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Development of the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS): A new measurement tool for individual cooking practice
Abstract
Researchers studying consumer food-behaviors, like cooking, in everyday life require better tools for assessment of food-related abilities. This study presents a measurement tool for assessing cooking and food-preparation practices: the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS). The CAFPAS is based on the “Food Agency” framework for understanding cooking behavior as sociological “agency” that emerges from the interaction individual abilities and skills and social structure (see Trubek, Carabello, Morgan, & Lahne, 2017; Wolfson et al., 2017). Thus, the scale seeks to measure the degree to which individuals are able to set and achieve cooking and provisioning goals. Potential scale items were generated and screened by experts (N = 7). The resulting 70 items, with demographic and validation items, were administered to a development sample of US adults through email listservs (N = 445) and administered to an independent validation sample of US adults through Amazon Mechanical Turk (N = 498) and both Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) were used to evaluate structural stability and generalizability. Composite scale scores were regressed against indicator variables – including the Food Involvement Scale (FIS) and self-reported meals cooked at home – to assess construct validity. Close model fit was achieved using 28 items on three subscales: Food Self-Efficacy, which comprises self-perceptions of cooking and provisioning abilities; Food Attitude, which comprises attitudes towards food and cooking; and Structure, the influence of non-food barriers on provisioning. The model was generalizable up to partial-scalar invariance across samples. In linear regression, CAFPAS scores significantly predicted reported meals cooked per week (+1 meal/week per unit increase in CAFPAS). Thus, the CAFPAS is a structurally valid tool, based in a novel paradigm, for evaluating cooking and food-preparation abilities.
... A cross-sectional online survey was conducted among adults in established adulthood (aged [30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45] in Taiwan who regularly engage in daily cooking to examine whether their use of the social media platform Instagram to watch healthy cooking techniques multimedia influences their healthy eating behaviours. This study strictly adheres to the principles outlined by the National Taiwan University Research Ethics Centre (approval number: 202405ES089) and the Declaration of Helsinki. ...
... Those who met the eligibility criteria were then provided with a Participant Information Statement and an Informed Consent Form. Upon giving their informed consent, participants proceeded to complete a demographic questionnaire, which gathered information on gender (male, female, prefer not to disclose), age range [30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45], education level, and current living status. Following the demographic section, participants answered the main research questionnaire, which assessed key constructs, including Cooking Behaviour, Healthy Cooking Techniques Multimedia, and Healthy Eating Behaviours. ...
... The Cooking Behaviour questionnaire was developed based on the survey instruments and findings of Pinard et al. [33], Lahne, Wolfson, and Trubek [34], Namin et al. [35], Lins et al. [36], and Jomori et al. [37]. The questionnaire items were further reviewed and validated by five experts to ensure their clarity and relevance. ...
Background: Social media platforms increasingly influence dietary behaviours, with cooking videos emerging as a key tool for promoting healthy eating. However, limited research has examined how such digital content affects adults in established adulthood. Objective: This study investigates the relationships among cooking behaviour, engagement with healthy cooking videos on Instagram, and healthy eating behaviours among Taiwanese adults aged 30 to 45. Methods: A cross-sectional online survey collected valid responses from 488 participants (effective response rate = 81.3%) who regularly cook and engage with food-related content on Instagram. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to test hypothesised relationships. Results: Cooking behaviour was positively associated with engagement in healthy cooking multimedia (β = 0.262, p < 0.01). Engagement significantly predicted healthy eating behaviours (β = 0.399, p < 0.001) and mediated the effect of cooking behaviour on dietary outcomes (indirect effect = 0.105, 95% CI [0.044, 0.204]). Cooking behaviour alone was not directly associated with healthy eating behaviours (β = 0.009, n.s.). Conclusions: Engagement with healthy cooking videos enhances healthy eating practices among adults in established adulthood. These findings highlight Instagram’s potential as a digital health promotion tool and support the integration of culinary media into public nutrition strategies.
... These questionnaires included subjective sensory function, food-related quality of life (QoL), and food and cooking habits. Cooking habits were evaluated by applying the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS) [21]. Food-related QoL ('Please rate how food impacts your quality of life'; 0 = 'most pronounced negative impact possible', 100 = 'most pronounced positive impact possible') was evaluated using a visual analogue scale (VAS) (0-100). ...
... [13]. For detailed information on the questions, see the original publication by Lahne et al. [21]. For a complete list of changes in CAFPAS questions, see Table A3. ...
... Normative scores from Fjaeldstad and Smith, 2022 [13]. For detailed information on the questions, see the original publication by Lahne et al. [21]. For a complete list of changes in CAFPAS questions, see Table A3. ...
Smell loss affects around 15–20% of the population, with a major effect on the quality of life. The most common complaint is the impairment of the eating experience, with around 90% of patients reporting this issue. A study conducted at a specialised Taste and Smell Clinic investigated if food and cooking can positively affect the enjoyment of food, subjective cooking skills, and quality of life in patients with smell loss. The 49 participants in the study received a 5-week cooking school course that focused on emphasizing the other senses to regain the enjoyment of food. Participants gained more confidence in cooking, and their quality of life improved significantly. Positively evaluated recipes were adjusted based on feedback and published as free e-books in Danish, German, and English. Eating and cooking are multisensory experiences, and the perception of food depends on the complex interaction of senses and surroundings. If the olfactory input is reduced or absent, both the enjoyment and cooking experience can be negatively affected. Therefore, focusing on food and cooking can have a positive impact on patients with smell loss.
... Food agency was measured using the previously validated Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS) tool (27) consisting of 28 items measuring self-efficacy (13 items, e.g. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980023001817 ...
... The CAFPAS tool had good construct and criterion validity, and internal reliability in the original study among a diverse sample of the US population (27) . Further confirmatory factor analysis showed that the tool had an acceptable fit for this study population (RMSEA 0.06; CFI 0.895; TLI 0.886; SRMR 0.064) (29) and high internal consistencies (alpha 0.71-0.90) ...
... subscales (27) . ...
Objective:
To explore how fathers with young children contributed to healthy home food provisioning and the factors enabling or inhibiting their involvement in family food tasks.
Design:
Cross-sectional study using purpose-designed online survey. The survey assessed the level of responsibilities and practices in family food tasks, food agency (Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale), and use of resources to support involvement in family food tasks. Data collection took place over three weeks in November-December 2020 when various COVID-19 related restrictions were in place. Descriptive and regression analyses were used to assess psychosocial factors influencing responsibilities in family food tasks and food agency.
Setting:
Online survey.
Participants:
Included in the analysis were 435 Australian fathers with children aged under 5 years.
Results:
Between 75-77% of fathers in this study reported having at least half of the responsibilities in meal planning, shopping, and cooking. Health was frequently considered when deciding what to eat, but few used nutrition or food labels when shopping, tried new recipes or modified recipes to make them healthier. Involvement in family food tasks was promoted by a higher food agency, but time spent in employment was a significant barrier to reported food agency and greater involvement in food tasks. There was a high interest in resources to support healthy home food provisioning.
Conclusions:
The findings suggest the need to consider father-specific strategies to overcome time barriers and opportunities to enhance their capabilities for healthy home food provisioning.
... This is not surprising, given that quantifying complex latent variables that cannot be measured directly, such as food agency, is not trivial. A review of scales measuring selfreported food agency and cooking literacy among adults indicated that the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS; Lahne et al., 2017) is among the most comprehensive scales for capturing elements of food agency (Amouzandeh et al., 2019). Speaking to its value as a quantitative tool, CAFPAS scores have been positively associated with healthy dietary intake (Leung et al., 2019;Wolfson et al., 2020), frequency of from-scratch cooking (Wolfson et al., 2020) and number of meals prepared per week , as well as inversely related with food neophobia (Niimi et al., 2022). ...
... The present study includes a secondary analysis of the data presented in Lahne et al. (2017) set together with additional CAFPAS data previously collected in Sweden. The primary aim was to evaluate the measurement properties of the CAFPAS using Rasch analysis in order to ascertain its psychometric reliability in detail. ...
... Items that are theorized to be negatively related to the underlying construct are reversed scored (see Table 3). Scores for each subscale are calculated as the standardized sum of responses, and overall raw CAFPAS score is taken as the sum of the three subscale scores (see Lahne et al., 2017). ...
The Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS) is a 28-item validated tool for measuring food agency, a latent construct representing an individual’s ability to make and achieve food-preparation and -provisioning goals. Here, key measurement parameters (targeting, threshold ordering, item fit, unidimensionality,
differential item functioning, local dependency, and person reliability) of the CAFPAS are evaluated using a specific case of item response theory, Rasch analysis, on data from a development sample (N = 1853; 910 from Sweden; 943 from the US). Winsteps (v.5.1.7) is used for this analysis. The similarity of the Swedish version of the CAFPAS to the original is also assessed. Based on an iterative assessment of the measurement properties with different combinations of items in the development sample, ways to shorten the CAFPAS without jeopardizing construct validity or person reliability are examined. After removing items that do not fit the Rasch model, or that appear redundant in relation to other items, an 11-item version (CAFPAS-short) is suggested and tested using further Rasch analysis on both the development sample and an additional US-based validation sample (N = 1457). Scores of cooking confidence and attitudes are then modelled with measures from the CAFPAS and CAFPAS-short using frequentist and Bayesian analysis. Results suggest that the CAFPAS-short performs similarly to the full-length version, and potential future improvements to the CAFPAS are discussed. This study represents a successful application of item response theory to investigate and shorten a psychometric scale, reducing cognitive load on participants in studies using the CAFPAS whilst minimizing loss of data reliability.
... To develop Instrumentalism and Marketness scores and assign consumers and producers to a quadrant on the Embeddedness Type Matrix, surveys are designed to elucidate the categories outlined in Section Factor categories and highlight producer and consumer values, motivations, and behavior. The surveys are comprised of affirmative statements (Lahne et al., 2017) of the form "I feel a sense of obligation to my consumers" across all appropriate categories and attributes above. All questions are unipolar 1-5 Likert scale questions with response options from "Strongly Disagree" (1) to "Strongly Agree" (5). ...
... Factor analysis is a "best practice" in the methodological literature for reducing the number of observed variables to a smaller set of latent or underlying factors (DeVellis, 2011;Lahne et al., 2017). While latent variables, such as instrumentalism and marketness, cannot be directly measured, they can be indirectly measured by examining the relationships they cause in observed variables, e.g., survey responses. ...
... Using a CFA with oblique rotation and a target of two factors assigns a factor load of 0-1 for each variable and explains the variable's correlation with each factor (Migliore et al., 2014a). Factor loadings are compared to the theoretical structure to confirm that the variables with the highest loadings are assigned to the appropriate theoretical factor, and variables are realigned to factors with which they have the highest loading, if necessary (Lahne et al., 2017). ...
Agricultural systems are deeply enmeshed in complex social processes and institutions, something Polanyi called embeddedness. Designing policy for sustainable agricultural activity requires understanding and measuring such embeddedness. Due to the difficulty of measuring complex social dynamics, however, most policy is aimed at measurable metrics such as price and production. The focus on these metrics imports the rational actor conceptualization of economic activity and fails to incorporate the values, motivations, and socio-cultural components of agricultural decision-making. This paper develops a tool for measuring embeddedness called the Embeddedness Type Matrix (ETM). The tool utilizes survey responses to elucidate economic actors' instrumentalism (decisions motivated by self-interest) and marketness (decisions motivated by market factors). Instrumentalism and marketness are considered together along perpendicular axes to determine the embeddedness quadrant of economic actors. The ETM allows researchers and policy-makers to better understand producers and consumers and design sustainability policies that are aligned with their values and motivations.
... Previous research in other countries has explored the factor structure of food literacy [44,45]. However, although they have the same conceptual and definitional framework as a reference, the distribution and representation of the subcomponents are different between them [46]. ...
... If they perceive it as being difficult to dedicate time to healthy eating at the same time as, for example, attending classes [47], it is understandable that they also do not attach much importance to the social gathering around food in their daily lives. in any case, none of these studies have made an empirical observation based on the life experience of the target population [46] but have rather relied on experts for the development of the scale or followed nutritional recommendations from the country, or based on previ-ous research [44,48]. This underestimates the influence of geography and culture on the concept [49] and demonstrates psychometric differences between scales across countries. ...
... This could be due to the leap between theory and practice, typical of the beginnings of measuring a new construct. Although the differences between M2 and M3 were minimal, the latter still represented seven of the subcomponents proposed by the theoretical authors and had a total scale reliability (α = 0.89), higher than that shown in previous studies [44,48]. ...
