Article

Exploring the use of juju in Nigerian human trafficking networks: considerations for criminal investigators

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Abstract

This exploratory study examines a seemingly unique method of control used to psychologically bind Nigerian women and children to their traffickers. In order to manipulate the victims’ fear of spiritual retribution, they initially undergo a juju ritual whereby they swear an oath to the spirit world, promising not to escape or disclose their exploitation to the authorities. The aim of this research was to explore how this process affects the victim and what considerations this phenomena raises for criminal investigators. The methodology employed qualitative data obtained through interviews with front-line practitioners from the United Kingdom. Results suggest the oath is one of several mechanisms used by traffickers to instil fear. Others include rape, physical threats, threats of deportation and perceptions of police corruption. The main recommendations are to empathise with the victim’s fear of spiritual retribution; develop trust and rapport; take a joint-agency approach and provide access to psychological and spiritual counselling.

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... Eerder dan de beelden die in de westerse beeldcultuur met voodoo geassocieerd worden, betreffen het in deze lokale Nigeriaanse gemeenschappen openbare en sociaal aanvaarde praktijken, die tevens gebruikt worden om verschillende aspecten van het dagelijkse leven te regelen: "Zij worden in het algemeen niet ervaren als sinister, bedreigend of boosaardig" (Van DijK et al., 2003: 31). Nigeriaanse mensenhandelaren hebben zich echter allerlei rituele elementen (zoals het afnemen van bloed, haar en nagels, het offeren van dieren, het gebruik van poeders, etc.) toegeëigend en deze uit hun culturele verband gerukt met als doel het bedreigen en onderdrukken van hun slachtoffers (DunKerley, 2018;iKeora, 2016;nijBoer, VocKs & Van DijK, 2001). ...
... Slachtoffers weigerden hier uit angst vaak ook over te praten. In één dossier werd wel een inkijk gegeven in het verloop ervan, al kan de concrete uitvoering van de rituelen verschillen in andere dossiers (DunKerley, 2018). Het ritueel in dit dossier vond plaats in Lagos. ...
... Tot slot ontmaagde de juju-priester haar. Naast de terugbetaling van de reiskosten zijn ook onderdanigheid ten aanzien van de uitbuiters en het zwijgen tegen gerechtelijke actoren veelgevraagde beloftes die gemaakt moeten worden tijdens een ritueel (DunKerley, 2018). De angst voor de negatieve gevolgen bij het verbreken van de afgelegde eed maakt slachtoffers vaak monddood. ...
... Juju ceremonies do not have a fixed pattern (Dunkerley 2017;Taliani 2012) and may present in a variety of ways. Important though is that juju ceremonies are cunningly tailored to the circumstances of each case and geared to best exploit the vulnerability of a specific victim (Baarda 2016). ...
... The juju ceremony usually begins with the victim being brought before a juju priest. Here the victim is instructed to undress which contributes to an acute sense of vulnerability (Dunkerley 2017;Anti-trafficking Consultants 2015b). The priest continues to chant over a bowl of soot and calls upon a spirit to enter the soot (Anti-trafficking Consultants 2015c; UNICRI 2010). ...
... Numerous cuts are then made by the priest to various parts of the victim's body. These include the area above the breast bone and across the whole perimeter of the stomach, arms, legs, and feet (Dunkerley 2017;Anti-trafficking Consultants 2015c). It is purported that the soot, intermixed with samples of human tissue obtained from the victim, contains the spirit. ...
Chapter
Full-text available
A best kept secret of human traffickers is how they control and silence their victims. An effective counter-trafficking response is often obstructed by traffickers implementing various control methods or a blend thereof depending on what is most effective in the specific circumstances. Although the literature revealed numerous mechanisms to control victims, a more in-depth understanding of known methods and especially of emerging unidentified and clandestine methods is needed to combat human trafficking. One of these arcane control methods is “juju” rituals, predominantly used by Nigerian traffickers, to subjugate victims for sexual exploitation in various parts of the world. Exposing control methods, especially more unfamiliar cultural, spiritual, and psychological control mechanisms, are essential to establish an informed counter-trafficking global response. The chapter begins by exploring the motivation for control over victims of human trafficking; whereafter an overview of the arsenal of control methods used by traffickers will be provided. This will serve as the context within which the use of “juju” rituals will be unshrouded as a spiritual or psychological control mechanism used by perpetrators to subjugate victims of human trafficking for sexual exploitation. The chapter concludes with suggestions for a more informed response by practitioners and recommendations for further research characterized by the infusion of a variety of multi- and interdisciplinary perspectives.
