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Séisme de janvier 2010 en Haïti : Soutien social, résilience et bien-Être chez les adultes survivants
Abstract
Cet article analyse le niveau de résilience chez des adultes survivants du séisme de 2010 en Haïti en rapport au soutien social. Un échantillon de 1355 adultes a complété l’Échelle de résilience et le Questionnaire de soutien social. Les résultats ont montré que 58,52 % des participants présentent un niveau de résilience entre moyennement élevé et très élevé avec de forts liens avec la satisfaction du soutien social. Sur le plan clinique, ces résultats montrent l’importance d’aider les survivants de catastrophes naturelles à identifier les ressources sociales disponibles et à tisser des liens sociaux forts pour engager un processus résilient.
Abstract : This article analyzes the resilience level in adult survivors of the 2010 earthquake in Haiti in relation to social support. A sample of 1,355 adults completed the Resilience Scale and the Social Support Questionnaire. The results showed that 58.52 % of them have a level of resilience between moderately high and very high and strong links between social support satisfaction and resilience. Clinically, it shows the importance of helping natural disasters survivors to identify social resources and build strong social ties in order to engage in a resilient process.
After the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, despite economic and relational precariousness, research noticed resilience among street children. This study assesses determinants of resilience among street children 4 years after the earthquake. One hundred twenty-eight street children aged 7–18 completed measures assessing life events, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), resilience, social support (SS), and depression. Data was analyzed by SPSS version 22. Results showed that resilience score was high, especially for those who faced economic issues. For those who faced intrafamilial and relational violence, resilience was less relevant. Resilience score increased with age and was correlated with satisfying SS. Traumatic events after the earthquake, depression, and SS satisfaction are the best predictors of resilience.
Presented herein are the results of geotechnical investigations and subsequent laboratory and data analyses of the Port-au-Prince seaport following the M w 7.0 2010 Haiti earthquake. The earthquake caused catastrophic ground failures in calcareous-sand artificial fills at the seaport, including liquefaction, lateral spreads, differential settlements, and collapse of the pile-supported wharf and pier. The site characterization entailed geotechnical borings, hand-auger borings, standard penetration tests, and dynamic cone penetration tests. The laboratory tests included grain size and carbonate content tests. The observations and results presented herein add valuable field performance data for calcareous sands, which are relatively lacking in liquefaction case history databases, and the overall response of the artificial fills are consistent with predictions made using semi-empirical relations developed primarily from field data of silica sands.
The article presents a research for the indicative evaluation of psychological disturbance amongst young children following the 2010 earthquake in Haiti. We used a new psychological evaluation questionnaire for young children, the PSYCa 3–6. It is a hetero-evaluation tool and is completed on site by the interviewer. The questionnaire was conducted in Port-au-Prince. The average age of the 166 children taking part in the study was 58 months. Psychological disturbance score appears to be high amongst our child population in Port-au-Prince. This corroborates other research into the psychological condition of natural disaster victims. A higher score of psychological disturbance was observed amongst boys and in the youngest group of children. This first application of the PSYCa 3–6, in a natural disaster area, highlights its capacity to identify children in great difficulties, the acceptability of the questionnaire and its appropriateness for use in humanitarian crisis areas.
This study examined the prevalence of PTSD symptoms; the relationship between PTSD and resilience, religious orientation and religious practices; and how gender is associated with these variables among a volunteer sample of 140 students attending a Christian university in Haiti approximately four months after the January 2010 earthquake. Using the PTSD Checklist-Civilian (PCL-C), the Resilience Scale (RS), and the Religious Orientation Scale (ROS) found no significant relationship between PTSD, resilience, religious orientation and religious practices. Results did indicate that 34% of the sample had PCL-C scores indicative of PTSD; female participants had higher PTSD symptoms than males; higher levels of intrinsic religious orientation were associated with more religious practices than extrinsic religious orientation; and males with higher PTSD symptoms were associated with lower levels of attending church-sponsored social events, while females with higher levels of resilience were more associated with church attendance and attending church social events. Mental health providers should develop more comprehensive disaster mental health services that build trust and are culturally sensitive to the post-trauma needs of the Haitian people.