Food literacy is a combination of functional, critical, and relational skills that pave the way for navigating the food system properly, taking personally and contextually available resources into account. The aim was to validate the Spanish version of the self-perceived food literacy scale in university students to explore the factorial structure of it and to correlate food literacy with other variables. The sample was composed of 362 Spanish university students (314 women). The full questionnaire was administered online and also assessed adherence to a Mediterranean diet, impulsivity, and health-related quality of life for convergent validity testing purposes. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to determine the factor structure of the food literacy scale. The Spanish version of the scale showed good indices of internal consistency (Cronbach’s α = 0.894). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a five-factor model that had a better fit index than the seven-factor model of the original scale. External validity was assessed by showing significant correlations with the rest of the variables. Therefore, the Spanish version of the scale is a reliable and valid measure of food literacy. It could be used to promote policies at Spanish universities to improve the food-related behaviors of students.
... A number of questionnaires have been developed and validated to measure food and cooking skills [18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26]. However, these questionnaires were not specifically designed to measure the frequency of exposure to different cooking techniques. ...
... In the last two decades, new questionnaires have been developed and validated to assess cooking behavior at home. In general, these questionnaires have focused on the study of eating and cooking knowledge, behavior, and skills [18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26]. However, only five of these questionnaires have included a limited number of questions related to the frequency of cooking at home [18,19,23,25,26]. ...
... It is a common starting point for questionnaire validation [19,22]. The new HCFQ is based on a robust framework that combines a recent literature review, existing culinary tools [18][19][20][21][22][23][24], and expert consultation. For any new instrument development, it is desirable that the CVI exceed 0.80 [30]. ...
Home cooking and the type of cooking techniques can have an effect on our health. However, as far as we know, there is no questionnaire that measures in depth the frequency and type of cooking techniques used at home. Our aim was to design a new Home Cooking Frequency Questionnaire (HCFQ) and to preliminarily assess its psychometric properties. For this purpose we used a five-phase approach, as follows: Phase 1: item generation based on expert opinion, relevant literature and previous surveys; Phase 2: content validity assessed by experts for relevance and clarity (epidemiologists, dietitians, chefs); Phase 3: face validity and inter-item reliability; Phase 4: criterion validity using a 7-day food and culinary record; and Phase 5: test stability and inter-item reliability. The content validity index for scale and item level values provided evidence of the content validity for relevance and clarity. Criterion validity analysis showed intraclass correlation coefficients ranged from 0.31–0.69. Test–retest reliability coefficients ranged from 0.49–0.92, with ƙ values > 0.44. Overall Cronbach’s alpha was 0.90. In conclusion, the HCFQ is a promising tool with sound content and face validity, substantial criterion validity, and adequate reliability. This 174-item HCFQ is the first questionnaire to assess how often people cook and which cooking methods they use at home.
... Individual differences in food literacy and cooking ability among consumers is a rapidly developing research area which has gained increasing interest particularly in the last several years. Several scales have been proposed to measure consumers' self-reported ability to cook, covering a wide spectrum of research areas, from meal planning to preparation and consumption (Begley, Paynter, & Dhaliwal, 2018), healthy eating and nutrition (Gréa Krause, Beer-Borst, Sommerhalder, Hayoz, & Abel, 2018;Poelman et al., 2018), and cooking ability and frequency (Lahne, Wolfson, & Trubek, 2017). These scales are some of the most comprehensive for the measurement of food literacy (Amouzandeh, Fingland, & Vidgen, 2019). ...
... These scales are some of the most comprehensive for the measurement of food literacy (Amouzandeh, Fingland, & Vidgen, 2019). Among them, the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS; Lahne et al., 2017), has been shown to be quite successful. The CAFPAS is rooted in the idea of food agency, a sociological concept capturing an individual's ability to intentionally create foods as they envisioned them and to plan and execute meal preparation in different contexts (Trubek, Carabello, Morgan, & Lahne, 2017). ...
... The internal consistency of the raw data obtained from CAFPAS and FNS were determined using Cronbach's alpha each from the data set of the consumer test as well as the online survey. Normalised indices of cooking ability of consumers were calculated using the method described by Lahne et al. (2017). The sum of the scores were calculated within each subscale section for each consumer and divided by the respective subscale standard deviation derived from the relevant sample (i.e., from the consumer study (N = 101), from the online study (N = 288), or the combined data set (N = 389)). ...
Encouraging consumers to reduce their meat consumption is imperative in mitigating climate change effects related to the food industry. For some, transitioning away from meat may be facilitated by meat substitutes. However, these are not always accepted as suitable alternatives to meat due to a combination of psychological, situational, and sensorial aspects. The influence of factors such as cooking ability on hedonics and sensory discrimination of meat and meat substitutes is currently under-researched. The present study investigated such effects. Consumers (N = 101) of varying cooking ability and food neophobia (measured using questionnaires) tasted and evaluated six mince products (one beef and five meat substitutes - three soybean-based, one mycoprotein-based, and one oat-based) prepared in a Bolognese sauce. They rated liking for overall, appearance, aroma, taste/flavour, and texture, and profiled the products sensorially using check-all-that-apply (CATA). It was found that meat substitutes can be liked just as much as, if not more than, beef in the application of Bolognese sauce. No main effects of cooking ability were found for any modality of liking, though an interaction between cooking ability and sample was found for liking of flavour/taste. Consumers’ ability to sensorially discriminate between the Bolognese sauces was not dependent on their cooking ability. Several attributes that contributed to (dis)liking were identified. An additional online sample (N = 288) completed only the cooking ability and food neophobia questionnaires. A negative relationship was detected between cooking ability and food neophobia for the combined consumer and online datasets (total N = 389).
... 27 Food skills are distinct from cooking skill, as described elsewhere to include management and planning tasks such as reading labels and meal planning. 28 By contrast, cooking skills encompass physical actions used in meal preparation, such as chopping, mixing and heating. Such skills contribute to food agency, a broad framework acknowledging the complex and multidimensional relationship between cooking and health. ...
... [33][34][35] There has been a growing interest in alternative approaches to providing bariatric surgery aftercare 18,36,37 given barriers to in-person attendance being geographical 27 and scheduling related, as well as other reasons including experiencing stigma and shame. 26,28 Therefore, the present study aimed to determine (1) the feasibility of a nutrition education intervention "Online Cooking Tips for Sleevers", including participant recruitment, retention adherence, acceptability, engagement and adverse events of the intervention, and (2) the preliminary efficacy of the intervention on diet quality, 4 diet-disease relationships knowledge and food skill confidence. The hypothesis was that adults who had undergone a SG at least 12 months previously would be interested in an online nutrition education and support program aimed at improving their diet quality. ...
Background
A sleeve gastrectomy (SG) is a lifelong treatment that improves health and better outcomes are associated with follow‐up. However, there is lack of access or high attrition to aftercare. This potentially contributes to sub‐optimal dietary intake and a lack of evidence for nutrition interventions. The present study assessed the feasibility and preliminary efficacy of a nutrition intervention to improve diet quality in Australian adults living with a SG.
Methods
Adults (n = 96) post‐SG were recruited into a cross‐sectional diet quality study, with 68 eligible for randomisation to an intervention or wait‐list control group. Over 10 weeks, a Facebook group was used to post daily nutrition education. Feasibility outcomes included participant recruitment, engagement, retention and acceptability. Preliminary efficacy was assessed using change in Australian Recommended Food Score (ARFS). Linear mixed models were used to measure differences in mean outcome between the experimental groups over time.
Results
Sixty‐eight participants (97% female) aged 48.2 ± 9.8 years, body mass index 33.1 ± 5.8 kg/m², and mean ± SD ARFS 39 ± 9 points were randomised to the intervention, with 66% retention at 10 weeks. At follow‐up, diet quality increased for the intervention group (mean ARFS, 95% confidence interval = 0.2 [−1.5 to 1.9]) and decreased for the control group (mean ARFS, 95% confidence interval= −2.0 [−5.2 to 1.2]) with no between group difference (p = 0.2). Participants (n = 30) rated the intervention positively.
Conclusions
Recruiting and retaining adults post‐SG into a nutrition intervention is feasible. Low‐cost recruitment attracted strong interest from women to identify greater support to know what to eat following SG. A future fully powered trial to assess intervention efficacy is warranted.
... These questionnaires included subjective sensory function, foodrelated quality of life, and food and cooking habits. Cooking habits were evaluated by applying the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS) [21]. Food-related quality of life ('Please rate how food impacts your quality of life'; 0='most pronounced negative impact possible', 100='most pronounced positive impact possible) was evaluated using a VAS scale (0-100). ...
... [13]. For detailed information on the questions, see the original publication by Lahne et al. [21]. For a complete list of changes in CAFPAS questions, see Supplementary Table B1. ...
Smell loss affects around 15-20% of the population, with a major effect on the quality of life. The most common complaint is the impairment of the eating experience, with around 90% of patients reporting this issue. A study conducted at a specialized taste and smell clinic investigated if food and cooking can have a positive effect on the enjoyment of food, subjective cooking skills, and quality of life in patients with smell loss. The 49 participants in the study received a 5-week cooking school course that focused on emphasizing the other senses to regain the enjoyment of food. Participants gained more confidence in cooking, and their quality of life improved significantly. Positively evaluated recipes were adjusted based on feedback and published as free e-books in Danish, German, and English. Eating and cooking are multisensory experiences, and the perception of food depends on the complex interaction of senses and surroundings. If the olfactory input is reduced or absent, both the enjoyment and cooking experience can be negatively affected. Therefore, focusing on food and cooking can have a positive impact on patients with smell loss.
... These measures of food literacy were grouped in four domains: importance of learning experience, ease and pleasure of cooking, food skills, and confidence in the kitchen. The survey questions were adapted from the International Food Literacy Survey [56] with some more specific cooking practices questions from the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale Survey [59]. Both surveys had been previously validated [56,59]. ...
... The survey questions were adapted from the International Food Literacy Survey [56] with some more specific cooking practices questions from the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale Survey [59]. Both surveys had been previously validated [56,59]. The order of questions within each survey set was randomized. ...
This research explores the impact of workplace teaching kitchen cooking classes on participants’ food literacy and identifies key predictors of employee engagement. Aligning with the existing literature, we demonstrate that a workplace teaching kitchen program, with hands-on cooking classes, effectively enhances food skills and intrinsic motivation—core aspects of food literacy. Importantly, our results reveal that even a single class can have a measurable impact. Teaching kitchens can successfully engage employees, particularly those with low food skills, showcasing their broad appeal beyond individuals already engaged in wellness or seeking social connection. Awareness emerges as the most influential predictor of participation, emphasizing the crucial role of marketing. Virtual classes prove as effective as onsite ones, offering the potential to increase access for employees. Recognizing employee wellness as a strategic opportunity for employers and a sought-after benefit for top talent, we underscore the importance of practical nutrition education to support individuals in shifting food choices within lifestyle constraints. Workplace teaching kitchens emerge as an effective and scalable solution to address this need. Future research should prioritize exploring the lasting impacts of teaching kitchen education on employee eating habits and health, contributing to ongoing strategy refinement.
... Due to a technical error, this measure was only collected at baseline and follow-up. Cooking confidence was measured with the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAF-PAS) functional sub-scale, a 13-item questionnaire which assesses an individual's self-perceived cooking confidence using a 7-point scale (1 = disagree and 7 = agree) [37]. Nutrition knowledge was assessed with 25 questions from two domains of the General Nutrition Knowledge Questionnaire (dietary recommendations and food groups) [38]. ...
... Each correct answer was summed for a total score of 25 with higher scores indicating higher nutrition knowledge. Gardening enjoyment was assessed using a modified CAFPAS attitudes sub-scale (10 items) where references to cooking were replaced with gardening [37]. Questions asked participants to indicate to what degree they agree (1 = disagree to 7 = agree) with statements related to personal fulfillment and enjoyment such as "I find gardening a very fulfilling activity" or "Compared to other activities, gardening brings me little enjoyment. ...
Background
Food gardening may positively influence cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk-related behaviors. However, the vast majority of existing gardening interventions have used an in-person delivery model which has limitations for scalability. It is not known whether a digitally delivered gardening intervention would be feasible or acceptable to participants. The purpose of this pilot study was to assess the feasibility of a digitally delivered gardening intervention in three domains: participant acceptability, demand, and practicality.
