structure. Ss included 103 (53 female, 50 male) high school, 96 (71 female, 25 male) college, and 48 (20 female, 28 male) elite athletes (gymnasts). Results show that elite Ss were more performance-oriented than college or high school Ss. No differences were found in competitive orientation based on gender. It is suggested that elite athletes may have learned to focus on and evaluate themselves on standards that are personally controllable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Replicated work by J. L. Van Raalte et al (see record
1991-06204-001) showing that athletes who consult a sport psychologist are derogated relative to athletes who work with their coaches on the same problem. A multidimensional-scaling analysis explored the psychological structure underlying 113 undergraduates' perceptions of 12 sport practitioner professionals. Two dimensions, mental/physical and sport/nonsport, provided the best fit for both males and females. In 2 other studies, Ss indicated how strongly they would recommend drafting a college baseball, basketball, or football player who had worked with a coach, a sport psychologist, or a psychotherapist to improve performance. 294 male undergraduates and Lions Club members gave athletes who consulted sport psychologists or psychotherapists significantly lower draft ratings than athletes who consulted their coaches. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
IntroductionWho are the professionals and where do we find them?The business end of serviceWho are the clients and where are the boundaries?The instruments of serviceThe foundation of service: The working relationshipFinal thoughts on serviceReferencesFurther reading
OBJECTIVES: Physical activity (PA) research applying the Transtheoretical Model (TTM) to examine group differences and/or change over time requires preliminary evidence of factorial validity and invariance. The current study examined the factorial validity and longitudinal invariance of TTM constructs recently revised for PA. METHOD: Participants from an ethnically diverse sample in Hawaii (N=700) completed questionnaires capturing each TTM construct. RESULTS: Factorial validity was confirmed for each construct using confirmatory factor analysis with full-information maximum likelihood. Longitudinal invariance was evidenced across a shorter (3-month) and longer (6-month) time period via nested model comparisons. CONCLUSIONS: The questionnaires for each validated TTM construct are provided, and can now be generalized across similar subgroups and time points. Further validation of the provided measures is suggested in additional populations and across extended time points.
ObjectiveOver 40% of Americans are sedentary and of those beginning an exercise program, 50% will drop out within 6 months. The Transtheoretical Model (TTM) is commonly used to describe exercise behavior and develop interventions for the initiation of exercise behavior. Less is known, however, about maintenance of exercise behavior and the construct associations for the action, maintenance, and termination stages of change. Thus, the purpose of this study was to examine which of the TTM constructs (i.e. decisional balance, processes of change, barriers-efficacy, and temptation) best distinguishes between the action, maintenance, and termination stages of change for men and women.MethodsQuestionnaires measuring each of the TTM constructs were collected from 330 men (M age=27.14 years) and 380 women (M age=24.80 years). Data were examined for sex differences and subsequently, two forward logistic regressions were conducted for each sex such that the dependent variables for the regressions were action/maintenance and maintenance/termination.ResultsCompared to men, women reported significantly less barriers-efficacy (p=.04), greater pros of exercise (p=.004), and greater use of behavioral (p=.001) and experiential (p<.001) processes of change. For the men, affect temptation was the only significant correlate of action/maintenance (p=.02), while barriers efficacy (p=.001), environmental evaluation (p=.02), and affect temptation (p=.03) were associated with maintenance/termination. For the women, environmental reevaluation (p=.02) and social liberation (p=.05) were associated with action/maintenance, while barriers-efficacy (p=.003) was the only construct correlated with maintenance/termination.ConclusionsStage and gender specific considerations are warranted when designing stage-matched exercise interventions for long-term maintenance of exercise behavior.
Background:
The overweight population may benefit from Transtheoretical Model-based interventions focusing on regular moderate exercise. Current stages of change measures assessing regular moderate exercise specific to an overweight population (BMI > or =25) are lacking. This study examined the validity of a staging algorithm for moderate exercise for the purposes of healthy weight management.
Methods:
A sample of 670 healthy adults (mean age 50.9 +/- 15.0; mean BMI 30.6 +/- 5.5; 53% female; 93% Caucasian) completed a questionnaire that included demographics, self-reported levels of exercise, and constructs from the Transtheoretical Model (TTM). Analyses of variance and follow-up tests were used to assess the concurrent and construct validity of the staging algorithm.
Results:
The staging algorithm discriminated those in the action stages from those in the preaction stages for the moderate- and strenuous-intensity categories (P < 0.001). The constructs of pros and cons (P < 0.001) and confidence (P < 0.001) differed across the stages.
Conclusions:
In addition to demonstrating good concurrent and construct validity for the stages of change measure, the patterns found across the stages of change were consistent with the theoretical predictions of the TTM and replicated the patterns observed in previous studies.
Patients who have completed Phase II cardiac rehabilitation have low rates of maintenance of exercise after program completion, despite the importance of sustaining regular exercise to prevent future cardiac events.
The efficacy of a home-based intervention to support exercise maintenance among patients who had completed Phase II cardiac rehabilitation versus contact control was evaluated.
An RCT was used to evaluate the intervention. Data were collected in 2005-2010 and analyzed in 2010.
One hundred thirty patients (mean age=63.6 years [SD=9.7], 20.8% female) were randomized to exercise counseling (Maintenance Counseling group, n=64) or contact control (Contact Control group, n=66).
Maintenance Counseling group participants received a 6-month program of exercise counseling (based on the transtheoretical model and social cognitive theory) delivered via telephone, as well as print materials and feedback reports.
Assessments of physical activity (7-Day Physical Activity Recall), motivational readiness for exercise, lipids, and physical functioning were conducted at baseline, 6 months, and 12 months. Objective accelerometer data were collected at the same time points. Fitness was assessed via maximal exercise stress tests at baseline and 6 months.
The Maintenance Counseling group reported significantly higher exercise participation than the Contact Control group at 12 months (difference of 80 minutes, 95% CI=22, 137). Group differences in exercise at 6 months were nonsignificant. The intervention significantly increased the probability of participants' exercising at or above physical activity guidelines and attenuated regression in motivational readiness versus the Contact Control Group at 6 and 12 months. Self-reported physical functioning was significantly higher in the Maintenance Counseling group at 12 months. No group differences were seen in fitness at 6 months or lipid measures at 6 and 12 months.
A telephone-based intervention can help maintain exercise, prevent regression in motivational readiness for exercise, and improve physical functioning in this patient population.
This review presents a practical summary of the missing data literature, including a sketch of missing data theory and descriptions of normal-model multiple imputation (MI) and maximum likelihood methods. Practical missing data analysis issues are discussed, most notably the inclusion of auxiliary variables for improving power and reducing bias. Solutions are given for missing data challenges such as handling longitudinal, categorical, and clustered data with normal-model MI; including interactions in the missing data model; and handling large numbers of variables. The discussion of attrition and nonignorable missingness emphasizes the need for longitudinal diagnostics and for reducing the uncertainty about the missing data mechanism under attrition. Strategies suggested for reducing attrition bias include using auxiliary variables, collecting follow-up data on a sample of those initially missing, and collecting data on intent to drop out. Suggestions are given for moving forward with research on missing data and attrition.