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ISSN: 2161-0231 (ONLINE)
Risk-taking Behavior in Police Officers and Martial Artists:
Investigating potential Differences using the Balloon Analogue
Risk Task
Mario S. Staller1, Benjamin Zaiser1, Swen Körner3, Jon C. Cole1
1 University of Liverpool, Department of Psychological Sciences,
Tactical Decision Making Research Group
3 German Sports University Cologne, Institute of Pedagogy and Philosophy
Abstract
This study investigated the effects of regular threat exposure on risk-taking by comparing
risk-taking propensity between police officers, martial artists, and a control group not
regularly exposed to real or simulated threats. The behavioral measure of risk-taking
propensity known as the Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) was administered to a sample
of 205 participants (police officers, martial artists, and controls). Results showed no
difference between the groups, which indicates that experience as a police officer and/or a
martial artist did not lead to a change in risk taking propensity. The potential importance of
risk-taking propensity to a better understanding of decision-making of police officers and
martial artists are discussed.
Keywords: martial arts, police use of force, risk-taking propensity
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Introduction
Police officers are regularly exposed to threats (Jager, Klatt, & Bliesener, 2013). In this
context, taking and managing risk is a common element of the police profession and a routine
action for police officers, especially when decisions with impact on officer and civilian safety
have to be made within split seconds (Beauregard & Michaud, 2015; Hill, 2002). Compared
to police officers, martial artists (including practitioners of combat sports and self-defense)
are not exposed to real-life threats on a regular basis. However, martial artists engage in
simulated, confrontational situations (Staller, Bertram, Althaus, Heil, & Klemmer, 2016) or
physical combat settings (e.g. Branco et al., 2013; Jensen, Roman, Shaft, & Wrisberg, 2013;
Markovic, Vucetic, & Cardinale, 2008). Even though risk-taking behaviors that place an
individual at risk for health or safety outcomes have received particular attention in the
literature (e.g. Banducci, Felton, Dahne, Ninnemann, & Lejuez, 2015; Bornovalova, Gwadz,
Kahler, Aklin, & Lejuez, 2008; Hanson, Thayer, & Tapert, 2014; Lejuez, Simmons, Aklin,
Daughters, & Dvir, 2004; Zuckerman, Ball, & Black, 1990), police officers and martial artists
have not been subject to any investigations so far. Therefore, the study reported with this
article aims to assess whether experience as a police officer or martial artist can consequently
lead to an increase in risk taking behavior. The study compared police officers to martial
artists, as both differ from normal populations due to experiences of being in hostile situations
where risk assessment, management, and mitigation may bring some benefit.
Literature
Risk-taking behaviors can be defined as behaviors that involve some potential for
danger or harm, while simultaneously providing an opportunity to obtain a reward of some
kind (Leigh, 1999). Such behaviors are neither positive nor negative on their own in the sense
that they are neither functional nor dysfunctional. Rather they encompass a broad range of
behaviors that fall along both positive and negative dimensions (Byrnes, Miller, & Schafer,
1999; Foersterling, 1980; Leigh, 1999; Lejuez et al., 2002).
The specific risks that police officers and martial artists have to manage differ from
each other. In the context of policing, the management of risk (with potentially detrimental
outcomes for health and safety) is an everyday task (Hoyle, 1998; Kane, 1999; 2000; Perez
Trujillo & Ross, 2008). On the other hand, martial artists have to deal with risks to health and
safety associated with combat and training settings (Gauthier, 2008; Jensen et al., 2013). In
this context, their decision-making can have serious consequences as well. In situations
where every alternative regularly has drawbacks (Yates & Tschirhart, 2006) and the
environment is uncertain, time pressured, and dynamic (Endsley, Hoffman, Kaber, & Roth,
2007; Lipshitz, Klein, Orasanu, & Salas, 2001; Parent & Verdun Jones, 1998; Staller &
Zaiser, 2015), experienced decision-makers are thought to rely on intuitive decision-making
based on recognition of situational cues (K. G. Ross, Klein, Thunholm, Schmitt, & Baxter,
2004). Accordingly, police officers have to take risks, since the environment is uncertain and
they need to balance the potential positive outcomes of their behavior against potential
negative outcomes associated with the situation. In situations that pose threats to the police
officer or members of the public, the acting officer has to make quick and complex decisions.
The officer has to compare potential courses of action to contextual constraints and the
familiarity of the unfolding situation (Klein, 2008; Klein, Orasanu, Calderwood, & Zsambok,
1993). Correspondingly, experience plays a crucial role and the process by which experts
make decisions based on experience and an increased ability to assess risk (Wickens, 1992).