Methods
A single-arm, pre-post-study design was used. Participants (n = 30) were aged 20 + with no plans to garden in the coming season and had at least 1 CVD risk factor. The intervention included ten 1-h video-conferencing sessions, written materials, and access to a study website. Content focused on gardening skills, cooking skills, and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet. Feasibility outcomes included acceptability (post-program ratings), demand (session attendance rate), and practicality (ability to start a garden and grow F&V). The study was considered feasible if the following criteria were met: ≥ 70% rated the intervention as good or excellent, overall session attendance rate was ≥ 70%, and > 70% were able to start a garden and grow F&V. We also assessed pre-post-program changes in behavioral mediators (gardening confidence, gardening enjoyment, cooking confidence, and nutrition knowledge). Descriptive statistics were calculated. Pre-post differences were evaluated with means and 95% confidence intervals (95% CI). Effect sizes were calculated (Cohen’s d).
Results
All feasibility criteria were met. A total of 93.3% of participants rated the intervention as good or excellent, 96% started a garden and grew F&V, and the overall session attendance rate was 81%. The largest mean pre-post changes were in gardening confidence (pre 7.1 [95% CI: 6.4, 7.9], post 9.0 [95% CI: 8.6, 9.5], Cohen’s d = 1.15), gardening enjoyment (pre: 6.3 [95% CI: 5.9, 6.7], post: 7.5 [95% CI: 7.1, 7.9], Cohen’s d = 1.69), and cooking self-efficacy (pre: 4.7 [95% CI: 4.3, 5.1], post: 7.7 [95% CI: 7.3, 8.0], Cohen’s d = 3.0).
Conclusion
A digitally delivered gardening intervention was feasible, acceptable to participants, and they had meaningful changes in behavioral mediators. The next step is to evaluate the impact of the intervention in a future randomized controlled trial.
... While food literacy surveys have been developed [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19], these tend to be the result of expert consensus on food literacy rather than consultation with the general public. However, the Vidgen & Gallegos [1] conceptualisation was derived from an analysis of knowledge, skills and behaviours used by the general public to protect their diet quality through change. ...
... This included international consultation and feedback on the initial pool of food literacy items which was reviewed with general public and validated in a diverse sample of Australian adults [3,23]. The international perspective and the use of IRT as a statistical method is a distinct advantage over previous approaches [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. As IRT is sample-independent [88,89], the questionnaire validated from this study can be re-administered in international populations. ...
... For example, individuals with higher FTN may have lower acceptance of surimi (a mince, gel, or paste made of fish resulting from a series of processing steps). A recent study has also reported a negative association between FN and individual differences in food agency (Niimi et al., 2022), a concept related to individuals' perceived ability to plan and execute meals as they had envisioned (Lahne et al., 2017). Convenience and being uncomfortable when preparing and cooking seafood have been highlighted as main barriers to seafood consumption (Cantillo et al., 2021), whereas alternatives that involve similar and familiar preparation methods are likely to support it (Michel et al., 2021). ...
... Individual FNS-A scores were obtained multiplying the mean across the eight items rating by 10 (i.e., to normalize the range to the original FNS, which ranges from 10 to 70). Food agency scores were calculated as described by Lahne et al. (2017), namely as the sum of the standardized scores for its three constituent subscales (Self-Efficacy, Attitude, and Structure). Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed to test the structure and validity of all the scales, using maximum likelihood estimation and Promax Kappa 4 rotation. ...
... Three cooking-related constructs were assessed, including food agency, cooking skills, and food skills [39,40]. These constructs are associated with higher consumption of fruits and vegetables in adults [41] and were included because they are a natural prerequisite for consuming homegrown produce. ...
... These constructs are associated with higher consumption of fruits and vegetables in adults [41] and were included because they are a natural prerequisite for consuming homegrown produce. Food agency was assessed using the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale and scored using recommended analytical methods, yielding a total score and 3 subscale scores: cooking self-efficacy, attitudes, and structural barriers [40]. Cooking skills, related to cooking methods and preparation techniques, were assessed with 14 questions on a 7-point scale (very poor=1 to very good=7) and a total score was calculated by summing the points from each question (score range . ...
Background
Low dietary intake of fruits and vegetables and physical inactivity are 2 modifiable risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Fruit and vegetable gardening can provide access to fresh produce, and many gardening activities are considered moderate physical activity. This makes gardening interventions a potential strategy for cardiovascular disease risk reduction. Previously developed gardening interventions have relied on in-person delivery models, which limit scalability and reach.
Objective
The purpose of this study was to ascertain participant insight on intervention components and topics of interest to inform a digitally delivered, gardening-focused, multiple health behavior change intervention.
MethodsA web-based survey was delivered via Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk), including quantitative and open-ended questions. Eligible participants were aged ≥20 years, could read and write in English, were US residents, and had at least a 98% MTurk task approval rating. A multilevel screening process was used to identify and exclude respondents with response inattention, poor language fluency, or suspected automated web robots (bots). Participants were asked about their interest in gardening programming, their preferences for intervention delivery modalities (1-hour expert lectures, a series of brief
... While food literacy surveys have been developed [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19], these tend to be the result of expert consensus on food literacy rather than consultation with the general public. However, the Vidgen & Gallegos [1] conceptualisation was derived from an analysis of knowledge, skills and behaviours used by the general public to protect their diet quality through change. ...
... This included international consultation and feedback on the initial pool of food literacy items which was reviewed with general public and validated in a diverse sample of Australian adults [3,23]. The international perspective and the use of IRT as a statistical method is a distinct advantage over previous approaches [8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19]. As IRT is sample-independent [88,89], the questionnaire validated from this study can be re-administered in international populations. ...
Background
Food literacy is theorised to improve diet quality, nutrition behaviours, social connectedness and food security. The definition and conceptualisation by Vidgen & Gallegos, consisting of 11 theoretical components within the four domains of planning and managing, selecting, preparing and eating, is currently the most highly cited framework. However, a valid and reliable questionnaire is needed to comprehensively measure this conceptualisation. Therefore, this study draws on existing item pools to develop a comprehensive food literacy questionnaire using item response theory.
Methods
Five hundred Australian adults were recruited in Study 1 to refine a food literacy item pool using principal component analysis (PCA) and item response theory (IRT) which involved detailed item analysis on targeting, responsiveness, validity and reliability. Another 500 participants were recruited in Study 2 to replicate item analysis on validity and reliability on the refined item pool, and 250 of these participants re-completed the food literacy questionnaire to determine its test–retest reliability.
Results
The PCA saw the 171-item pool reduced to 100-items across 19 statistical components of food literacy. After the thresholds of 26 items were combined, responses to the food literacy questionnaire had ordered thresholds (targeting), acceptable item locations (< -0.01 to + 1.53) and appropriateness of the measurement model ( n = 92% expected responses) (responsiveness), met outfit mean-squares MSQ (0.48—1.42) (validity) and had high person, item separation (> 0.99) and test–retest (ICC 2,1 0.55–0.88) scores (reliability).
Conclusions
We developed a 100-item food literacy questionnaire, the IFLQ-19 to comprehensively address the Vidgen & Gallegos theoretical domains and components with good targeting, responsiveness, reliability and validity in a diverse sample of Australian adults.
... The validated Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale [14] questionnaire for the measurement of individual cooking practice was administered to all participants. The 28-item questionnaire quantifies the relative capacity to plan and prepare meals. ...
... To calculate a subscale score, the subscale sum is divided by the standard deviation of the whole sample population's scores on the subscale. The total CAFPAS score is the calculated sum of all three subscales [14]. ...
Olfactory dysfunction often has severe consequences on patients’ quality of life. The most common complaint in these patients is their reduced enjoyment of food in both patients with olfactory loss and parosmia. How the different types of olfactory dysfunction differ in relation to food and cooking habits, sensory awareness, and food-related quality of life has not yet received much attention. By applying questionnaires on cooking, food, olfactory function, weight changes, sensory awareness, and food-related quality of life, we investigated how various aspects of eating differ between participants with olfactory loss (n = 271), parosmia (n = 251), and normosmic controls (n = 166). Cooking habits in olfactory dysfunction revealed pronounced differences as compared with normosmic controls. Cooking with olfactory dysfunction was associated with, e.g., a lack of comfort and inspiration for cooking and an inability to make new foods successfully. Significant differences in cooking were also found between olfactory loss and parosmia. Food items were less familiar in participants with olfactory loss and parosmia, while the ratings of liking food items differed between olfactory loss and parosmia, indicating the importance of adapting ingredients in meals separately for olfactory loss and parosmia. Parosmia was associated with a higher incidence of weight loss, but we found no difference in food-related quality of life between participants with olfactory loss and parosmia. While olfactory loss and parosmia have wide-ranging consequences on patients’ cooking and food habits, adapting meals to include ‘safer food items’ and integrating multisensory stimulation may be a possible avenue for improving the enjoyment of food.
... The validated Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale [14] questionnaire for measurement of individual cooking practice was administered to all participants. The 28item questionnaire quantifies the relative capacity to plan and prepare meals. ...
... The total CAFPAS score is the calculated sum of all three subscales. [14] ...
Olfactory dysfunction affects often has severe consequences on patients' quality of life. The most common complaint in these patients is their reduced enjoyment of food in both patients with olfactory loss and parosmia. How the different types of olfactory dysfunction differ in relation to food and cooking habits, sensory awareness, and food-related quality of life has not yet received much attention. By applying questionnaires on cooking, food, olfactory function, weight changes, sensory awareness, and food-related quality of life, we investigate how various aspects of eating differ between participants with olfactory loss (n=271), parosmia(n=251), and normosmic con-trols(n=166). Cooking habits in olfactory dysfunction revealed pronounced differences as compared with normosmic controls. Cooking with olfactory dysfunction was associated with e.g., a lack of comfort and inspiration for cooking and an inability to make new foods successfully. Significant differences in cooking were also found between olfactory loss and parosmia. Food items were less familiar in participants with olfactory loss and parosmia, while the ratings of liking food items differed between olfactory loss and parosmia, indicating the importance of adapting ingredients in meals separately for olfactory loss and parosmia. Parosmia was associated with a higher incidence of weight loss, but we found no difference in food related quality of life between participants with olfactory loss and parosmia. While olfactory loss and parosmia have wide-ranging consequences on patients' cooking and food habits, adapting meals to include 'safer food items' and integrating multisensory stimulation may be a possible avenue for improving enjoyment of food.
... rating agreement with statements). This was done so in the belief that frequency would accurately capture active engagement with behaviours, rather than attitudes towards performing them (Bell & Marshall, 2003;Lahne, Wolfson, & Trubek, 2017). Academic and food industry experts (n = 5) with extensive experience within the six food components were identified by the research team and recruited for initial face validation. ...
... Agency. Food Agency, a framework for understanding how individuals set and achieve food-related goals, was assessed using the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS), a 28-item validated measure (Lahne et al., 2017). Items were measured on a 7point scale from 1 meaning strongly disagree and 7 meaning strongly agree. ...
Food choice has the potential to influence our health, community, social status and self-efficacy. Food involvement is a previously established concept, however, newer areas of focus in the food system (i.e. sustainability and advocacy) are not included in its assessment. To encompass these new aspects, a new “food chain engagement” measure is proposed. We define food chain engagement as the active performance of food-related behaviours along the food chain.
Three studies were conducted to assess the psychometric properties of the measure and validate it. Items were selected from reviewing literature and assessed for face validity by experts. Study 1 included 434 participants from the UK. An Exploratory Factor Analysis indicated a 3-factor structure. Study 2 with 633 participants from the UK used Confirmatory Factor Analysis to confirm the factor structure. Additionally, this study assessed convergent validity with previous measures, which highlighted significant (p<0.001) correlations for the overall measure and subscales. Furthermore, it showed an excellent internal consistency reliability for the measure (Cronbach’s alpha 0.85). Finally, Study 3 used a subsample of 212 participants from Study 2 to assess temporal stability of the measure and subscales using Intraclass Correlation Coefficients. All subscales and the measure had good temporal stability reliability.
This is the first extensively developed and validated measure for assessing food chain engagement. The measure and subscales can be used to assess the efficacy of food interventions, as well as provide further insight into broader concepts, which may influence food choice, and in turn, diet quality.
... While validated nutrition questionnaires for athletes have been developed (Edmonds et al. 2023;Tam et al. 2021Tam et al. , 2020, the adapted version of PEAKS-NQ to UK/Ireland showed unacceptable internal reliability for the subsections and only assessed content validity, neglecting temporal stability. Furthermore, several validated cooking-related measures have recently been developed (Lahne et al. 2017;Karlsson et al. 2023;Lavelle et al. 2017;Goni et al. 2022;Dean et al. 2021a) that could be used to assess culinary nutrition interventions in this population. Methodological issues such as the poor validity of assessment tools used in culinary interventions should be addressed in future culinary research in athlete populations. ...