This study aimed to test the stability of the bifactorial structure of the short version of Sarason 's Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ6) which measures two dimensions of social support (satisfaction and availability). The French version of the SSQ6 was administered to 869 French adults (303 females, 566 males) confronted with more or less stressful situations (student life, unemployment, severe illness or handicap). Confirmatory analyses were undertaken on the whole population and on the subgroups (students/patients/unemployed men; males/females). They confirmed the stability of the factorial structure of the SSQ6 (between groups and between cultures). Moreover, the two dimensions of the SSQ6 (satisfaction and availability of support) were associated with functional transactional processes (active coping, healthy behaviours) and with criteria of emotional and somatic health. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2005 APA, all rights reserved) (journal abstract)
On the basis of the multivariate conceptual model proposed by J. L. Wallander et al (1989), perceptions of hope and social support were hypothesized to serve as resilience factors against distress in mothers of children with chronic physical conditions. Relationships among these variables were tested. Ss were 111 mothers of 5 to 18-yr-old children who had cerebral palsy, spina bifida, or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Tests used included the Hope Scale, Social Support Questionnaire-6, Brief Symptom Inventory, and Parents of Children With Disabilities Inventory. There were no differences in distress among mothers raising children with different conditions. Both hope and social support were associated negatively and uniquely with distress in these mothers. Perceptions of hope moderated the relationship between disability-related stress and maladjustment, suggesting a buffering effect when stress is high. However, hope did not appear to be a mediator of the relationship between social support and distress. These findings enhance our conceptual understanding of distress in maternal caregivers of children with a chronic physical condition. They also support improving sense of hope as is done in some problem-solving training programs to enhance coping in distressed individuals. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Resilience refers to the ability to effectively cope and positively adapt after adversity or trauma. This study investigated the factor structure and psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the Resilience Scale (RS) for college students with Wenchuan earthquake exposure.
A total of 888 Chinese college students with Wenchuan earthquake exposure completed a set of scales, including the RS, the Post-traumatic Stress Disorder Self-rating Scale, the Zung Self-rating Depression Scale, the Zung Self-rating Anxiety Scale, and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire Short Scale for Chinese. The internal consistency and concurrent validity were investigated. Sex and regional differences were also examined.
The results of exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis showed that the 4-factor structure was suitable for both Chinese samples 1 and 2. The Cronbach α coefficient was .94 (P < .01), split-half reliability coefficient was .92 (P < .01), and the test-retest reliability coefficient was .82 (P < .01). The total resilience score was correlated negatively with posttraumatic stress disorder (r = -0.21; P < .01), depression (r = -0.45; P < .01), anxiety(r = -0.34; P < .01), and neuroticism (r = -0.23; P < .01), and correlated positively with extraversion (r = 0.23; P < .01). Men showed higher resilience scores than women, and people living in the high earthquake-exposure areas reported higher level of resilience than those from low earthquake-exposure areas.
The Chinese version of the RS was demonstrated to be a reliable and valid measurement in assessing resilience for Wenchuan earthquake survivors.
The original short form of Sarason's Social Support Questionnaire measures two dimensions of social support, availability and satisfaction. The factorial structure of the social support was assessed in a French sample along with the association between the dimensions of social support and personality traits such as Extraversion, Neuroticism, and Depression. A 6-item French version was administered to 648 subjects: 348 university freshmen (228 females, 120 males) and 304 unemployed men. A principal component analysis followed by oblique rotations was undertaken on each sample. This yielded two factors, Availability and Satisfaction. These results sustained the stability of the factorial structure from one culture to another. Validity and reliability were satisfactory. Moreover, these two dimensions were correlated with two personality scales (high extraversion, low depression). Such results agree with previous results establishing relations between social support and salutogenic dimensions of personality.
The purpose of this study was to evaluate psychometric properties of the shortened Resilience Scale (15-item version RS15) among a sample of Alzheimer's caregivers. Self-reported data were collected from 229 participants at 2 Alzheimer's caregiver conferences. RS15 principal axis factoring indicated a single-dimensional solution with all items loaded. Reliability was strong. Convergent validity for the RS15 was suggested through its correlations with stress, family support, and friend support. Odds ratios showed significant likelihoods of high resilience given low stress and high social support. The results confirmed the RS15 to be a psychometrically sound measure that can be used to appraise the efficacy of adaptability among Alzheimer's caregivers.
Cette étude porte sur la créativité des enfants des rues en Haïti quatre ans après le séisme de janvier 2010. Suite à un constat de potentialités résilientes chez ces enfants, elle évalue leur capacité à mobiliser des ressources internes et externes pour créer.