Furthermore, through the use of heuristics, experts are able to quickly select the best tool or
strategy for a given task in an uncertain world (Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier, 2011; Todd,
Gigerenzer, ABC Research Group, 2012). These strategies ignore “part of the information,
Risk-taking Behavior in Police Officers & Martial Artists/Staller/Zaiser/ Körner/Cole
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with the goal of making decisions more quickly, frugally, and/or accurately than more
complex methods” (Gigerenzer & Gaissmaier, 2011, p. 454). With this in mind, a propensity
for risk-taking behavior in police officers and martial artists may be affected by past
experiences, where risk-taking has been used effectively. This may lead to the increased
accessibility of heuristics related to risk-taking behavior (Fischer, Guter, & Frey, 2008).
Hypothesis
Given that police officers and martial artists have to manage risks on a regular basis,
it is hypothesized that both groups would show a difference in risk-taking behavior compared
to a control group.
Operationalization
One potential tool for gauging risk-taking behavior within a laboratory setting is the
Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART), a computerized assessment of risk taking propensity
(Hopko et al., 2006; Lejuez et al., 2002; Lejuez, Aklin, Zvolensky, & Pedulla, 2003b; Lejuez
et al., 2007; White, Lejuez, & de Wit, 2008). It is one of the most widely used and tested
sequential risk-taking tasks and is proven to be a sensitive measure to real world risk-taking in
different clinical and non-clinical populations (Aklin, Lejuez, Zvolensky, Kahler, & Gwadz,
2005; Banducci et al., 2015; Bornovalova et al., 2008; Campbell, Samartgis, & Crowe, 2013;
Crowley, Raymond, Mikulich-Gilbertson, Thompson, & Lejuez, 2006; Hanson et al., 2014;
Lauriola, Panno, Levin, & Lejuez, 2014; Lawyer, 2013; Lejuez et al., 2002; 2004; 2007;
2003a; Lejuez, Aklin, Bornovalova, & Moolchan, 2005). The BART requires participants to
inflate a series of balloons. The more an individual balloon is inflated, the more money a
participant will earn. The caveat is that all money earned for a given balloon will be lost if
the balloon is inflated too much and explodes. Hence, the BART is able to determine the
likelihood of behaving in a risky manner by measuring the average number of pumps that
balloons are inflated to in the context of earning monetary rewards (Banducci et al., 2015).
Since performance on the BART is associated with substance and alcohol use, smoking,
psychopathy, and risky sex among adults (Campbell et al., 2013; Gonzalez et al., 2012;
Hanson et al., 2014; Hopko et al., 2006; Hunt, 2005; Lejuez et al., 2002; 2003a; Schuster,
Crane, Mermelstein, & Gonzalez, 2012), it can be assumed that it captures adults’ likelihood
of behaving in a risky manner across a variety of contexts (Banducci et al., 2015). Therefore,
performance on the BART serves as an accessible proxy of the participants’ risk-taking
propensity across multiple contexts.
Methods
Participants
A total of 205 participants took part in the study. Police officers were sampled through an
opportunistic sampling method. Martial artists and the control group were recruited via social
media (Facebook). Participants were asked about experience as police officers and in martial
arts and were subsequently assigned to different groups for the study. Two cases of missing
data were identified (police officers with no experience in martial arts) resulting in a final
sample of N = 203.
The sample consisted of (a) police officers (n = 72) with no experience in martial
arts, except for police training, (b) martial artists (n = 50), that had regular training experience
in martial arts, and were not part of a police force, (c) police officers with additional martial
Risk-taking Behavior in Police Officers & Martial Artists/Staller/Zaiser/ Körner/Cole
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arts experience (n = 33), and (d) a control group (n = 48) with no experience in the policing
sector and no experience in any martial art or combat sport. Demographical data of
participants is shown in Table 1 (see Table 1).
Materials
The BART required participants to pump up a simulated balloon on the screen by the click of
a mouse. The computer screen shows a small-simulated balloon that gets bigger with every
click of the mouse. Participants are asked to gain as much money as possible on each trial
and cashing out by clicking “Collect $$$” on the screen. Furthermore, a permanent money-
earned display labeled “Total Winnings” and display listing the money that could be earned,
when the participants decided to cash out (“Potential earnings”), and the trial number
(“Balloon number”) are presented on the screen (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. On-screen presentation of the BART
With each click (or pump of the balloon), 5 cents was earned on a temporary account
(“Potential earnings”). When a balloon was pumped past its individual explosion point, a
sound-effect combined with the explosion of the balloon was presented. In that case,
participants lost all money in the temporary account and a new balloon appeared on the
screen. Accordingly, participants had to decide when to stop inflating the balloon. After 30
trials the adjusted average pump count (AAPC) was calculated as the behavioral statistic of
the task. The AAPC is the mean number of pumps on trials that do not end in an explosion
(Pleskac, Wallsten, Wang, & Lejuez, 2008).