Applied sports nutrition is fundamental to athlete health, performance and training adaptation; hence, culinary skills are paramount to meet physiological demands. With the decline in domestic cooking, culinary nutrition has emerged as a priority for research and education. However, limited information exists regarding culinary research in athletes. The aim of this scoping review was to collate, map and overview the current body of literature regarding culinary nutrition in athletes while also identifying existing knowledge gaps. The PRISMA‐ScR guidelines were used. Five electronic databases were searched in March 2023. Data extraction was conducted using a custom form. A critical appraisal was undertaken, data were charted in narrative and numerical format, and thematic analysis was conducted mapping relationships between studies and identifying knowledge gaps. Seven primary research studies were included, two qualitative and five quantitative study designs, with only one randomised controlled trial. Four studies were conducted in North America and four studies included athletes from multiple sports. Delivery, content and duration of interventions varied, with limited detail provided in most studies. All intervention studies included a practical culinary element. The use of validated measurement tools was limited. One study received a positive rating in the critical appraisal. Culinary nutrition research in athletes is grossly limited and warrants further investigation. Specifically, a focus on methodological issues is required to improve the quality of evidence, with the inclusion of well‐designed studies, use of validated measurement tools, implementation of clear theoretical frameworks and clear intervention descriptions to assist in strengthening the culinary nutrition research field.
... Following steps 1.1-1.3 the initial version of the TNFQ was developed with inclusion of other relevant scales, including diet quality using the Fruit And Vegetable Variety (FAVVA) index [22], Eating Social Norms at School scale [23], and the SF-12 to measure individual quality of life [24]. Some constructs applied to the TFNQ were sub-scales drawn from larger measurement tools such as Food Skills Confidence [25], Cooking Attitudes and Selfefficacy from within the cooking and food provisioning action scale [26], and the Resilience and Resistance Eating Practices from the self-perceived food literacy scale [27]. Additional question groups were developed to create new constructs, including the Eating and Food Behaviour at School construct, to fill gaps in areas of interest specific to the school environment in which teachers work. ...
Background
Schoolteachers’ personal health and wellbeing are priority to ensure quality teaching, positive student outcomes and improving teacher retention. With limited-availability of validated tools to measure teacher food and nutrition (FN) as a component of wellbeing, this study aims to evaluate the content validity of the Teacher Food and Nutrition-related health and wellbeing Questionnaire (TFNQ) to fill this gap.
Method
A two-round Delphi was used to refine the questionnaire and establish content validity. Round-one reviewed constructs and lifestyle covariates (LC) for inclusion. Round-two considered construct phrasing, appropriateness of scales and questionnaire order. Descriptive and thematic analyses were conducted.
Results
Round-one included 23 international experts, with 19 also participating in round-two. After round-one, seven constructs and three LC were removed with two constructs revised into four concise new groupings to refine the TFNQ. In round-two 83% of experts agreed with questionnaire order, and feedback indicated only minor adjustments. The final TFNQ contains 26 FN and wellbeing constructs and three LC.
Conclusion
This Delphi study established content validity of the TFNQ to appropriately measure key aspects of FN as a component of wellbeing in schoolteachers. Future testing will evaluate the TFNQ construct validity and reliability.
... Grande parte dos itens selecionados para as dimensões que compõem o nível do Agente é fortemente inspirada no instrumento CAFPAS 30 , desenvolvido com base no construto de food agency. Considera-se que a principal inovação do protótipo aqui apresentado é incorporar às práticas e conhecimentos individuais aspectos relativos ao ambiente físico do domicílio e ao ambiente relacional de seus moradores, que partilham a comida ali produzida, presentes nos itens relativos às dimensões que integram os níveis do Microssistema e do Mesossistema. ...
Este estudo objetivou desenvolver o protótipo de um instrumento para avaliar a autonomia culinária de mulheres. Para isso, foram adotados o modelo conceitual de autonomia culinária e o referencial teórico-metodológico de desenvolvimento processual de instrumentos. As etapas realizadas foram: identificação de manifestações empíricas (expressões) do construto de autonomia culinária e elaboração de itens por meio de revisão da literatura, de dois grupos focais (n = 20) e de oficina de especialistas (n = 25); validação de conteúdo e semântica de itens por meio de painel de especialistas (n = 20); avaliação da versão preliminar do protótipo (estrutura dimensional, semântica e gradiente de intensidade dos itens) em oficina com especialista em desenvolvimento de instrumentos; e dois pré-testes (n = 30). A versão final do protótipo do instrumento de autonomia culinária contém 64 itens e é composta por dois blocos: conhecimentos, hábitos e atitudes individuais, com 38 itens; e aspectos do domicílio e práticas dos moradores, com 26 itens. Está em andamento estudo de avaliação da validade e da confiabilidade deste instrumento com mulheres de quatro regiões brasileiras. A aplicação desse instrumento em diferentes realidades poderá subsidiar políticas públicas de alimentação e nutrição, assim como qualificar a atenção nutricional no Sistema Único de Saúde (SUS).
... Cooking and food agency was measured using the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS) [46], a 28-item measure that can be divided into three subscales: self-efficacy on abilities and skills around cooking, attitude related to views towards food and cooking, and structure to assess external factors that can influence cooking actions and goals. Survey items were rated on a 7-point Likert scale, with an overall higher CAFPAS score indicating higher cooking and food agency that correlates to predicted reported meals cooked per week. ...
Background: Culinary medicine (CM) interventions in teaching kitchens have emerged as novel approaches for influencing dietary behaviors, but their efficacy, content, and delivery vary. Objective: The effects of a virtual vegan CM intervention on behavioral determinants, cooking competencies, diet quality, and skin carotenoid status were assessed. Methods: This analysis from a 9-week randomized crossover study evaluated behavioral survey assessments, Whole Plant Food Density (WPFD) as a diet quality indicator utilizing Automated Self-Administered 24 h Dietary Recall data, and skin carotenoid status (SCS) via pressure-mediated reflection spectroscopy at multiple timepoints. Adults at ≥5% atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease (ASCVD) risk followed a vegan diet pattern that was high or low in extra virgin olive oil (EVOO) for 4 weeks each with weekly virtual cooking classes, separated by a 1-week washout period. Qualitative feedback was collected for thematic analysis. Results: In 40 participants (75% female; body mass index, 32 ± 7 kg/m²; age, 64 ± 9 years mean ± SD), perceived control over trajectory of heart disease, knowledge of lifestyle behaviors for heart health, and confidence in cooking skills and preparing a variety of plant-based foods improved post intervention (all p ≤ 0.001). WPFD increased by 69–118% from baseline. Greater SCS changes occurred after high-EVOO (+51.4 ± 13.9 mean ± SEM, p < 0.001) compared to low-EVOO (+6.0 ± 16.4, p = 0.718) diets. Conclusions: A virtual vegan CM intervention improved dietary behaviors and quality, which was associated with reductions in CVD risk factors. SCS is influenced by EVOO intake, warranting consideration when used to estimate fruit and vegetable intake. The potential impacts of CM on behaviors and health outcomes warrant continued research efforts in medical and public health settings.
... Involvement in daily meal preparations was rated at all three time points as part of the CAFPAS questionnaire (Lahne et al., 2017). From the start-up to the end of the cooking school, participants rated a significant increase in involvement in daily meal preparations (5.6-6.2, p = 0.004), which remained at the increased level at the three-month follow-up (6.2-6.2 (p = 0.83)). ...
Introduction: This study investigates the efficacy of a cooking school as an innovative multisensory approach to
olfactory rehabilitation in patients with olfactory dysfunction. Recognising the significant implications of olfactory
impairments on quality of life, particularly regarding food enjoyment and nutrition, this study evaluates
whether engaging in culinary training has the potential as an alternative form of olfactory training.
Methods: A cohort of 62 adult participants with olfactory dysfunction of variable severity and underlying aetiologies
participated in a five-week cooking course, which included structured exposure to various odours
through cooking activities. Olfactory function was assessed subjectively and through olfactory testing of
threshold, discrimination and identification.
Results: The results indicate a significant improvement in both subjective and objective measures of olfactory
function, with a significant increase in TDI scores following the intervention as a third of participants improved
their TDI score by ≥ 5.5 points.
Conclusion: The findings suggest that the multisensory cooking experience can enhance olfactory sensitivity,
which may be an engaging and sustainable supplement to standard olfactory training. Furthermore, prior
exposure to standard olfactory training correlated with even greater improvements, highlighting the potential of
integrating culinary practices into therapeutic strategies for olfactory rehabilitation.
... No statistical inference tests were conducted from survey response data. Scores were determined for the respective validated measures of cooking and food skills [34], food security [35], and food agency [36]. ...
Background: Cooking is an identified dietary strategy that is positively associated with optimal diet quality. Prior to initiating cooking interventions, evaluating the prospective acceptability of the intervention among community members living within low food access areas and understanding geospatial food shopping locations may aid in designing community-tailored interventions. Methods: A sequential mixed methods study was conducted to determine the prospective acceptability of a planned community-located cooking intervention among African American adults living in a low food access area and with at least one cardiovascular disease risk factor. A semi-structured guide was used to conduct five virtual focus groups. Qualitative data were analyzed using thematic analysis and validated through participant check-in interviews. Survey responses were analyzed based on descriptive data. Geospatial analysis of participant locations that were reported for food shopping was conducted to show food environment utilization. Results: Focus groups with study participants (n = 20, all female, mean age 60.3, SD 9.3, mean cooking frequency per week 4.0, food insecure n = 7) were conducted between March and April, 2021. Thematic analysis of the focus group transcripts identified five main themes as follows: (A) Barriers to Cooking (family and caregiving, transportation, COVID-19 pandemic, time availability, household composition); (B) Motivators for Cooking (family, caregiving, health, enjoyment, COVID-19 pandemic); (C) Strategies (food shopping, social support, social media, meal planning); (D) Neighborhood (gentrification, perceived safety, stigmatization, disparities in grocery stores); (E) and Acceptability of the Intervention (reasons to participate, barriers, recruitment, intervention delivery). Participant validation interviews confirmed the themes and subthemes as well as the illustrative quotes. Geospatial analysis showed a majority of locations were outside of the participants’ residential areas. Conclusions: Prospective acceptability of a community-tailored cooking intervention found that the planned intervention could be modified to address individual level factors, such as caregiving and health, community contextual factors, such as perceived safety, and the general health needs of the community.
... Recent trans-disciplinary research has been studying the above multi-level factors affecting cooking to better understand how they influence diet quality Wolfson, Leung, & Richardson, 2020;. This includes attention to food literacyincluding but not limited to cooking self-efficacywhich assesses a person's knowledge, skills and behaviors that allow them to consume a diet aligned with nutrition recommendations (Amouzandeh et al., 2019;Lahne et al., 2017). Cooking self-efficacy in particular refers to a person's confidence or perceived mastery around cooking and is regularly shown as an important indicator of diet quality Prescott et al., 2019;Wardle et al., 2000). ...
Cooking-related literacy and attitudes may play important roles in preventing and reducing diet-related chronic diseases and nutrition disparities. People living alone are an under-researched but growing population who face above average food insecurity rates. This study's objectives were to 1) test how cooking self-efficacy and attitude are stratified demographically among a sample of people living alone, focusing on variations across gender, age, and food security, and 2) examine how cooking self-efficacy and attitude are associated with two indicators of cooking behavior - cooking frequency and convenience orientation. We draw from a cross-sectional survey analysis of 493 adults living alone in Illinois, USA with validated measures for cooking self-efficacy, attitude, frequency, convenience orientation, and demographic characteristics. Hierarchical linear regression models were used to examine demographic factors explaining variation in self-efficacy and attitude, with attention to interactions between gender, food insecurity, and age. Poisson and OLS linear regression models were used to examine associations between self-efficacy and attitude and cooking frequency and convenience orientation. We find cooking-related self-efficacy and attitude showed strong but distinct associations with cooking frequency and convenience orientation. Overall, food insecure groups had lower self-efficacy than those who were food secure; however, food insecure women had higher self-efficacy than men in similar positions, apart from older-adult women who held particularly low efficacy. Cooking attitudes varied in small ways, notably with food insecure younger and older women possessing more negative cooking attitudes than middle-aged women. This research highlights the importance of understanding the cooking-related orientations of single-living people, while demonstrating that this group's ability to prevent and manage food insecurity is not uniform. These results can inform targeted interventions around food and nutrition insecurity, cooking attitudes, and self-efficacy among single-living populations.
... Human Factors Engineering involves understanding the need for comprehensive cooking behavior is thought to promote healthy eating, and research has been conducted on the relationship between cooking frequency and the degree of belief in the feasibility of cooking (hereafter referred to as cooking efficacy when limited to cooking, and efficacy when targeting the feasibility of the behavior in general) and cooking intention (Lahne, Wolfson, & Trubek, 2017;Lavelle et al., 2017). And the study by Lavelle et al. (2017) conducted a video-based cooking practice with mothers and examined whether confidence and intention to cook were aroused immediately after the practice. ...