La résilience est définie comme la capacité des êtres humains à faire face à l’adversité, à la souffrance, à la tragédie et à d’autres événements potentiellement traumatisants et à s’y adapter. Le présent travail vise à étudier le niveau de résilience chez les enfants et adolescents haïtiens ayant survécu au tremblement de terre du 12 janvier 2010 en lien avec le soutien social reçu. Un échantillon de 872 enfants et adolescents exposés au séisme ayant un âge moyen de 14,91 années (ET = 1,94) a complété la version créole de l’échelle Resilience Scale (RS), l’Impact of Event Scale – Revised et le Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ-6). Les résultats ont montré que 52,07 % des enfants et des adolescents de notre échantillon ont un niveau de résilience classé entre moyennement élevé et très élevé. Les enfants orphelins et ceux n’habitant pas chez leurs parents ont un niveau de résilience plus élevé que les autres. Le score de soutien social est corrélé positivement et significative-ment avec celui de la RS et en constitue le meilleur prédicteur (β = 0,43). Les résultats de ce travail montrent alors l’importance du lien social et des tuteurs dans la construction du processus résilient.
Background:
More than 500 studies were conducted in Haiti following the January 12 of 2010 earthquake, yet few of them assessed mental health of the population. To our knowledge, none targeted the effectiveness of various methods used to treat survivors, whether adults or children METHOD: Our study aimed to assess one year after the disaster, the effect of a specific psycho-social support offered to relocated children in Port-au-Prince compared with a control group.
Results:
The two groups were homogeneous in the intensity of the peritraumatic distress they experienced. We were unable to show a significant difference between both in the average scores for PTSD, nor for depression, nor in three out of the four sub-scales of the Child Behavior Check-List. In case children, 68% and 40.9%, respectively, and 50% and 20.5% of the control group, reported severe levels of the symptoms of PTSD and depression. These surprising results can be explained by the absence of equivalence in the two groups from a socio-demographic point of view and because subjects were not randomly selected in the recruitment process.
Conclusion:
This study has not made it possible to indicate the effectiveness of a specific psycho-social support offered to children in the aftermath of the disaster. On the other hand, the sample illustrates the high prevalence (more than 50% for PTSD) of severe post-traumatic stress in this group of school-age children, one year after the earthquake. These results indicate that serious attention should be paid to the mental health aspects in reconstruction program for the country.
L’article présente une synthèse des travaux de recherche autour de l’école comme espace psychique complexe intégré pouvant favoriser le développement de la résilience chez les enfants haïtiens ayant vécu le séisme du 12 janvier 2010. Il analyse comment l’école constitue un tuteur multifactoriel de résilience individuelle et collective dans la configuration culturelle et sociétale haïtienne. Dans l’école haïtienne l’humour, le partage, la solidarité, la générosité forment avec l’empathie et l’altruisme, les mailles d’une seule chaine qui redonne espoir à ces enfants vivant dans la précarité, la pauvreté et victimes de catastrophes naturelles récurrentes.
This paper proposes a synthesis of research on school as a complex integrated psychological space that may foster resilience development in Haitian children and adolescents who survived January 12, 2010 earthquake. It analyzes how the school is a multifactorial individual and collective tutor of resilience in the Haitian cultural and societal settings. In Haitian school, humor, sharing, solidarity, generosity, as well as empathy and altruism are the links of a single chain that gives hope to those children living in precariousness and poverty and exposed to recurrent natural disasters.
This study explored the prevalence of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms related to social support received by the children and adolescents who survived the earthquake on January 12, 2010, in Haiti. A strategy of stratified sampling was used, and 540 children and teenagers were questioned. Questionnaires based on the PTSD Checklist, the Impact of Event Scale-Revised, and the Peritraumatic Distress Inventory, among others, were used and bivariate statistical analyses were carried out. The results showed high rates of complete and partial PTSD symptoms, with higher rates among females, and indicated the need for reinforcing social support as a resilience factor for youth.
Background:
We examined the prevalence and predictive factors of PTSD and depression in relation with peritraumatic distress, trauma exposure, and sociodemographic characteristics among children and adolescent who survived the 2010 Haiti's earthquake.
Methods:
We analyzed data collected between June and July 2012 from a sample of 872 participants aged 7 to 17 in 12 schools, door-to-door canvassing and two centers for street children at Port-au-Prince. Participants completed the Impact of Event Scale Revised (IES-R), Peritraumatic Distress Inventory, Child Depression Inventory 2 (CDI), and sociodemographic and traumatic exposure questionnaires.
Results:
Of 872 participants, respectively 322 (36.93%); and 403 (46.21%) reported a clinically significant symptoms of PTSD and depression, which were significantly higher among girls. The best predictive variables are peritraumatic distress for PTSD (β=0.53,P<.0001) a traumatic exposure for depression (β=0.23,P<.0001). The comorbidity between PTSD and depression symptoms is 22.25%.
Conclusions:
This first study in children on the prevalence of PTSD and depression resulting from the 2010 Haiti earthquake demonstrates a need for improvement in treatment aimed at reducing PTSD and depression. Such treatment should be geared primarily toward girls, adolescents between the ages of 14 and 17 and those children and adolescents who have lost a family member in the earthquake.