Procedure
Participants accessed a website (hosted on www.millisecond.com), which outlined
information regarding the experiment and issued a consent form. If accepted, the Inquisit web
software (Inquisit v4.0.5.0., 2014) was downloaded and screen resolution was automatically
set to 800 x 600. Before testing began, participants were informed that the test should be
completed in a quiet setting. After the tasks were finished, participants were directed to a
website (hosted on www.soscisurey.de), which recorded demographic information and any
experience of being part of a police force or martial art group. Participants were thanked for
their time and presented with debrief information.
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Analytic Strategy
Group differences were assessed using a one-way ANOVA. The dependent variable was the
AACP, whereas the groups formed the independent variables. Normality of the data sets were
checked using Shapiro-Wilk’s test (Razali & Wah, 2011; Shapiro & Wilk, 1965) and a visual
inspection of histograms, normal Q-Q plots and box plots (Doane & Seward, 2011). The
results showed that the AAPC score of the BART was normally distributed. Statistical
analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics version 24.0. A significance level of p <
.05 was set.
Results
Means, standard deviations, and 95% confidence intervals of the AAPC are displayed in
Table 2.
Table 2.
Means, Standard Deviations and 95% Confidence Intervals of AAPC Scores
95% CI
n
M
SD
LL
UL
Police
72
32.26
14.69
28.81
35.72
Martial Arts
50
32.89
13.86
28.95
36.83
Police & Martial Arts
33
29.17
14.13
24.16
34.19
Control
48
30.64
11.51
27.30
33.98
Total
203
31.53
13.66
29.64
33.42
Results of the one-way ANOVA yielded no significant difference between the groups, F(3,
202) = 0.63, p = .600. Means and 95% confidence intervals of the AAPC are depicted in
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Means and 95% confidence intervals of AAPC score
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Discussion
This study investigated the effects of regular threat exposure on risk taking. In particular, it
inquired whether exposure to real threats, as typical for police officers, or whether regular
exposure to threats associated with training or competition settings, as typical for martial
artists, could lead to an increased propensity for risk-taking. The study demonstrated that
neither police officers nor martial arts practitioners show a propensity for risk-taking as
measured by the BART.
This finding has two implications: First, exposure to situations of mild threat such as
practice and competition activities, as common for martial artists, do not lead to an increase in
risk taking. Second, the exposure to real threat does also not result in an increase in risk-
taking behavior as indicated by the AAPC scores of the participating police officers.
Considering that a substantial component of police use of force and martial arts training
consists of applying reasonable force, the role of training may act as a mediating factor in
situations of real and simulated threat and reduce risk-taking behavior. Yet, further research
is needed to investigate this assumption.
There are several limitations that have to be acknowledged. First, even though
participants reported their experience as police officers and/or martial artists, the actual
exposure to threats was not assessed. Future studies should consider the difference between
the experience as a police officer and the actual exposure to real life threats (Schmalzl, 2008).
Second, the groups of police officers and martial artists consisted of a broad range of
individuals of the specific population. It could be possible that more specialized groups (e.g.
special operations officers; mixed-martial artists) display differences in the propensity for
risk-taking. Third, since some of the participants completed the test at home via the Internet,
there is the possibility of distractions during testing. Although participants were asked to
make sure they did not get distracted, it cannot be controlled for (Birnbaum, 2004).
The study is one of the first of its kind to employ a behavioural assessment measure
of risk-taking propensity in order to shed light on the decision-making of police officers and
martial artists. Although several questions remain for future research, results from the current
study set the stage for future research examining the potential relationship between risk-taking
propensity and the exposure to threats as a police officer or a martial artist.
About the Authors:
Dr. Mario Staller is a German police officer with more than ten years of experience as a
police use of force, self-defense, and firearms instructor. His main areas of
research are psychological aspects of conflict management in police contexts, skill
development and pedagogical practice in police use of force and self-defense training.
Benjamin Zaiser served as a member of the federal crisis negotiations team of the German
police and as a narcotics agent in both national and international settings. His research
interests include social cognition during critical and major incidents, tactical decision making
in law enforcement contexts, and the pedagogy of corresponding training and education.
Dr. Swen Körner is a tenured professor at the German Sports University Cologne. His
current research is focusing on nonlinear pedagogy, training pedagogy, network analysis and
social system dynamics. He is the head of several ministry funded research projects and has
been a member of the Advisory Council of the German Federal Institute for Sports Science
for many years.
Risk-taking Behavior in Police Officers & Martial Artists/Staller/Zaiser/ Körner/Cole
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Dr. Jon Cole is the director of the Tactical Decision Making Research Group at the
Department of Psychological Sciences at the University of Liverpool. The research group
focuses on (i) the psychology of armed confrontations, (ii) preventing violent extremism and
radicalisation, (iii) terrorist decision making, (iv) crisis negotiation, and (v) Social Media
Intelligence (SOCMINT).
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