Factors that promote cooking behavior for the purpose of health promotion have been examined. Against this background, the present study examined whether imagining oneself cooking improves cooking intention and cooking efficacy in 24 college students (11 female, 13 male, M=21.25±2.27 years old) who lived alone by using a hypothetical situation method. The experiment consisted of reading a description of a situation in which the participants were asked to make a decision about whether or not to cook, and answering a questionnaire about their intention and efficacy after performing the task. The experimental group was asked to read the description of the scene and to describe what they imagined in the scene. The control group was asked to read the scene descriptions, convert the characters to katakana, and write them down from the opposite direction. The results showed that there was no significant difference in intention and efficacy between the experimental and control groups, but there was a moderate effect size, indicating a tendency to arouse intention and efficacy. In the future, it is expected to be verified as a simple motivational strategy by comparing it with the case of presenting only instructional stimuli.
... However, the interaction between individual activities, cultural and social structures, and values is central to food education and could also be linked to agency (cf. Lahne, Wolfson, and Trubek 2017). Agency refers to proactive actions to achieve a common objective of a community. ...
Food education has become an umbrella term covering various understandings of our relationship with food, originating from diverse research contexts. There is often the need to form a “holistic” understanding of what food education is and what it does. In this article, we explore a holistic approach to food education and how an informal learning environment can promote and contribute toward a holistic approach to food education. We conducted our study at four youth centers in Finland. The data were collected from seven focus groups of young people who took part in group discussions and whom we observed. We analyzed our data using content analysis. The young people developed food-related skills when discussing different food choices, planning meals, preparing food, and eating together. They evaluated their skills and talked about the kinds of food they made and why. They displayed “holistic thinking:” they created common meanings for food and considered issues related to the food system and environment. Our results indicate that informal settings comprise an important dimension of a holistic approach to food education. To improve food education in the future, we need not only a holistic approach, but also a more thorough understanding of its meanings and dimensions.
... Recent conceptualisations of cooking skills are shifting to acknowledge everyday life performances, in other words, the situational and variable situations in which the skills evolve (e.g., Halkier, 2021;Short, 2006;Sutton, 2014;Trubek et al., 2017;Lahne et al., 2017) instead of repeating skills dictated by public discussions or special professionals. With regard to sociological food studies that analyse the cooking and coordination of daily meals, Halkier (2021) suggests four components of skilfulness in current cooking in her qualitative study based on an analysis of meal-box schemes in Denmark. ...
This dissertation introduces a theoretically and empirically elaborated understanding of cooking in families with children. A core argument of the research is that cooking should be explored as foodwork to better understand its complexity, organisation, and enactment in current family life. The research is rooted in a home economics science that emphasises an everyday life perspective as a research focus. The dissertation establishes the synthesis of three sub-studies published as three articles. The sub-studies approach cooking through a recently developed practice theory applied in sociological consumer and food studies but is still a rare approach in the science of home economics. By applying practice theory, cooking is defined as a socially shared and recognised practice as well as a situationally carried out performance, which results in the subtle but continual change of social practice. Simply put, the practice of cooking exists as doings and sayings that can be organised through different conceptual elements. At the same time, cooking is included in the bundle of foodwork practices comprising several everyday practices, such as planning, cleaning, and grocery shopping. From these premises, the overarching aims are (1) to introduce foodwork as a perspective essential to understanding cooking in families with children, and (2) a novel video method to analyse both the doings and sayings of everyday practices, as well as (3) to demonstrate the applicability of the practice-theoretical perspective in the discipline of home economics.
To capture both the doings and sayings of cooking practice, the research emphasises qualitative approaches. By applying a first-person perspective video method and two different interview methods, two qualitative data sets were collected: first, auto-ethnographical cooking videos recorded from my family life, and second, cooking videos recorded by five Finnish families with children for a one-week period, as well as pre-interviews and video stimulated recall (SR) interviews with the families. The participant families each consisted of two parents in paid employment and 2–4 children aged 5–16 years living in a metropolitan area. The analysis of the first data set was conducted in the first sub-study through a theory-based content analysis and a video analysis using the video analysis programme Interact. The analysis utilised six practice-theoretical elements of a practice. In the analysis of the second data set, the second and third sub-studies applied a theory-based and data-driven abductive analysis conducted with the help of the analysis programme ATLAS.ti. The analyses employed Thévenot’s regimes of engagement in the second sub-study and Mylan and Southerton’s coordination forms in the third sub-study.
As result, the first sub-study conceptualised cooking in a nuanced manner by revealing an interplay between two different practice-theoretical conceptualisations of elements of practices: materials, competences, meanings, and understandings, procedures, engagements. Further, the study developed a first-person perspective video method to be applied in the second and third sub-studies. The second sub-study elucidated engagements in situationally appropriate cooking performances: the familiar and embodied practices in a home environment maintain relaxed everyday cooking, while various justifications of ‘good’ cooking produce negotiations. However, continual and unavoidable planning in different time spans acts as balancing to (re-)produce satisfaction in family life situations. The third sub-study clarified the coordination of parental foodwork. The study elaborated the material, temporal and interpersonal coordination of foodwork practices by conceptualising six adjustment themes (appropriateness, sequences, synchronisation, duties, significances, acceptances) through which foodwork is enacted to produce the continuity of family life. In sum, the sub-studies showed the continual planning and adjusting of foodwork practices, which advance the understanding of current home cooking in everyday family life.
Through the results, the dissertation contributes to discussions of cooking skills by suggesting that skills are by-products of performances, or rather ‘do-abilities’ that make continual adjustment possible. Further, the developed and applied combination of video and interview methods is a new methodological contribution to studies that focus on everyday practices and emphasise their existence as doings and sayings. The dissertation also introduces a novel practice-theoretical approach to studying phenomena of everyday life in the home economics science by demonstrating various conceptual tools to apply in the analysis of household practices. Although the dissertation aims to construct a comprehensive picture of foodwork, in future studies, the application of elaborated conceptual tools such as adjustment themes should also be tested in the analysis of data collected from diverse families with different resources and socio-economic backgrounds.
However, the dissertation succeeds in elucidating current home cooking by broadening the perspective on foodwork in a theoretically and empirically plausible manner. Foodwork and its continual coordination can be beneficial perspectives while reflecting on the teaching of cooking in various degrees of education or advisor organisations, as well as while aiming to promote more sustainable practices in research proposals. Overall, understanding everyday life as being saturated with social practices could strengthen the studies of home economics science interested in the analysis of household activity.
... The survey also captured the demographic details of age, gender, education level and employment length. For behavioural questions, four items for selfefficacy were adapted from Armitage and Conner (1999), three items for skills were adapted from Hartmann et al. (2013), one item for skills were adapted from Brunner et al. (2010) and four practice items were adapted from Lahne et al. (2017). For the environmental questions, four items for social norms were adapted from Norman and Conner (2006), four items for access were adapted from Dewar et al. (2012) and four items for influence were adapted from Plotnikoff et al. (2007). ...
Purpose
The purpose of this study is to respond to calls to increase levels of theory application and extend understanding beyond individuals ensuring social and structural environmental considerations are taken into account. Social cognitive theory (SCT) was applied across two settings to examine its potential to explain breakfast eating frequency.
Design/methodology/approach
A cross-sectional survey was conducted in two institutional feeding populations [military ( n = 314) and mining ( n = 235)]. Participants reported key SCT constructs including breakfast eating behaviour (self-efficacy, skills, practice), cognitive aspects (knowledge, attitude, expectations) and their perceptions regarding environmental constructs (access, social norms, influence). These were measured and analysed through SPSS and structural equation modelling (SEM).
Findings
Results indicated that 71% males and 90% females in the military do not eat breakfast at work, and in the mining, 23% males and 24% of females do not eat breakfast at work. Furthermore, SEM modelling found only a satisfactory fit for SCT as operationalised in this study. Within the models, behavioural aspects of self-efficacy, skills and practice were significant influences on breakfast eating. Cognitive influences and perceptions of environmental influences exerted little to no effect on breakfast eating. Study results indicate that SCT, as measured in this study using a selection of environment, cognitive and behavioural constructs, does not offer sufficient explanatory potential to explain breakfast eating behaviour.
Originality/value
The value of this paper is to deliver a complete application of Social Cognitive Theory, ensuring multiple constructs are measured to examine the explanatory behaviour of breakfast eating frequency in workplace institutional settings.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper was to document the success and failures of applying Social Cognitive Theory to increase breakfast consumption in a military setting. Breakfast is the most important meal of the day, delivering performance and health benefits. Increasing rates of breakfast consumption may be improved through the application of theory.
Design/methodology/approach
Ready to Go, a theory-informed intervention, was piloted in 2022 in one army base in Australia. Ready to Go aimed to embed nine social cognitive theory (SCT) constructs within the pilot programme. Nine SCT indicators were tested using a pre–post design to test whether the theory could be applied to understand potential drivers of behavioural change. A total of 79 participants completed the pre-survey and 74 participants completed the post-survey.
Findings
Statistically significant differences were observed for one SCT construct, namely, knowledge, with 10 out of 24 knowledge items improving during the pilot intervention and an increase in rates of breakfast eating on Wednesdays at home was observed. Rates of breakfast eating increased by 13% (from 68% prior to Ready to Go compared to 81% afterwards). Programme participants were satisfied with the programme and reported receiving benefits from programme participation.
Research limitations/implications
Programme data indicates that breakfast eating rates increased and knowledge about healthy eating improved. This paper documents the successes and failures of applying SCT to a pilot programme that aimed to increase breakfast eating rates. This study raises more questions than answers, providing a rich avenue for future research that aims to improve theory application.
Originality/value
The programme used SCT. As far as the authors know, this application of a full reciprocal triad model for breakfast frequency within an institutional setting is novel. Although the theory showed promise for increasing breakfast frequency, adaptation and refinement of the measures may be required for this context to provide more accurate and applicable measurement.
Home-cooked meals are linked to healthier diets, but assessing cooking skills accurately remains challenging. This review aimed to evaluate and compare available validated instruments to assess adult cooking skills; the Joanna Briggs Institute’s manual and PRISMA-ScR checklist were followed. A search was conducted in April 2024 in five databases using MeSH Terms and adaptations, including studies written without time or language restrictions and with validated instruments to assess adult cooking skills. Reviews, conference abstracts, books, chapters, and case reports were excluded; 1070 studies were identified, and 38 remained after removing duplicates and applying eligibility criteria. Eleven different instruments were identified. Some instruments have been successfully adapted and validated in various countries, covering a broad range of skills, such as meal organization, preparation and cooking techniques, providing a thorough assessment of cooking skills. The Cooking and Food Skill Confidence Questionnaire was considered the best available model, considering its items and domains, direct relation to cooking skills, and easy translation into other cultures. The analysis revealed significant variations in the scales used, with some instruments offering detailed assessments of specific cooking techniques and easy cultural adaptation while others focused more on confidence and attitudes.
Background
Medical students often lack sufficient nutrition education, leading to confidence gaps and an inability to address this healthcare aspect. Culinary Medicine (CM) courses offer an innovative solution.
Methods
We tested the first French-speaking CM courses among 2 groups of second-third year medical students, compared to a control group (CG). The objectives were to assess if an optional CM course could enhance their confidence in both nutritional knowledge and providing nutritional advice, and improve their food agency (CAFPAS: Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale). The analysis examines changes in scores by comparing post-session to pre-session questionnaire measurements.
Results
Of the 22 CM students and 6 in CG, predominantly aged 20-25 years, Caucasian, and female, the majority (CG = 100%, CM = 86.4%) reported <5 hours of nutrition education. Almost all expressed dissatisfaction with nutrition education provided in medicine, both quantitatively and qualitatively. CM students reported significantly increased confidence in their knowledge and ability to advise about nutrition during the sessions. We also observed improvements in their CAFPAS scores, which measure food agency, while the control group exhibited no change in confidence or CAFPAS scores.
Conclusion
The findings highlight CM as practical strategy for integrating nutrition education into medical curricula, offering insights for enhancing future physicians’ knowledge.