... De detectie en de aanpak van het fenomeen is echter niet evident, in het bijzonder door de specifieke modi operandi die de Nigeriaanse mensenhandelnetwerken hanteren (DunKerley, 2018). Voor beleidsmakers en actoren in de praktijk is het daarom interessant om bijkomend inzicht in deze modi operandi te verwerven. ...
... Eerder dan de beelden die in de westerse beeldcultuur met voodoo geassocieerd worden, betreffen het in deze lokale Nigeriaanse gemeenschappen openbare en sociaal aanvaarde praktijken, die tevens gebruikt worden om verschillende aspecten van het dagelijkse leven te regelen: "Zij worden in het algemeen niet ervaren als sinister, bedreigend of boosaardig" (Van DijK et al., 2003: 31). Nigeriaanse mensenhandelaren hebben zich echter allerlei rituele elementen (zoals het afnemen van bloed, haar en nagels, het offeren van dieren, het gebruik van poeders, etc.) toegeëigend en deze uit hun culturele verband gerukt met als doel het bedreigen en onderdrukken van hun slachtoffers (DunKerley, 2018;iKeora, 2016;nijBoer, VocKs & Van DijK, 2001). ...
... Slachtoffers weigerden hier uit angst vaak ook over te praten. In één dossier werd wel een inkijk gegeven in het verloop ervan, al kan de concrete uitvoering van de rituelen verschillen in andere dossiers (DunKerley, 2018). Het ritueel in dit dossier vond plaats in Lagos. ...
Article
Full-text available
Belgium is one of the main destination countries in Europe for Nigerian victims of sex trafficking. Based on a literature review, analyses of judicial files and an expert interview, this article describes the modi operandi of Nigerian sex trafficking networks. Different aspects are analysed: i) the vulnerabilities of the victims that are exploited, ii) the travel routes used by the traffickers, iii) the structure of and the actors in the network, iv) the coercive measures used by the traffickers, and v) the managing of black money. In this way, specific characteristics of Nigerians sex trafficking networks are distinguished, among which the presence of a female leader, the family-based structure of the networks and the use of voodoo related coercive techniques.
... Esta persona que pactaba la venida a España lo haría a cambio de un dinero. Dicho pacto o contrato se solía hacer con un compromiso bajo rituales de vudú (Dols, 2012;Dunkerley, 2018;Leman y Janssens, 2013). Existían diferentes costes dependiendo de la ruta de viaje y los intermediarios. ...
... The individual agreeing to make the trip to Spain did so in exchange for money. The agreement or contract was typically made through a commitment based on voodoo rituals (Dols, 2012;Dunkerley, 2018;Leman and Janssens, 2013). Distinct costs may exist, depending on the travel route and the intermediaries. ...
Article
Full-text available
Este trabajo analiza las estimaciones que desde medios políticos y sociales se ofrecen sobre la trata con fines de explotación sexual en España. Partiendo de distintas fuentes de información recogidas por los autores (entrevistas a informantes clave y a tratantes, análisis de sentencias judiciales, trabajo etnográfico, análisis de noticias en prensa y memorias de organismos oficiales) se realizan estimaciones del coste y beneficios económicos que los tratantes obtienen de sus víctimas, y se cuestionan las informaciones contradictorias y obsoletas que se utilizan para referirse al número de víctimas y a los hombres que pagan por servicios sexuales.
... Globalization and the opening of international borders have led not only to greater international exchange of capital and goods but also the increase in international migration (Dandurand, 2017;Dunkerley, 2018). As the world evolves towards as a global community there have been more movement of people both voluntary and coerced. ...