Resilience is defined as the capacity of human beings to deal with and adapt to adversity, suffering, tragedy or other traumatic event. This study aims to investigate psychometric properties and the underlying structure of the Creole version of the RS among children and adolescents survivors to the 2010 Haitian earthquake. A total of 872 children and adolescents exposed to the earthquake with an average age of 14.91 (SD=1.94) completed the Creole version of RS, the Impact Event Scale-Revised, the Children Depression Inventory and the Social Support Questionnaire-6. The current validity of RS and the internal consistency were investigated; sex, age, religion and others socio-demographic variables differences were also analysed. Cronbach's alpha coefficient for the RS was .77; the split-half coefficient was .72. The goodness-of-fit for the 5-factor model presents the best adjusted indices. The total resilience score was correlated positively with social support (r=.42, p<.01). Mean score of the RS was 131.46 (SD=21.01). No significant differences were observed about sex, age and residential municipality. The results showed that the Haitian Creole version of RS is a valid and reliable measure in assessing resilience for the children and adolescent survivors to the 2010's earthquake.
Two studies leading to the development of a short form of the Social Support Questionnaire (SSQ) are reported. In Study 1 three items selected for high correlations with the total score (SSQ3) were administered to 182 university students together with several personality measures. SSQ3 had acceptable test-retest reliability and correlations with personality variables similar to those of the SSQ. Internal reliability was marginal although acceptable for an instrument with so few items. Study 2 employed three sets of data in developing a six-item instrument (SSQ6). The SSQ6 had high internal reliability and correlated highly with the SSQ and similarly to it with personality variables. The research findings accompanying the development of the short form social support measure suggest that perceived social support in adults may be a reflection of early attachment experience.
Although scales specific to resilience are available and widely used, qualities of resilience could be culturally sensitive. This study aimed to develop a concise scale of resilience for Japanese populations, and compare its validity to that of the Resilience Scale 14-item version (RS-14), one of the most widely used scales for measuring resilience.
The Tachikawa Resilience Scale (TRS) was developed on the basis of data obtained from unstructured interviews with Japanese motor vehicle accident survivors without psychiatric disorder. The reliability and validity of the TRS and RS-14 were then examined in cross-sectional studies performed with 523 company workers and 140 psychiatric outpatients.
The TRS and RS-14 were negatively correlated with depressive symptoms in company workers and psychiatric outpatients and with anxiety in psychiatric outpatients, and were positively correlated with social support in company workers. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability of the TRS were high. Construct validity of the TRS was equivalent to that of the RS-14 in company workers, and higher than that of the RS-14 in psychiatric outpatients.
The reliability and validity of the TRS and RS-14 in Japanese company workers and patients with psychiatric disorders were acceptable. The validity of the TRS was equivalent to or better than that of the RS-14. Although the TRS cannot be regarded as an established scale due to a lack of theoretical rationale, the results of this study suggest that scales measuring resilience that cover cultural aspects might be more relevant in given populations.
In the first population-based study of psychopathology conducted in Haiti, we documented earthquake-related experiences associated with risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder (MDD) 2–4 months following the 2010 Haiti earthquake.
A population-based survey was conducted of 1,323 survivors randomly selected from the general nondisplaced community, internally displaced persons camps, and a community clinic. Respondents were from the Nazon area of Port-au-Prince, ∼20 miles from the epicenter.
Respondents (90.5%) reported at least one relative/close friend injured/killed, 93% saw dead bodies, and 20.9% lost their job post-earthquake. The prevalence of PTSD (24.6%) and MDD (28.3%) was high. History of violent trauma was associated with risk of PTSD and MDD (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 1.4, 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.0–1.9; AOR, 1.7, 95% CI 1.3, 2.2, respectively). Low social support (AOR, 1.7, 95% CI 1.2, 2.3; AOR 1.4, 95% CI 1.0, 1.9, respectively) increased risk of PTSD and MDD among women. Suffering damage to the home increased risk of MDD in males (AOR 2.8, 95% CI 1.5, 5.5). Associations between being trapped in rubble, major damage to house, job loss, and PTSD; and participation in rescue/recovery, friends/family injured/killed, and MDD varied based on prior history of violent trauma.
Addressing mental health in a post-earthquake setting such as Haiti will require focusing resources on screening and treatment of identified vulnerable groups while targeting improvement of post-earthquake living conditions. Investment in sources of social support for women may make help mitigate the vulnerability of women to PTSD and MDD.