Essential life skills related to food and meals have a potential triple dividend for children and adolescents, that is, short-term, medium-term and possible generational effects with regard to public health, sustainability and well-being of future citizens in local communities. While parents and childhood environments are a basis for learning about food and meals, systematic food education in the setting of primary and lower secondary schools may have a significant role that should be utilized more strongly, reaching and benefitting all pupils from a life course perspective. Through this article, we explore the current state of the art of the mandatory school subject Food and Health (FH) from the Nordic perspective. Our leading questions are: (1) What potential is currently utilized and which future potential does FH education have in primary and secondary schools in terms of food education for essential life skills and competencies, and (2) How can this untapped potential be better harnessed with a goal of facilitating better learning in FH? Drawing on data from Norway as a case study, supported by Swedish and Finnish data, we discuss the status, challenges and potential reformation of food education, focusing on FH. This includes perspectives on the prioritization of the FH subject and the organization of more systematic food education in schools, which might improve FH's status and significance. Combining theory-practice, creating room for discussion and focusing less on cooking-related activities may better facilitate learning in FH. Without proper FH, food education might be nonsystematic, thereby generating unequal outcomes for children and adolescents.
Objective:
To characterize food agency (one's capacity to procure and prepare food in particular contexts) among Diabetes Prevention Program (DPP) participants and gather perspectives about experiences with DPP.
Design:
Photograph-elicitation in-depth interviews and survey measures.
Setting:
Baltimore, Maryland (June-August 2021).
Participants:
Black women (n = 13) who participated in DPP.
Phenomenon of interest:
Food agency and strategies used to procure and prepare food and the influence of DPP on daily food behaviors. Surveys measured food agency using the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale and cooking behaviors.
Analysis:
Thematic analysis of qualitative in-depth interviews and descriptive statistics for quantitative measures.
Results:
As quantitative and qualitative data revealed, participants were frequent and confident cooks with high food agency. Participants viewed cooking as a key strategy for healthy eating and desired more hands-on cooking instruction within DPP to develop new healthy cooking skills. The primary barriers identified were related to lack of time or energy. Food procurement and preparation practices shifted over time, and DPP was a key influence on current behaviors.
Conclusions and implications:
Food agency is complex and manifests heterogeneously in daily life. A life course, contextual, and food agency-based approach could be considered for future diabetes prevention interventions.
The study aimed to explore the association between cooking practices and healthy eating habits among young Korean adults in their 20s. An online survey was conducted from 19th to 24th February 2021 among young Korean adults in their 20s and 1102 responses were collected. Cooking practices were measured using the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale which comprises the three sub-scales of self-efficacy (13 items), attitude (10 items) and structure (5 items) to capture the participants' ability to procure and prepare food within the contexts of their social, physical and economic environment. The healthy eating habits were measured based on how much they adhere to the Common Dietary Guidelines for Koreans (11 items), which details the basic common rules for a desirable diet. Hierarchical linear multiple regressions were performed to examine the associations between cooking practices and healthy eating habits, controlling for participants’ socio-demographic characteristics. The overall model accounted for 21.6% of the variance in healthy eating habits, of which 16.5% was explained by cooking practices. However, among the three sub-scales of cooking practices, only self-efficacy was a significant predictor of healthy eating habits, whereas attitude and structure had no significant association. Most socio-demographic characteristics remained significant in the final model. Notably, there was a significant negative effect on healthy eating habits in single-person or lower income households, who are socially deprived. These results add further support for a growing concern to implement interventions and public policies to promote healthy eating habits integrating cooking self-efficacy among young adults.
Objective: This research examines the effects of educational materials, delivered with “take-home and cook-with-friends” meal kits, on college students’ food agency. Participants: In the spring of 2021, 186 students were recruited at a US public university and randomly allocated into either an intervention group that received meal kits and educational materials or a control group that received only meal kits. Methods: Meal kits containing local ingredients were distributed weekly to the participants and surveys were conducted to measure participants’ food agency, using the Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale (CAFPAS). Hypothesis tests and regression analysis were then conducted to examine the educational intervention’s effects on the CAFPAS scores. Results: The educational intervention had a positive and statistically significant effect on students’ CAFPAS scores. Conclusions: Educational interventions hold promise in enhancing college students’ food agency, at least in the short term.
The purpose of this study was to preliminarily develop novel self-administered measures to assess nutrition security and choice in dietary characteristics. Measures were piloted in a convenience sample of households at risk for food insecurity in the United States. The survey included the new measures, construct validation variables (household food security, self-reported general health, and dietary variables), and demographic questions. Exploratory factor analysis was used to assess dimensionality, internal (Cronbach's alpha (CA)), and construct validity were assessed (Spearman's correlation). Multivariate logistic regression models were used to assess added utility of the new measures beyond food security measurement. Finally, brief screener versions of the full measures were created. Participants in the analytic sample (n = 380) averaged 45 years old, 71% experiencing food insecurity, 42% with high school diploma or less, 78% were women, and racially/ethnically diverse. Scores for the Household Nutrition Security (CA = 0.85; Mean = 2.58 (SD = 0.87)), Household Healthfulness Choice (CA = 0.79; Mean = 2.47 (SD = 0.96)), and Household Dietary Choice (CA = 0.80; Mean = 2.57 (SD = 0.90)) were positively associated with food security (0.401–0.657), general health (0.194–0.290), fruit and vegetable intake frequency (0.240–0.280), and “scratch-cooked” meal intake (0.328–0.350), and negatively associated with “processed” meal intake (−0.162 to −0.234) and an external locus of nutrition control (−0.343 to −0.366). Further, findings show that the new measures are useful for assessing risk for poor dietary and health outcomes even after controlling for household food security status and sample characteristics. These findings are encouraging and support reliability, construct validity, and utility of these new measures. Following further testing, such as Confirmatory Factor Analysis in future samples, these measures may be used in various applications to contribute to a better understanding of households' limitations for accessing healthful foods and foods that meet their preferences.
Objective
To conduct a Food Literacy Evaluation Questionnaire Chinese Version (FLEQ‐Ch) through a cross‐cultural validation of the original questionnaire.
Design
This was an observational, cross‐sectional study undertaken in two phases: (1) translation and cross‐culture adaptation, and (2) psychometric evaluation.
Sample
A total of 509 residents in Yangzhou City, China were enrolled in this study.
Methods
A translation and cross‐cultural adaptation of the FLEQ in Chinese was developed. The psychometric characteristics of FLEQ‐Ch were analyzed for internal consistency, content validity, construct validity and discriminant validity.
Results
The KMO value of the questionnaire was 0.901 and the approximate chi‐square value of Bartlett's sphericity test was 8132.538. The ranges of the Cronbach's α coefficient and the test‐retest coefficient of the total questionnaire and three dimensions were 0.869–0.955 and 0.941–0.952, respectively. The value of content validity index of the total questionnaire was 0.945. Construct validity: (1) Aggregation coefficient was between 0.828 and 0.955; (2) Discrimination coefficient was between 0.004 and 0.227; (3) Correlation coefficient between each factor was between 0.046 and 0.188; the correlation coefficient between each factor and the total questionnaire ranged from 0.419 to 0.788. Discriminant validity: the standardized factor loadings of all items on the corresponding factors were 0.75–0.96. The results of the model‐fit indices showed RMSEA was 0.08 and GFI was 0.91.
Conclusions
The FLEQ‐Ch can effectively evaluate the food literacy of the general public in terms of foods planning and management, foods selection, and foods‐making attitudes. It covers the four areas of food literacy, and shows good practicability and operability.
Background
Food insecurity is a critical public health problem in the United States (US) that has been associated with poor diet quality. Cooking dinner more frequently is associated with better diet quality.
Objective
This study aimed to examine how food insecurity and dinner cooking frequency are associated with diet quality during the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic.
Design
This cross-sectional study analyzed data from a national web-based survey (June 23- July 1, 2020).
Participants
/setting: Participants were 1,739 low-income (<250% of the federal poverty level) adults in the US.
Main outcome measures
The outcome was diet quality, measured by the Prime Diet Quality Score (PDQS-30D). The PDQS-30D is a food frequency questionnaire-based, 22-component diet quality index.
Statistical analyses performed
Food security status (high, marginal, low, very low) and frequency of cooking dinner (7, 5-6, 3-4 or 0-2 times/week) were evaluated in relation to PDQS-30D scores (possible range 0-126) in age- and sex and gender-, and fully-adjusted linear regression models. Post-estimation margins were used to predict mean PDQS-30D score by food security status and dinner cooking frequency. The interaction between food security status and frequency of cooking dinner was also tested.
Results
Overall, the mean PDQS-30D score was 51.9 ±11 points (possible range 0-126). The prevalence of food insecurity (low/very low) was 43%, 37% of the sample cooked 7 times/week and 15% cooked 0-2 times/week. Lower food security and less frequent cooking dinner were both associated with lower diet quality. Very low food security was associated with a 3.2-point lower PDQS-30D score (95%CI: -4.6, -1.8) compared to those with high food security. Cooking dinner 0-2 times/week was associated with a 4.4-point lower PDQS-30D score (95%CI: -6.0, -2.8) compared to cooking 7 times/week. The relationship between food insecurity and diet quality did not differ based on cooking dinner frequency.
Conclusions
During the initial months of the COVID-19 pandemic food insecurity and less frequently cooking dinner at home were both associated with lower diet quality among low-income Americans. More research is needed to identify and address barriers to low-income households’ ability to access, afford and prepare enough nutritious food for a healthy diet.
The aim of this study is to verify the validity and empirical applicability of the CAFPAS (Cooking and Food Provisioning Action Scale), which was created in the USA in 2017 (Lahne et al., 2017; Lahne et al., 2019). The international application of standardized scales requires the creation of more than one language version of the measuring instrument. The scale was translated into Czech in several systematic steps, piloted and then incorporated into a large quantitative survey, which was carried out between January and April 2021. Data in the survey were collected by a professional research agency, using the IBM Data Collection system. The target population of the study were adults in the Czech Republic. The research sample included 1122 respondents with three quota variables – gender, education and age, which reflected the structure of the target population. The analysis demonstrated that food agency is significantly influenced by gender, age, income and marital status. In the context of the Czech Republic, the place of residence (or type of housing) was also identified as an important predictor. The Czech version of the scale confirms its wider applicability outside the US cultural environment.
Objective
To refine a measure of home cooking quality (defined as the usage level of practices with the potential to influence the nutrient content of prepared foods) and conduct a construct validation of the revised tool, the Healthy Cooking Questionnaire 2 (HCQ2).
Design
Two validation approaches are described: (1) a community science approach used to refine and validate Healthy Cooking Questionnaire (HCQ) constructs, and (2) responses to the revised HCQ (HCQ2) in a sample of Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) workers to determine questionnaire comprehension.
Setting
The Community Scientist Program at the University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center facilitated discussion groups to refine the HCQ questions and validate constructs. MTurk workers were subsequently recruited to complete the refined survey so that comprehension and associations with demographic variables could be explored.
Participants
Ten community scientists participated in the refinement of the HCQ. The revised tool (HCQ2) was completed by 267 adult US-based MTurk workers.
Variables Measured
Demographics, HCQ concepts, HCQ2, Self-Reported Questionnaire Comprehension.
Analysis
Comprehension items were examined using descriptive statistics. Exploratory analysis the relationships between cooking quality and demographic characteristics, meal type, cooking frequency, as well as patterns of food preparation behavior was conducted on the MTurk sample
Results
The HCQ was refined through activities and consensus-building. MTurk responses to the HCQ2 indicated high comprehension and significant differences in cooking quality scores by demographic factors.
Conclusions and Implications
This study refined and validated a self-report measure of cooking quality. Cooking quality measures offer critical evaluation methods for culinary programs.
Objective
Young adults are often faced with barriers to cook their own food. These barriers are associated with poor diet. The study explored the factor structure of the Brazilian Cooking Skills and Healthy Eating questionnaire (BCSQ) to identify the barriers to cook, use and consumption of fruits and vegetables by young adults.
Methods
Data were collected from a baseline study with Brazilian university students (n=767). Forty-eight items of the BCSQ (composed of: Cooking Attitude, Cooking Behaviour, Produce Consumption Self-Efficacy, Cooking Self-Efficacy, Self-Efficacy in Using Cooking Techniques, Self-Efficacy in Using Fruits, Vegetables, and Seasonings scales) were submitted to exploratory factor analysis, confirmatory factor analysis (ten fit indexes), and internal consistency reliability evaluation. Multilevel linear regression models were used to analyze variations on the BCSQ dimensions by gender, living arrangements, knowledge if how to cook, location of main meal, and time available for cooking.
Results
The 20-item BCSQ showed good fit indexes. The items based on negative cooking attitudes, the frequency of using leftovers, and on self-efficacy related to cooking from scratch, using and eating fruits and vegetables were adequate for the evaluation of cooking skills. These items represent and reflect the health dimensions applied to this research. The self-efficacy in using cooking techniques which was not validated in previous study scale was excluded due to its dimension.
Conclusions
These results enabled us to shorten the BCSQ, which can be used to evaluate the barriers among young adults to cooking, as well measuring their healthy eating practices, supporting future research and programming.
