Aquinas on Free Will and Intellectual Determinism

Abstract

From the early reception of Thomas Aquinas up to the present, many have interpreted his theory of liberum arbitrium (which for Aquinas is free will specifically as the power to choose among alternatives) to imply intellectual determinism: we do not control our choices, because we do not control the practical judgments that cause our choices. In this paper we argue instead that he rejects determinism in general and intellectual determinism in particular, which would effectively destroy liberum arbitrium as he conceives of it. We clarify that for Aquinas moral responsibility presupposes liberum arbitrium and thus the ability to do otherwise, although the ability to do otherwise applies differently to praise and blame. His argument against intellectual determinism is not straightforward, but we construct it by analogy to his arguments against other deterministic threats (e.g., the one posed by divine foreknowledge). The non-determinism of the intellect’s causality with respect to the will results from his claims that practical reasoning is defeasible and that the reasons for actions are not contrastive reasons.

Full text



Aquinas on Free
Will and Intellectual
Determinism
Tobias Homann
School of Philosophy, The Catholic University of America,
Washington, D.C.
Cyrille Michon
Département de philosophie, Université de Nantes
  
This work is li censed under a Cr eative Commons
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 3.0 License.
<www.philosophersimprint.org//>
From the early reception of Thomas Aquinas up to the present, many have
interpreted his theory of liberum arbitrium (which for Aquinas is free will
specically as the power to choose among alternatives) to imply intellectual
determinism: we do not control our choices, because we do not control the
practical judgments that cause our choices. In this paper we argue instead
that he rejects determinism in general and intellectual determinism in par-
ticular, which would eectively destroy liberum arbitrium as he conceives
of it. We clarify that for Aquinas moral responsibility presupposes liberum
arbitrium and thus the ability to do otherwise, although the ability to do oth-
erwise applies dierently to praise and blame. His argument against intellec-
tual determinism is not straightforward, but we construct it by analogy to his
arguments against other deterministic threats (e.g., the one posed by divine
foreknowledge). The non-determinism of the intellect’s causality with respect
to the will results from his claims that practical reasoning is defeasible and
that the reasons for actions are not contrastive reasons.
  
-



-
-

-


liberum arbitrium
-
         
       
 



 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
  
 
liberum arbitrium

       
       -
liberum arbitrium
-
liberum
arbitrium        
 liberum arbitrium-

liberum arbitrium
    liberum
arbitrium
liberum arbitrium-

   

  
-
 -




liberum arbitrium-
-
-


        


-
liberum arbitrium

-


    -
liberum arbitrium-

liberum arbitrium
       


-
  
liberum arbitrium-
        


           
-
  -
Contra doctrinam retrahentium a religioneCDR De perfectione spiritu-
alis vitaeDPSV Expositio libri PeryermeniasELPQuaestiones disputatae de
maloQDMQuaestiones disputatae de veritateQDVQuaestiones de quolibet
Quodl.Summa theologiaeST
Quaestiones disputatae de potentiaQDPScriptum super libros Sententiarum
In Sent.Summa contra GentilesSuper RomanosIn Rom.
  
-

liberum arbitrium -

liberum ar-
bitrium

libera voluntas


 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
  

    



QDVQDV   QDV
    -


  

        

       -

quod non
potest non esseST-
-
-
immutabiliter determinatum ad unum
(QDV
-


Metaphysics
 



        
gratiaEnchiridion

 In Sent. STIn Rom.


1. Freedom of the Will and Liberum Arbitrium
 -
    
-

    
-
liberum arbitrium 

 libe-
rum arbitrium 
libertas voluntatis, libera voluntas

liberum arbitrium-
          

        

1.1. Freedom of the Will and Sourcehood


         
 -
         -
-
  

 
 De civitate Dei      De correptione et

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay

-


-

-

     

sub ratione boni-

(ST
-

liberum arbitrium

-

   
      ST  QDM  

     -

STST

SCG QDVQDP ST

-

 QDV QDP
ST
 SCGCDR  

QDP 
    -
 
-
De civitate Dei 
       




      
       -
 liberum arbitrium

-
    


do will
-

ST

liberum arbitrium






liberum arbitrium
         
 STST
 QDVSTST

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
QDP ST
         
     

QDPST-
 
 
source
ultimate source

-

absolutely ultimate source

willagainst her willST
 ST 

absolute ultimate source



         
ST

1.2. Liberum arbitrium: Sourcehood and Alternative Possibilities
-
liberum arbitrium       
liberum arbitrium
ST

 liberum arbitrium   liberum arbitrium    
      -
  liberum arbitrium 

libera voluntas
          
 