... Countries that have criminal codes that do not include the offence of trafficking in persons are 4 in number (Department of State , 2019; Jaya, 2018; United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime , 2018).In Africa few only a few countries lack trafficking laws or have partial legislative coverage.Also, in Asia countries only a couple of countries have not yet introduced specific traffickingAssessing the Effectiveness of Global and International Cooperation in Tackling Human Trafficking Volume 1, Number 4, 2020, ISSN: Print 2735-9328, Online 2735-9336 Page | 80 legislation. Most European countries introduced the offence of trafficking before 2004(Dunkerley, 2018). Most South American countries have a specific offence of trafficking in persons following the Palermo Protocol many countries introduced legislation on trafficking in persons between 2004 and the end of 2008. ...
Article
Full-text available
Human trafficking is an evolving global crime with no simple solution. Cooperation among countries is vital in preventing trafficking, protecting victims and prosecuting traffickers on both the global and local level. The aim of this study was to examine the current state of international response and evaluate the effectiveness. The methodology used was to review existing literature on international collaboration and cooperation efforts on human trafficking. The study revealed that there has been a general increase in the detection of victims of human trafficking and prosecution of traffickers around the world in recent years. However, the responses are not growing fast enough to keep up with the pace of change in patterns of the crime. A comparative analysis of the existing laws, agreements and treaties by governments, international and regional organizations on human trafficking shows that international cooperation is more of an ideal than a reality in many countries. The study recommends that a revision of the existing legislation and the adoption of national action plans peculiar to each jurisdiction is necessary to strengthening the investigative, prosecutorial coordination and capacity in dealing with human trafficking
... Juju, in contemporary usage, denotes a variety of concepts: (1) it could refer to the magical or supernatural power deliberately infused into a particular object or believed to be the cause of a given occurrence; (2) it could also refer to an object that has been purposely endowed or infused with magical/supernatural properties (e.g., talisman, amulet, protective ring, concoction, etc.); and (3) it may denote the practice of using incantations and/or objects to help or harm people psychically, or to control events (Changa, 2009; see also Dunkerley, 2018;Neal, 1966;Ojo, 1981). This study focuses largely on the third connotation. ...
Article
Full-text available
Child homicide is a frequent occurrence in many African communities, and juju beliefs trigger a sizable proportion of this crime. Yet a systematic and critical analysis of juju’s impact on pedicides is lacking in the literature. The sparse extant studies on juju-driven homicide or ritual murder mainly offer historical perspectives rather than criminological analysis of the phenomenon. The present study explores the magnitude, characteristics, and motivations, as well as the socio-cultural and economic contexts of ritual child homicide or juju-driven pedicide (i.e., the killing of children for ritual or occult purposes) in Ghana and Kenya. This aim is achieved by conducting an in-depth analysis of ritual murder reports publicized on the websites of eight major news/media outlets between 2012 and 2021. The content analysis results are complemented by semi-structured interviews involving 28 academics and experts. The data show that ritual child homicide usually involves multiple offenders, primarily unemployed young adult males aged between 20 and 39 years. Most perpetrators are motivated by pecuniary gain and the desire to protect themselves against perceived spiritual attacks. The body parts primarily extracted from victims for rituals are the head, limbs, private parts, and blood. The major factors contributing to the persistence of ritual pedicides are obsession with juju, economic hardship, illiteracy, inefficient criminal justice system, authorities’ failure to bring juju practitioners under closer scrutiny, and the emergence of a new consumerist ethos—the unrestrained quest for luxurious effects.
... However, it may also make use of the personal items -including hair and nails -of the trafficking victim -as part of the ritual. The process is used to invoke fear and enhance the power of the traffickers (Baardo, 2016;Dunkerley, 2017). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Human trafficking occurs within the context of widespread objectification and commodification of persons as "products" in economies in which they have little power and sometimes few options for self-determination and self-sufficiency. In both labor and sex trafficking, there is a power imbalance where the trafficker possesses the economic power to treat the trafficked as a commodity and also takes control of all the profits. In the transaction, it is obvious that there is no element of consent, voluntariness, pleasure, or personal desire of the victim. This explains why trafficking in human beings is a ruthless, cynical, and multi-layered form of exploitation where traffickers profits by victimization and make turnover from the adversities, distress, and vulnerability of the trafficked persons. This unscrupulous business practice is such an intricate problem embedded majorly in poverty, marginalization, and ideas of subordination. Human trafficking has legitimized a brand-new element into capitalism which has supplemented slavery, status inequality, and disrespect to human dignity.