The increase in diseases related to eating habits has been associated with poor eating habits and low levels of knowledge and skills related to food. For this reason, Food Literacy and Nutritional Literacy have become increasingly important in health promotion. Nutritional Literacy focuses on the ability to understand information related to nutrients, while Food Literacy is a more holistic concept, capable of addressing all the knowledge and necessary skills for healthier food choices and behaviors. Taking into account the lack of consensus in the literature regarding these two concepts, Vidgen & Gallegos (2014) definition of Food Literacy is the most complete and inclusive to date. Eighteen assessment tools for Nutritional Literacy and Food Literacy were analyzed, and the SPFL and IT-FLS tools were identified as the most suitable for future application in the Portuguese population. Despite this, there is still a need for further research in order to develop a sufficiently comprehensive tool to assess and compare levels of Food Literacy as a whole, and in turn work on improving the health of populations.
Sociologists Sarah Bowen, Sinikka Elliott, and Joslyn Brenton offer a critique of the increasingly prevalent message that reforming the food system necessarily entails a return to the kitchen. They argue that time pressures, tradeoffs to save money, and the burden of pleasing others make it difficult for mothers to enact the idealized vision of home-cooked meals advocated by foodies and public health officials.
Objective
Cooking programs are growing in popularity; however, an extensive review has not examined their overall impact. Therefore, this study reviewed previous research on cooking/home food preparation interventions and diet and health-related outcomes among adults and identified implications for practice and research.
Design
Literature review and descriptive summative method.
Main Outcome Measures
Dietary intake, knowledge/skills, cooking attitudes and self-efficacy/confidence, health outcomes.
Analysis
Articles evaluating the effectiveness of interventions that included cooking/home food preparation as the primary aim (January, 1980 through December, 2011) were identified via Ovid MEDLINE, Agricola, and Web of Science databases. Studies grouped according to design and outcomes were reviewed for validity using an established coding system. Results were summarized for several outcome categories.
Results
Of 28 studies identified, 12 included a control group with 6 as nonrandomized and 6 as randomized controlled trials. Evaluation was done postintervention for 5 studies, pre- and postintervention for 23, and beyond postintervention for 15. Qualitative and quantitative measures suggested a positive influence on main outcomes. However, nonrigorous study designs, varying study populations, and the use of nonvalidated assessment tools limited stronger conclusions.
Conclusions and Implications
Well-designed studies are needed that rigorously evaluate long-term impact on cooking behavior, dietary intake, obesity and other health outcomes.
Structural equation modeling (SEM) is a vast field and widely used by many applied researchers in the social and behavioral sciences. Over the years, many software pack-ages for structural equation modeling have been developed, both free and commercial. However, perhaps the best state-of-the-art software packages in this field are still closed-source and/or commercial. The R package lavaan has been developed to provide applied researchers, teachers, and statisticians, a free, fully open-source, but commercial-quality package for latent variable modeling. This paper explains the aims behind the develop-ment of the package, gives an overview of its most important features, and provides some examples to illustrate how lavaan works in practice.
The term “agency” is quite slippery and is used differently depending on the epistemological roots and goals of scholars who employ it. Distressingly, the sociological literature on the concept rarely addresses relevant social psychological research. We take a social behaviorist approach to agency by suggesting that individual temporal orientations are underutilized in conceptualizing this core sociological concept. Different temporal foci—the actor's engaged response to situational circumstances—implicate different forms of agency. This article offers a theoretical model involving four analytical types of agency (“existential,” “identity,” “pragmatic,” and “life course”) that are often conflated across treatments of the topic. Each mode of agency overlaps with established social psychological literatures, most notably about the self, enabling scholars to anchor overly abstract treatments of agency within established research literatures.
When Tucker's congruence coefficient is used to assess the similarity of factor interpretations, it is desirable to have a critical congruence level less than unity that can be regarded as indicative of identity of the factors. The literature only reports rules of thumb. The present article repeats and broadens the approach used in the study by Haven and ten Berge (1977). It aims to find a critical congruence level on the basis of judgments of factor similarity by practitioners of factor analysis. Our results suggest that a value in the range .85–.94 corresponds to a fair similarity, while a value higher than .95 implies that the two factors or components compared can be considered equal.
Although the literature on alternatives to effect indicators is growing, there has been little attention given to evaluating causal and composite (formative) indicators. This paper provides an overview of this topic by contrasting ways of assessing the validity of effect and causal indicators in structural equation models (SEMs). It also draws a distinction between composite (formative) indicators and causal indicators and argues that validity is most relevant to the latter. Sound validity assessment of indicators is dependent on having an adequate overall model fit and on the relative stability of the parameter estimates for the latent variable and indicators as they appear in different models. If the overall fit and stability of estimates are adequate, then a researcher can assess validity using the unstandardized and standardized validity coefficients and the unique validity variance estimate. With multiple causal indicators or with effect indicators influenced by multiple latent variables, collinearity diagnostics are useful. These results are illustrated with a number of correctly and incorrectly specified hypothetical models.
Although Mechanical Turk has recently become popular among social scientists as a source of experimental data, doubts may linger about the quality of data provided by subjects recruited from online labor markets. We address these potential concerns by presenting new demographic data about the Mechanical Turk subject population, reviewing the strengths of Mechanical Turk relative to other online and offline methods of recruiting subjects, and comparing the magnitude of effects obtained using Mechanical Turk and traditional subject pools. We further discuss some additional benefits such as the possibility of longitudinal, cross cultural and prescreening designs, and offer some advice on how to best manage a common subject pool.
To examine associations between shopping, food preparation, meal and eating behaviours and fruit and vegetable intake among women.
Cross-sectional survey.
Community-based sample from metropolitan Melbourne, Australia.
A sample of 1136 women aged 18-65 years, randomly selected from the electoral roll.
Food-related behaviours reflecting organisation and forward-planning, as well as enjoyment of and high perceived value of meal shopping, preparation and consumption were associated with healthier intakes of fruits and vegetables. For example, women who more frequently planned meals before they went shopping, wrote a shopping list, enjoyed food shopping, planned in the morning what they will eat for dinner that night, planned what they will eat for lunch, reported they enjoy cooking, liked trying new recipes and who reported they sometimes prepare dishes ahead of time were more likely to consume two or more servings of vegetables daily. Conversely, women who frequently found cooking a chore, spent less than 15 minutes preparing dinner, decided on the night what they will eat for dinner, ate in a fast-food restaurant, ate takeaway meals from a fast-food restaurant, ate dinner and snacks while watching television and who frequently ate on the run were less likely to eat two or more servings of vegetables daily.
Practical strategies based on these behavioural characteristics could be trialled in interventions aimed at promoting fruit and vegetable consumption among women.
What makes an individual, on any given occasion, able and willing to prepare a meal for themselves: that is, to cook? As home cooking has increasingly become the focus of public-health, nutrition, and policy interventions and campaigns, the need for a better understanding has become apparent. It is clear that cooking is not merely a matter of mechanical skill or rote training; beyond this, it is difficult to explain why similar individuals have such different capacities for setting and achieving food-related goals. This paper proposes a new paradigm for cooking and food provisioning – termed “food agency” – that attempts to describe how an individual's desires form and are enacted in correspondence with social environments: broadly, agency emerges from the complex interplay of individual technical skills and cognitive capacities with social and cultural supports and barriers. Drawing on a close reading of anthropological and sociological research into cooking, the authors propose that an individual's ability to integrate such complexity in regard to provisioning – to possess ‘food agency’ – is crucial. This argument is supplemented by empirical case studies from a large body of ethnographic observations and interviews with home cooks from the United States, conducted over the last decade. Overall, more food agency means the cook is more empowered to act. Adopting the paradigm of food agency into the consideration of everyday cooking practices has the potential to support transdisciplinary food scholarship integrating individual actions within a food system and thus inform nutrition and public health interventions related to meal preparation.
Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to describe the development of – and need for – an expanded understanding of cooking (skills and knowledge) to inform research on the connection between cooking and health.
Design/methodology/approach
This paper describes a concept of “food agency” and contrasts it with how cooking is commonly conceived in food and nutrition literature. A food agency-based pedagogy and proposals for using it are also introduced.
Findings
Cooking is a complex process that may be crucial for making a difference in the contemporary problems of diet-related chronic diseases. There are two interlinked problems with present research on cooking. First, cooking has yet to be adequately conceptualized for the design and evaluation of effective public health and nutrition interventions. The context within which food-related decisions and actions occur has been neglected. Instead, the major focus has been on discrete mechanical tasks. In particular, recipes are relied upon despite no clear evidence that recipes move people from knowledge to action. Second, given the incomplete theorization and definition of this vital everyday practice, intervention designs tend to rely on assumptions over theory. This creates certain forms of tautological reasoning when claims are made about how behavior changes. A comprehensive theory of food agency provides a nuanced understanding of daily food practices and clarifies how to teach cooking skills that are generalizable throughout varied life contexts.
Originality/value
This commentary is of value to academics studying cooking-related behavior and public health practitioners implementing and evaluating cooking interventions.
'Agency' entered anthropological discourse as a key word from the 1970s in renewed social-philosophical theorizations (e.g. 'structure and agency') as major deterministic theories (e.g. Marxism, structuralism) became less persuasive. It came to play an increasing role in ethnography. Though agency, too, has been partly replaced in some of its earlier semantic range, it has been more fully retained in some areas of usage than others, especially in analyses of subordination in the face of power. This article considers several different conceptualizations of agency. Ethnographically, it focuses on women's differing forms of action in two episodes of warfare in the Highlands of Papua New Guinea. In contrasting these, the article concurs with critiques of approaches to 'agency' that turn it into a (liberatory) abstraction, and proposes a view of agency as lived relation of intervention and involvement in social action, inherently linked to values and constraints. The combination may be, but is not always, liberatory. The article considers the life and (partial) expiry of agency as a term of social science art.
Objective:
Despite the importance of cooking in modern life, public perceptions about what it means to cook are unknown. We aimed to examine perceptions of cooking and their association with cooking confidence, attitudes and behaviours in the USA.
Design:
We designed and fielded a nationally representative survey among US adults (n 1112) in April 2015. We used factor analysis to identify perceptions about cooking and multivariate ordered logit and Poisson models to explore associations between those perceptions and cooking confidence, attitudes and behaviours.
Setting:
Nationally representative web-based survey of US adults.
Subjects:
US adults aged ≥18 years.
Results:
Americans conceptualized cooking in three ways: the use of scratch ingredients, convenience foods and not using heat. Respondents who perceived cooking as including convenience foods were less confident in their ability to cook from scratch (OR=0·52, P<0·001) and less likely to enjoy cooking (OR=0·68, P=0·01) than those who did not. Although individuals who perceived cooking as including only scratch ingredients reported cooking dinner (4·31 times/week) and using packaged/boxed products (0·95 times/week) the least frequently, few notable differences in the frequency of cooking meals were observed.
Conclusions:
Cooking frequency is similar among US adults regardless of how they perceive cooking, but cooking confidence and enjoyment are lowest among Americans who perceive cooking as including the use of convenience foods. These insights should inform the development of more specific measures of cooking behaviour as well as meaningful and targeted public health messages to encourage healthier cooking.
Domestic cooking skills (CS) and food skills (FS) encompass multiple components, yet there is a lack of consensus on their constituent parts, inter-relatedness or measurement, leading to limited empirical support for their role in influencing dietary quality. This review assessed the measurement of CS and FS in adults (>16 years); critically examining study designs, psychometric properties of measures, theoretical basis and associations of CS/FS with diet. Electronic databases (PsychInfo), published reports and systematic reviews on cooking and home food preparation interventions (Rees et al. 201245.
Rees, R, Hinds, K, Dickson, K, O'Mara-Eves, A, Thomas, J. 2012 Communities that cook: a systematic review of the effectiveness and appropriateness of interventions to introduce adults to home cooking. London: EPPI-Centre, Social Science Research Unit, Institute of Education, University of London.View all references; Reicks et al. 201446.
Reicks, M, Trofholz, AC, Stang, JS, Laska, MN. Impact of cooking and home food preparation interventions among adults: outcomes and implications for future programs. J Nutr Educ Behav 2014;46(4):259–276.View all references) provided 834 articles of which 26 met the inclusion criteria. Multiple CS/FS measures were identified across three study designs: qualitative; cross-sectional; and dietary interventions; conducted from 1998–2013. Most measures were not theory-based, limited psychometric data was available, with little consistency of items or scales used for CS/FS measurements. Some positive associations between CS/FS and FV intake were reported; though lasting dietary changes were uncommon. The role of psycho-social (e.g., gender, attitudes) and external factors (e.g. food availability) on CS/FS is discussed. A conceptual framework of CS/FS components is presented for future measurement facilitation, which highlights the role for CS/FS on food-related behaviour and dietary quality. This will aid future dietary intervention design.