        
        
(voluntarium secundum rationem perfectam
    principium      
-
 
        
-



(ST  QDV  -

ibid.
-
         
 
        

STELP


  


 SCGQDVQDP ST

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
liberum arbitrium
   -

   

 
      


-


-
       
liberum arbitrium



liberum arbitrium (ST QDM 
liberum arbitrium-
libe-
rum arbitrium     
  liberum arbitrium

liberum arbitrium -
 


liberum arbitrium
    

li-
berum arbitriumliberum arbitriumQDM
In Sent.
   -

liberum arbitrium
liberum arbitrium-
ST
liberum arbitrium
 
    liberum arbitrium   

 liberum arbitrium 

 Liberum arbitrium      

liberum arbitri-
um

       liberum arbitrium
    QDV
liberum
arbitrium

     SCG


         
(QDM
liberum arbitrium 
  liberum arbitrium  

   




 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
arbitrium-

      -


 liberum arbitrium   
-


-



-

      




-
absolute


 
   


 



  

       
   


liberum arbitrium-
QDM

-
ST

STST
1.3. Compatibilist and Incompatibilist Interpretations of Sourcehood and Al-
ternative Possibilities
-
      
     
-
-
  


   

-


-
        -
 liberum
  liberum arbitrium In Sent.QDV
QDVSCGST-
     In Sent.ST  


 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
  

-
ST


      

    liberum arbitrium  
-

2. Liberum Arbitrium and Moral Responsibility
liberum arbitrium

 liberum arbitrium   
-
liberum arbitrium-
   
li-
berum arbitrium
    
          -
liberum arbitrium



-

2.1. Moral Responsibility without Alternative Possibilities?
          -
           libe-
rum arbitrium       


       

   -

        
 

   -
-



liberum arbitrium-

   -
-
 
 
-
liberum arbitrium
     -

      
-
-

QDV ST ST QDM   
-

 

 

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
liberum arbitrium  

 
liberum arbitrium -


ST 

-
-


    
     

       QDV


  liberum arbitrium   
 

  




QDVST

QDM
ST

liberum arbitrium-


liberum arbitrium  -
   
     

-

         
QDM
 



       liberum
arbitrium-
      liberum arbi-
trium  liberum arbitrium    

(QDV
-
-
liberum arbitrium
 

        
          

liberum arbitrium

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
liberum arbitriumliberum arbitrium


2.2. An Asymmetrical Account of Moral Responsibility?

        
 liberum arbitrium   -



    

blameworthy

praiseworthy


         
         


 -


 


 

         

QDV

  liberum arbitriumlibe-
rum arbitrium
-




     -


liberum arbitrium 





ST  QDM     

QDM

 
       
liberum arbitrium
QDV


 ST 

QDMSCGQDM-
Nicomachean Ethics 

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay



-
 -





  De libertate arbitrii       

-



De libertate arbitrii-



-

2.3. Aquinas on Moral Praise and Alternative Possibilities

-
  liberum arbitrium       


         
Contra Iulianum opus imperfectum     
De libertate arbitrii
QDV
QDVQDV

-

-


 
          


      




      
          
       



-






 


 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay


ST
   

-

           
      
  -



        



     
 
   
DPSV
          -


stabilis in bono




CDR
CDR




   (QDV       
liberum
arbitrium
-

          




-
QDV
          
      Nicomachean Eth-
ics       
      
-


 secundum se       praised -
         honored 



     

In Sent.QDV

      -
quaestio  articulus    -

quaestio

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
           
   


SCG
liberum arbitrium    
liberum arbitrium
liberum arbitrium ST     
  



QDV
 -



-

or badly    
 liberum arbitrium



(QDV


Sir.

(QDV
STST De virtutibus in communi 

 
          




         
        
-
-


Letter to the Romans   
Epistula ad Paulinam et Armentarium
CDR

-
-

SCG ST

does -



liberum arbitrium

in the present

-

CDRDPSV
 Epistula     felix est necessitas, quae in meliora
compellit

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
liberum arbitrium    
In Sent.
-





liberum
arbitrium
-


Ibid.
-
   
           
QDVQDV
     
QDV   -
 -
        In Sent.
  