... However, it may also make use of the personal items -including hair and nails -of the trafficking victim -as part of the ritual. The process is used to invoke fear and enhance the power of the traffickers (Baardo, 2016;Dunkerley, 2017). ...
Chapter
Full-text available
Global discourse and action on human trafficking clearly depict it as being incompatible with the dignity and worth of the human person. This is premised on the fact that conditions that permit human trafficking also condone labour and sexual exploitation, tolerate unregulated and unscrupulous business practices, and maintain status inequalities and marginalization against persons being trafficked. Human trafficking is today characterized by the exploitation of vulnerable people and is a violation of their basic human right to autonomy and freedom. This lends credence to why human trafficking has been referred to as "modern slavery." The existence of human trafficking in contemporary societies underscores society's ongoing struggle to secure equality and human rights for all its members. Drawing upon an extensive seminal and contemporary research as well as existing literature on human trafficking, this chapter examines the phenomenon visa -vis the logic of economic gain devoid of respect for human dignity using Biderman's theory of coercion.
... The "chosen" places for women's recruitment are remote villages where the women, often young girls in the age range of 16-23 years old, are misled with the false promise of a new life in Europe. Different concrete and symbolic aspects, such as the religious and cultural beliefs, as well as the role of the madame or mamán, contribute to increase submission and fear (Beneduce & Taliani, 2006;Dunkerley, 2018;Ehiemua & Valentine, 2020;Mancuso, 2013;Mannino & Giunta, 2019;Millett-Barrett, 2019;Taliani, 2012;Van der Watt & Kruger, 2020). The journey toward Europe is studded with horrors and abuses, especially during the crossing of the Sahara and the permanence in Libya (Tessitore, 2022;Tessitore & Margherita, 2020;Tessitore et al., 2022). ...
Article
Full-text available
The present qualitative study, through a psychoanalytic and culturally sensitive lens, aims at shedding light on the representations of the Nigerian sexual trafficking phenomenon and on the peculiarities of the relationship with trafficked women, from the perspective of five Nigerian female cultural mediators who work in the field of anti‐trafficking. A semi‐structured interview was developed and analyzed according to the principles of the Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis‐IPA. On the background of a complex process of construction of borders between the Self and the Other, the findings show that the complexity of the cultural mediation work is higher with trafficked women due to the similarities in terms of gender, ethnic, and cultural identities. These similarities produce continuous oscillatory movements between identification/dis‐identification, confusion/differentiation, and admiration/envy. Sexual trafficking emerges as a complex chain folded over itself made by a succession of internal and external usurpers, which mutually reinforces one another, worsening the mental health of migrant women and exacerbating their vulnerabilities. The findings show the need to build thinking spaces specifically directed to the female cultural mediators who work with trafficked women in order to protect them from the risk of vicarious trauma as well as to promote an awareness about the complexities involved in their work. The possibility to understand human and sexual trafficking on a deeper level allows the planning of more person‐centered clinical interventions, which can take care of women's well‐being as well as prevent the high and very frequent risk of dropping out.
... In the darker recesses of the use of rapport, child grooming (Black et al., 2015) and human trafficking (Dunkerley, 2018) are unfortunate proponents. There are questionable practices on the use of rapport within the field of the detention of suspected criminals (David et al., 2018), hostage negotiation (Duke et al., 2018) and debt collection (Harrington, 2018). ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
The concept of rapport is central to the coaching relationship, as reflected in coach training and publications, yet there are gaps in the literature when it comes to the client experience of rapport. Using semi-structured interviews and thematic analysis, this research explores the meaning of rapport with 8 UK field sales professionals and gains a deeper understanding of their experience of rapport in the arena of sales coaching. Five themes emerged: ideal conditions for rapport, rapport as a facilitator, positive consequences, unilateral rapport and negative outcomes. There was agreement on the ideal conditions for, and outcomes from rapport when compared to the literature. Whilst participants articulated an experience which aligns to what the sales profession views coaching to be, their reality illustrates a theory-practice gap that is commensurate with the gap between what the client expects, and what they receive. More intention towards creating rapport and returning the agenda of coaching to the client are key recommendations for practice that are supported by the data and by literature.