The aim of this study was to investigate resilience in relation to age and gender, and to elucidate the underlying structure of the Swedish version of the Resilience Scale (RS). The RS, originally created by Wagnild and Young is a 25 items scale of Lickert type with possible scores ranges from 25 to 175, the higher the score, the stronger resilience. A standardized procedure was used for translation. The analysis was based on 1719 participants, 1248 women and 471 men, from eight different samples, aged from 19 to 103 years. We found that the participants estimated their resilience as relatively high. There was a significant relationship between age and resilience, for every year RS score increased with 0.134 units. There was no relation between gender and resilience. From a factor analyses five factors emerged, equanimity, meaningfulness, perseverance, existential aloneness and self-reliance reflecting the five dimensions described by Wagnild and Young.
We concluded that the resilience is related to age, the older, the stronger resilience. Five underlying dimensions was identified, which can be seen as reflection of the theoretical assumptions behind the RS scale. The RS scale seems applicable to a Swedish population.
This article makes an initial assessment of the monetary damages caused by the 2010 earthquake in Haiti. Damages are estimated for a disaster with both 200,000 and 250,000 total dead and missing, using Haiti's economic and demographic data. The base estimate is US$8.1bn, but for several reasons this may be a lower-bound estimate. While the results are subject to many caveats, including possibly high forecast error, the implications of such an estimate are significant. Raising such a figure will require many donors. Hence excellent coordination of funding and execution will be key to ensuring the efficient use of funds. Copyright © The Author(s). Journal compilation © Royal Economic Society 2010.
Dr. Dominique Bayard worked in a makeshift hospital in Tabarre, a northeast section of Port-au-Prince, where the hospital staff treated more than 800 patients a day for infections, disabilities, complications from delayed treatment, respiratory illness, sexually-transmitted disease, and chronic disease.
The purpose of this article is to review 12 completed studies that have used the Resilience Scale (Wagnild & Young, 1993). Completed studies were identified through PubMed and CINAHL. Studies that identified Resilience Scale scores, sample descriptions, and tested relationships between the Resilience Scale and study variables were selected for inclusion. Cronbach's alpha coefficients ranged from .72 to .94 supporting the internal consistency reliability of the Resilience Scale. Hypothesized relationships between the Resilience Scale and study variables (e.g., forgiveness, stress, anxiety, health promoting activities) were supported strengthening the evidence for construct validity of the Resilience Scale. In the studies reported here, the Resilience Scale has been used with a variety of individuals of different ages, socioeconomic, and educational backgrounds. The Resilience Scale has performed as a reliable and valid tool to measure resilience and has been used with a wide range of study populations.
Almost since the beginnings of psychiatric practice, there has been a recognition that negative life experiences and stressful happenings may serve to precipitate mental disorders (Garmezy & Rutter, 1985). Nearly 200 years ago, Pinel wrote about the psychiatric risks associated with unexpected reverses or adverse circumstances, and it is reported that his initial question to newly admitted psychiatric patients was: “Have you suffered vexation, grief or reverse of fortune?” Nevertheless, although an appreciation that a variety of stressors may play a role in the genesis of psychiatric disorder has a long history, the systematic study of such effects is much more recent.
This study describes the development and initial psychometric evaluation of the 25-item Resilience Scale (RS) in a sample of 810 community-dwelling older adults. Principal components factor analysis of the RS was conducted followed by oblimin rotation indicating that the factor structure represented two factors (Personal Competence and Acceptance of Self and Life). Positive correlations with adaptational outcomes (physical health, morale, and life satisfaction) and a negative correlation with depression supported concurrent validity of the RS. The results of this study support the internal consistency reliability and concurrent validity of the RS as an instrument to measure resilience.
To explore the relationship between social support and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) among flood victims.
A cross-sectional survey was carried out in 2000 among individuals who had suffered floods in 1998 in Hunan, China. Multistage sampling was used to select the subjects from the flood-affected areas. PTSD was diagnosed according to DSM-IV criteria, and social support was measured according to a social support rating scale. Data were collected through face-to-face interviews using a structured questionnaire. Multiple logistic regression analysis and confirmatory factor analysis was used to examine the relationship between social support and PTSD.
Out of a total of 25,478 subjects interviewed, 2336 (9.7%) were diagnosed as having PTSD. PTSD was significantly associated with total social support (odds ratio [OR] 0.80, 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.78-0.82), subjective support (OR 0.48, 95%CI, 0.44-0.52), and support utilization (OR 0.53, 95%CI, 0.49-0.57).
PTSD in flood victims is significantly associated with social support; subjective support and support utilization may play more important roles in mitigating the impact of flood than objective support.
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