(QDV        
-


ST
-




liberum arbitrium 
liberum arbitrium -
In Sent.

sin
liberum arbitrium-


       
liberum arbitrium


liberum arbitrium
     
-
  liberum arbitrium  
         




 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
-
liberum arbitrium


       liberum arbitrium  
  -
      
liberum arbitrium
    
-
 liberum arbitrium

       


-

        


3.1. The Threat from Divine Foreknowledge

liberum arbitrium


        
ELP


-
 -

In Sent.  QDV   ST   

   
QDV 




    

      


-




   liberum
arbitrium
liberum arbitrium



-
liberum arbitrium
3. Threats to Liberum Arbitrium
-

liberum arbitrium   
 libertas  liberum arbi-
trium
liberum arbitrium
QDV

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
-

-

        t1      
t0t2
t2
t1t0-
t2 

ST
  contingentium
QDVIn Sent.
 
       



 t1-
c t2
 t1 

 ∴t1c t2

 

-
             
-





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

-
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


-



  
        
-

-

QDV     -

ST-
In Sent.-
necessary
consequence   necessity of the consequent
 
     -
-

ST
  
QDVIn Sent.
      

 


ST-

QDVIn Sent.

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
      



 -
t0
t2


′ t1t2

′

 -
       


-

-


STQDV
  ST        

  

Perihermeneias In Sent. QDV



         

∴ t1 t2

         


        

liberum arbitri-
um

-
 

    




   

         
          
-

          
  


 
    

In Sent. QDVST
 Philosophiae consolatioIn Sent. 
QDV
ST-


 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
-
         



-

-






QDP
QDP
QDM


 


    
         
ST

 QDV
 -
          
        

-
liberum arbitrium QDM
ST
3.2. The Threat from God’s Ecacious Will
  -
certissima et infal-
libilissima
liberum arbitriumST



liberum arbi-
triumliberum arbitrium






  

          

           
         
(ST

li-
berum arbitriumST









 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay




Summa theologiae
    

 

-
ST

 
 
ST


according to the mode


ST  
-
 
 
QDVST
 -
liberum arbitrium


ST




        -
   QDVST
  
 -

liberum arbitrium
QDVST 



QDV 
-
-




  
  
QDV 
-






possible in prin-
ciple

QDV            
-
   
     

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
-

  liberum arbitrium      -
    




       
  QDV   


-
-

   


liberum arbitrium


3.3. Threats from Created Causes
liberum arbitrium
  
         
       

-


 

 


 
(ST
liberum arbitriumST
 

liberum ar-
bitrium 
ST

li-
berum arbitrium
   -
-

    
ST
liberum arbitrium
 t1
t0t2t2

 t1 t0
t2

 ∴t1t2



 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
3.4. The Threat of Intellectual Determinism
liberum arbitrium

    



 -
       
 
-
    





     
ELP
   -


-

-
-


  
      -
ELP



     -
      




 -


       

ST-





     ST  ST
QDM
-
QDVST

        

 


In Sent.QDVELPQDM
ST

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
t1t2

-


liberum
arbitrium-


        



4. Four Rival Interpretations


-
      -

moral psychology    
    -

     


 

 


       
-


-

-


        
           


A→A




   -
     
-



t1 
t0 t2-

t1
t0 



In Sent.-


 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay

A→A






A→A-


     
      
-




     


   -


QDV STQDM
Quodl. Opera omnia
Quodl.Opera omnia
     -
-



-


modal theory
-
 


 -
   
 -





  


4.1. Intellectualist Interpretations
-
 A
A
A↔A-




   -
 



  
 



 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
-

    
-


-


-
     

 
QDV

-

        

appetituiQDV
-

             
   
-
-

ST 
ST
QDM
-



   

       -

  
QDV
liberum arbitrium-
A-
A
AA-
    


4.2. Voluntarist Interpretations
li-
berum arbitrium
         
-

  A→   

A   
A→A


A
 QDM
SCGQDM
ST ST  Sententia libri Ethicorum 


 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
-

    
liberum arbitrium
  


     
         
 
        
  
  
-
-
-


-

-
 
   

     




         
          
       


    QDV    
        
that
        
  A

A   A
-





        
        -
 
-
-
   -
 
-

4.3. Compatibilism and Conditional Freedom
         -
          

liberum arbitrium  -
         -
  
QDV



 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
liberum arbitriumQDV

          
-








-

liberum arbitri-
umliberum arbitrium

     



      


         





-


liberum arbitrium
(determinatum ad unum-








(QDV




  -


-
 


-



   
       -
        

pace -

  -



 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
-
  
liberum arbitrium

-

5.1. Practical Inference and Deliberation


        