... For example, Juju, also 'interchangeably referred to as "witchcraft," "voodoo," "spirits," "muti," "black magic," "demons," "satanism," and "curses,"' (Van der Watt and Kruger 2017, p. 78) is a well known technique of control and coercion in Nigeria. It is a widespread form of traditional/religious practice used to control women in cases of trafficking through forced oath taking and threats of punishment from deities (Ikeora, 2016;Van der Watt and Kruger, 2017;Dunkerley 2018). The Juju ceremony is an important aspect of gaining control. ...
Chapter
In 2015, two key pieces of legislation were introduced into UK law concerning fundamental issues of control and freedom. Section 76 of the Serious Crime Act (England and Wales) criminalised coercive control within domestic abuse/intimate partner violence. The Modern Slavery Act was implemented to tackle the growing problem of human trafficking and modern-day slavery in the UK, with coercion recognised as a tool of control. This chapter examines commonalities of experiences of coercion in these and other situations of control. Additionally, an analysis of media portrayals of coercive control demonstrates how such concepts are often (mis)-represented and thus misunderstood in the public sphere. Coercive control legislation is similarly inadequately conceptualised in practice and may be failing women in intimate partner violence cases within the criminal justice system. The chapter concludes with a caution against including the concept of coercive control in cases of modern slavery and human trafficking.
... Among the problems that concern the victims of trafficking, a series of aspects stand out. First, the victims go unnoticed and undetected for several reasons: they are not seen as victims of a crime; they are isolated and cannot speak to anyone; they present factors of vulnerability; they do not know the language, the rights they have and the laws of the country they find themselves in; they are in precarious psychosocial situations due to the process of victimization; and so on (Chahín-Pinzón et al., 2017;Dunkerley, 2017;Mancy and Johns, 2011;Meneses-Falcón et al., 2015). While professionals, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and even civil society can be involved in detection, a victim can only be identified by the police. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study explores the difficulties that Spanish judges face during the judicial investigation and trial of the trafficking of human beings for sexual exploitation. Here, we highlight the issues of judges’ lack of training and the saturation of the courts due to the excessive work that these crimes entail. To collect data, responses from 71 Spanish judges were collected through a questionnaire, and nine semi-structured interviews were conducted in three Spanish provinces (Barcelona, Malaga and Madrid). Noteworthy findings include the fact that almost half of the judges had dealt with a case involving this type of crime and that a third ended up closing the case. In the responses received, the lack of victims’ collaboration in the judicial process was highlighted as one of the difficulties as was the lack of resources to investigate these crimes and the involvement of other crimes.
... This brief paper covers the topic of trafficking in human beings within the European Union, with a special focus on Nigerian citizens, as they are overrepresented amongst third Due to this duality and the greediness or simply just the fear of poverty, priests of the traditional faith tend to co-operate with criminals subjecting the victims to rituals, the so-called juju, or voodoo, so the women take an oath to not to talk about their journey, pay the debts back which derives from the costs of the journey, the harbouring, reception and other additional services (DUNKERLEY, 2018). Once the exploitation has started at the destination country, the debt starts to rise again, since the money coming from prostitution has to cover their daily boarding costs and charge of further expenses. ...
Conference Paper
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China’s program for inter-regional economic connectivity, the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), will develop new trade routes and production chains linking developing world economies with the Chinese market, making a unique contribution to gloabl economic devewlopment. At the same time, problems with debt servicing, corruption and a range of other political risks have emerged in some BRI partner countries and with some projects, which have encouraged an increasingly geopolitical commentary, particularly since the shift of the United States’ rhetoric since 2017 characterizing China as a strategic competitor. Whether the benefits of the BRI projects will be evenly shared or will accrue disproportionately to China will be an important area for future study. It is clear that the BRI raises a range of risks and that these are distributed between China and its partners. For China, the BRI can be understood as a giant risk mitigation strategy to support its economic restructuring and development of Western China, by deploying surplus capital and construction capabilities to diversify global supply chains and markets. As many of the BRI partner countries are high risk locations for investment and infrastructure development, China and its partners are also taking signficant risks. There is a need for more empirical study of Chinese initiatives, finance and investment in diverse international business environments. This discussion of the political risk for Chinese businesses and their partners in the developing world reviews the recent discussions of three broad categories of risk factors: geopolitical, country-level and project-level.
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Il presente contributo intende esplorare gli elementi che entrano in gioco durante il processo di affrancamento dal rito del juju nelle donne di origine africana sub-sahariana, trafficate con scopi sessuali. Diversi sono i contributi che in letteratura mettono in evidenza il potere di assoggettamento riconosciuto alla ritualità del ju-ju, ma pochi sono gli studi che si sono occupati di comprendere i meccanismi che qualificano il processo di affrancamento dal giuramento nel nuovo continente, effettuato senza aver estinto il debito. Con l'intento di colmare questa mancanza, presenteremo i risultati di una ricerca condotta con 26 donne sopravvissute al sex trafficking, provenienti dalla Nigeria, sottoposte al rito juju prima di partire per l'Italia. I principali risultati delle interviste mostrano la centralità della dimensione spirituale anche nel processo di emancipazione: quest'ultimo passa attraverso la riappropriazione e il rafforzamento di elementi spirituali cristiani utilizzati per svincolarsi dal giuramento.
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Spiritual rituals have potential for misuse as a form of control in human trafficking. A lack of understanding of this process can lead to challenges in supporting trafficking survivors. This article is a metasynthesis of systematically reviewed qualitative literature on ritual use in human trafficking, providing insight into ritual practices and their impact. Relevant qualitative research was identified via blind screening. A total of 3087 studies were screened; 24 met inclusion criteria. Data were analyzed using thematic synthesis, yielding eight themes incorporating 27 sub-themes: These were 1) background vulnerabilities that make a ritual a powerful control mechanism, 2) trafficker intention to exploit, 3) power and consent issues in agreement to a ritual and contract, 4) powerful and often frightening ritual experiences, 5) control mechanisms arising from the ritual experience, 6) impact of the ritual on the victim, 7) challenges for the victim in leaving and getting help, and 8) successes in helping survivors who have escaped exploitation. We offer an illustrative framework for considering the relationship between rituals and human trafficking. We discuss implications for policy making that empowers trafficking survivors and promotes just outcomes within legal, governmental and health care systems. FULL TEXT LINK: https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/8XENNKSGU957N2JCP5R2/full?target=10.1080/23322705.2022.2062563
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This research investigates the deployment of juju rituals by criminals to perpetrate crime, ensure invincibility, avoid injury or death, subdue victims, and evade police apprehension. Existing studies have predominantly focused on the use of juju in relation to human and sex trafficking; however, this current study takes a more generalized approach to examine usage across Nigerian-organized crime. It explores perceived potency and exploits of juju-using criminals, police personnel’s encounters and experiences in effecting their arrest, and accounts of juju priests on the conducts of juju rituals and spiritual fortifications for their clientele. Qualitative research techniques involving ex-convicts of violent crimes, police personnel and juju priests were adopted. The findings confirm a high level of beliefs in the power and potency of juju rituals, in spite of affiliations to orthodox religions. Police personnel admitted the efficacy of juju rituals which enables criminals with charms to have a supernatural edge over them during arrest operations. Consequently, this study advocates for the recognition of juju practice by the justice system, in order to regulate witchdoctors’ activities and provide the necessary support for police personnel.
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Access to justice for trafficked persons in Nigeria: A handbook for legal actors and assistance providers
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Federal government commence extradition proceeding for human trafficking suspect
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Nigeria: Human trafficking - FG commences extradition request from Netherlands
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The economy of ritual debt bondage in THB: Case study on Nigeria. Paper presented at the Regional Research Network conference on challenging existing discourses, approaches and responses to human trafficking, Seeschloss Orth, Gmunde
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Beyond boarders: Human trafficking from Nigeria to the UK (Report)
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Ties that bind: African witchcraft and contemporary slavery
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Retrieved from Oxford Department of International Development (ODID) website
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Safeguarding children controlled through belief in ritual oaths
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Specialist police training: Investigating child trafficking
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Achieving best evidence in criminal proceedings: Guidance on interviewing victims and witnesses, and guidance on using special measures
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