-

    
     
   



-
        
    

  
           -








liberum arbitrium


liberum arbitri-
um-

   

5. Alternative Possibilities in Practical Reasoning

liberum arbitrium
-
















-



 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay

 -






-
   
-


-




5.2. The Defeasibility of Practical Inferences




  -
-


ST
ST  -
QDM
ST
           



-
       
 QDM



ST
       

 -
    


         
   
     










-
-

ELP

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay


-


′-
-

   


   
     

 
-
  

-
-




    human being


as a physician
  
-

 -




   
   




-

 
  
        
′
-

-
′′



  -







   


-
-

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay


  
QDM

-




     



-
    

-

-

(QDM
-


         
ST
  




-




5.3. Aquinas on Practical Reasoning
         
-

-
-
-
bonum est multiplex   
ad unumST










  -

-

 QDMSTSCG-


 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
    akrasia  Nicomachean Ethics

-

-
-



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



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

-
        


     
 



    

        
          

 
   

-

     
        
      -
ST

          








-



    






-
ST  QDM 
ST-
-


 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
      


-

    







         
-
        

    
       



Conclusion

-


       -
     
-


  


-
-
-

    


  
           -








weighs
weighting-



           -
-


   
          
    
      



  

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
        
   -



-




-



-

liberum ar-
bitrium


-

Bibliography
 Intention
The Philosophy of Georg
Henrik von Wright

De libertate arbitrii-

Ethica Nicomachea, -

 Contra Iulianum opus imperfectum    

        
liberum arbitrium-
 liberum arbitrium



 
liberum arbi-
trium-



 




 liberum arbitrium  -


liberum arbitrium
      -


   


    -


-
      
     

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay

The Journal of Philosophy
Ox-
ford Studies in Medieval Philosophy

International Philosophical Quarterly

-
Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie
Journal of
the History of Philosophy
Freedom and Determinism,


The Theology of Thomas Aquinas
       

 Medieval Phi-
losophy and Theology
Henrici de Gandavo Opera omnia


    
Archiv für Geschichte der Philosophie


The Cambridge History of Moral Philosophy  
 

Vivarium

Philo-
sophical Studies
         
   
 -

 De ciuitate Dei libri XX      -
  

De correptione et gratia-


Enchiridion ad Laurentium de de et spe et caritate


Epistulae

Anicii Manlii Severini Boethii Philosophiae consolatio
 


Cahiers du
Centre de recherches historiques 
         
Weakness of Will from Plato to the Present
       

   Free Will
-

-
The Oxford Handbook of Free Will


  Responsibility and Control: A
Theory of Moral Responsibility   


 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
Papers on Time and Tense
 

     Freedom and the Human Person


American
Catholic Philosophical Quarterly

American Catholic Philosophical Quarterly

Aquinas
-
Faith, Freedom and Rationality-
       

Opera omnia iussu impensaque Leonis XIII P.M. edita

Quaestiones disputatae de potentia  
Quaestiones disputatae

Scriptum super libros Sententiarum magistri Petri Lombardi Episcopi
Parisiensis

Summa contra Gentiles

Super Epistolam ad Romanos lecturaSuper Epistolas S. Pauli Lec-
tura     

An Essay on Free Will

Agency and Answerability: Selected Essays-

Aquinas and the   
       -

   Journal of
the History of Philosophy 
Virtues of the Will: The Transformation of Ethics in the Late Thirteenth
Century       

      Human and Divine
Agency: Anglican, Catholic, and Lutheran Perspectives, -


       
Revue internationale de philosophie
  Le temps, l’éternité et la prescience de Boèce à Thomas
d’Aquin
  Saint Thomas d’Aquin
      

Making Sense of Freedom and Responsibility

Revue thomiste

Philosophical Explanations

  Persons and Causes: The Metaphysics of Free Will

  La profondeur de l’amour divin: La prédestination dans
l’œuvre de saint Thomas d’Aquin    

Thomas Aquinas on Human Nature: A Philosophical Study
of  1a 73–89  

Philosophy

 tobiashoffmannandcyrillemichon Aquinas on Free Will
hilosohersimrint  olnomay
  
The Journal of Philosophy
    Essays on
Freedom of Action-

The Oxford Hand-
book of Aquinas

-
         Metaphysical
Themes in Thomas Aquinas

Meta-
physical Themes in Thomas Aquinas II

    The Journal of Philosophy 

Freedom within Reason