Many cross-cultural researchers are concerned with factorial invariance; that is, with whether or not members of different cultures associate survey items, or similar measures, with similar constructs. Researchers usually test items for factorial invariance using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CFA, however, poses certain problems that must be dealt with. Primary among them is standardization, the process that assigns units of measurement to the constructs (latent variables). Two standardization procedures and several minor variants have been reported in the literature, but using these procedures when testing for factorial invariance can lead to inaccurate results. In this paper we review basic theory, and propose an extension of Byrne, Shavelson, and Muthgn’s (1989) procedure for identifying non-invariant items. The extended procedure solves the standardization problem by performing a systematic comparison of all pairs of factor loadings across groups. A numerical example based upon a large published data set is presented to illustrate the utility of the new procedure, particularly with regard to partial factorial invariance.
This article presents an agentic theory of human development, adaptation, and change. The evolutionary emergence of advanced symbolizing capacity enabled humans to transcend the dictates of their immediate environment and made them unique in their power to shape their life circumstances and the courses their lives take. In this conception, people are contributors to their life circumstances, not just products of them. Social cognitive theory rejects a duality between human agency and social structure. People create social systems, and these systems, in turn, organize and influence people's lives. This article discusses the core properties of human agency, the different forms it takes, its ontological and epistemological status, its development and role in causal structures, its growing primacy in the coevolution process, and its influential exercise at individual and collective levels across diverse spheres of life and cultural systems.
© 2006 Association for Psychological Science.
Eating is broadly conceptualized as food choice. Food choice is a complex activity with many dimensions. Food choice is multifaceted as it involves whether, where, when, how long, how, why, with whom, for whom, and under what conditions eating occurs. Food choice is contextual as it is situated within specific conditions and settings involving both individuals and institutions. Food choice is dynamic as it unfolds and is embedded in eating episodes over lifetimes within historical eras. Food choice is multilevel as physical, biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors operate simultaneously and interact. Food choice is integrated as people coordinate many considerations to construct specific eating activities. Food choice is diverse in its broad scope of distinct and unique eating activities. Food choice can be examined using both multi-perspective and multi-purpose approaches, and it may not be possible to integrate different perspectives into a unified approach to understanding and changing food choice.
Food literacy has emerged as a term to describe the everyday practicalities associated with healthy eating. The term is increasingly used in policy, practice, research and by the public; however, there is no shared understanding of its meaning. The purpose of this research was to develop a definition of food literacy which was informed by the identification of its components. This was considered from two perspectives; that of food experts which aimed to reflect the intention of existing policy and investment, and that of individuals, who could be considered experts in the everyday practicalities of food provisioning and consumption. Given that food literacy is likely to be highly contextual, this second study focused on disadvantaged young people living in an urban area who were responsible for feeding themselves. The Expert Study used a Delphi methodology (round one n=43). The Young People's Study used semi-structured, life-course interviews (n=37). Constructivist Grounded Theory was used to analyse results. This included constant comparison of data within and between studies. From this, eleven components of food literacy were identified which fell into the domains of: planning and management; selection; preparation; and eating. These were used to develop a definition for the term "food literacy".
Appropriate choice and consumption of meals are important to optimize diet quality. Nevertheless, the relationship between the conceptualization of food choice motives and consumption has yet to be elucidated. The current study attempts to delineate the effects of meals (breakfast, lunch, and dinner), gender, and age on psychologically defined food properties in three conceptual dimensions, namely, desired-to-be-eaten, ought-to-be-eaten, and actually-consumed foods, based on self-reporting among 100 Japanese participants. Results showed that there were large discrepancies between food choice motives (composed of desired- and ought-food dimensions) and actually-consumed foods. Accordingly, the effects of meal on food properties were examined in each dimension respectively, and meal effects were supported in all dimensions. Although food choice motives did not differ across age groups, people in their 40’s rated the properties of the foods they actually consumed substantially lower than did other age groups. No gender effect was observed. There were higher correlations between desired- and ought-dimensions across meals compared with between desired- and actual- and between ought- and actual-dimensions. In addition, association between dimensions was stronger at dinner compared with breakfast.
This review describes and critiques some of the many ways agency has been conceptualized in the academy over the past few decades, focusing in particular on practice theorists such as Giddens, Bourdieu, de Certeau, Sahlins, and Ortner. For scholars interested in agency, it demonstrates the importance of looking closely at language and argues that the issues surrounding linguistic form and agency are relevant to anthropologists with widely divergent research agendas. Linguistic anthropologists have made significant contributions to the understanding of agency as it emerges in discourse, and the final sections of this essay describe some of the most promising research in the study of language and gender, literacy practices, and the dialogic construction of meaning and agency.
Many cross-cultural researchers are concerned with factorial invariance; that is, with whether or not members of different cultures associate survey items, or similar measures, with similar constructs. Researchers usually test items for factorial invariance using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CFA, however, poses certain problems that must be dealt with. Primary among them is standardization, the process that assigns units of measurement to the constructs (latent variables). Two standardization procedures and several minor variants have been reported in the literature, but using these procedures when testing for factorial invariance can lead to inaccurate results. In this paper we review basic theory, and propose an extension of Byrne, Shavelson, and Muthén's (1989) procedure for identifying non-invariant items. The extended procedure solves the standardization problem by performing a systematic comparison of all pairs of factor loading across groups. A numerical example based upon a large published data set is presented to illustrate the utility of the new procedure, particularly with regard to partial factorial invariance.
In this new and brilliantly organized book of essays, Anthony Giddens discusses three main theoretical traditions in social science that cut across the division between Marxist and non-Marxist sociology: interpretive sociology, functionalism, and structuralism.
Beginning with a critical examination of the importance of structuralism for contemporary sociology, the author develops a comprehensive account of what he calls "the theory of structuration." One of the main themes is that social theory must recognize, as it has not done hitherto, that all social actors are knowledgeable about the social systems they produce and reproduce in their conduct. In order to grasp the significance of this, he argues, we have to reconsider some of the most basic concepts in sociology.
In particular, Giddens argues, it is essential to recognize the significance of time-space relations in social theory. He rejects the distinction between synchrony and diachrony, or statics and dynamics, involved in both structuralism and functionalism, and offers extensive critical commentary on the latter as an approach to sociology.
The book, which can be described as a "non-functionalist manifesto," breaks with the three main theoretical traditions in the social sciences today while retaining the significant contributions each contains. In so doing Giddens discusses a range of fundamental problem areas in the social sciences: power and domination, conflict and contradiction, and social transformation. He concludes with an overall appraisal of the key problems in social theory today.
This study investigated the psychological assessment literature to determine what applied researchers are using and reporting from confirmatory factor analysis (CIA) studies for evidence of construct validation. One hundred and one articles published in four major psychological assessment journals between 1990 and 2002 were systematically reviewed. Information from each article was collected across four broad areas: Background, Data Screening, Reporting Results, and Discussing Results. Temporal trends were assessed with point-biserial correlations to deter-mine how practices have changed over time. From the review, several recommendations were provided to assist assessment researchers report validity evidence from CIA studies.
A cooking skill scale was developed to measure cooking skills in a European adult population, and the relationship between cooking skills and the frequency of consumption of various food groups were examined. Moreover, it was determined which sociodemographic and psychological variables predict cooking skills. The data used in the present study are based on the first (2010) and second (2011) surveys of a yearly paper-and-pencil questionnaire (Swiss Food Panel). Data from 4436 participants (47.2% males) with a mean age of 55.5years (SD=14.6, range 21-99) were available for analysis. The cooking skills scale was validated using a test-retest analysis, confirming that this new scale is a reliable and consistent instrument. Cooking enjoyment was the most important predictor for cooking skills, especially for men. Women had higher cooking skills in all age groups. Cooking skills correlated positively with weekly vegetable consumption, but negatively with weekly convenience food consumption frequency, even while holding the effect of health consciousness related to eating constant. In summary, cooking skills may help people to meet nutrition guidelines in their daily nutrition supply. They allow people to make healthier food choices. It is, therefore, important to teach children and teenagers how to cook and to encourage them to develop their cooking skills.
This paper describes recent research with the Food Involvement Scale (FIS), relating it to other constructs and demographics, and its potential influence on food choices. We administered the FIS and other established scales to a sample of undergraduates (n=109) from a UK university. The FIS was found to be associated with many other scales, and a multiple regression suggested that higher levels of food involvement are associated with living with two or more friends, cooking for one's self, having regular meals, and being older. We then administered the FIS along with the Block Food Frequency questionnaire to a sample of military personnel (n=2068) and compared food intake patterns between high and low involvement subjects. The analysis suggests that food involvement, as measured by FIS, appears to mediate differences in food choices and food choice patterns.
Amazon's Mechanical Turk (MTurk) is a relatively new website that contains the major elements required to conduct research: an integrated participant compensation system; a large participant pool; and a streamlined process of study design, participant recruitment, and data collection. In this article, we describe and evaluate the potential contributions of MTurk to psychology and other social sciences. Findings indicate that (a) MTurk participants are slightly more demographically diverse than are standard Internet samples and are significantly more diverse than typical American college samples; (b) participation is affected by compensation rate and task length, but participants can still be recruited rapidly and inexpensively; (c) realistic compensation rates do not affect data quality; and (d) the data obtained are at least as reliable as those obtained via traditional methods. Overall, MTurk can be used to obtain high-quality data inexpensively and rapidly.
© The Author(s) 2011.
How are food choices formulated? Which are the factors that mostly affect food choice? These questions are crucially important both for efforts in food innovation and for institutions that face consequences and costs of diets that are harmful to human health and to the environment. On these matters, several reports have been developed following the angel of various disciplines, focusing on the analysis of the factors affecting food choices. Large-scale research on consumption behaviours has neither stopped the growing number of unsuccessful products entering the market, nor provided adequate support for institutions that are taking elaborate actions towards promoting health-orientated behaviours. These preliminary remarks highlight the need to think about the approaches and categories with which research programmes on food choices should be updated. This article discusses the reasons why food choices are determined by beliefs and identity, are conditioned by social images that influence preferences by indicating to individuals what foods are 'good' and 'right'; belong to the field of individual choice, and therefore, cannot be assimilated into medical prescriptions or merely reduced to a question of rules. Taste involves beliefs and identity as well as perceptions. This is why it has to be analyzed as a cultural and relational object. This paper aims to explore the complex mix of influences on food choice stressing that food choice is a matter of identity.
The importance of establishing equivalence in measurement prior to conducting substantive cross-country comparisons has long been emphasized in international business research. However, all approaches currently available for the investigation of measurement equivalence or invariance (ME/I) assume that the focal measures are reflective in nature. In our paper we offer guidelines for the assessment of ME/I when the focal construct is measured with formative indicators. We first identify distinct types of ME/I that are conceptually consistent with the nature of formative measurement models. We then describe a step-by-step procedure that can be employed to test for these types of ME/I in a comparative context. Lastly, we illustrate the application of the proposed procedure with data from a three-country survey on consumers’ product-country image perceptions.
Our usual representations of the opposition between the âcivilizedâ and the âprimitiveâ derive from willfully ignoring the relationship of distance our social science sets up between the observer and the observed. In fact, the author argues, the relationship between the anthropologist and his object of study is a particular instance of the relationship between knowing and doing, interpreting and using, symbolic mastery and practical masteryâor between logical logic, armed with all the accumulated instruments of objectification, and the universally pre-logical logic of practice. In this, his fullest statement of a theory of practice, Bourdieu both sets out what might be involved in incorporating oneâs own standpoint into an investigation and develops his understanding of the powers inherent in the second member of many oppositional pairsâthat is, he explicates how the practical concerns of daily life condition the transmission and functioning of social or cultural forms. The first part of the book, âCritique of Theoretical Reason,â covers more general questions, such as the objectivization of the generic relationship between social scientific observers and their objects of study, the need to overcome the gulf between subjectivism and objectivism, the interplay between structure and practice (a phenomenon Bourdieu describes via his concept of the habitus ), the place of the body, the manipulation of time, varieties of symbolic capital, and modes of domination. The second part of the book, âPractical Logics,â develops detailed case studies based on Bourdieuâs ethnographic fieldwork in Algeria. These examples touch on kinship patterns, the social construction of domestic space, social categories of perception and classification, and ritualized actions and exchanges. This book develops in full detail the theoretical positions sketched in Bourdieuâs Outline of a Theory of Practice . It will be especially useful to readers seeking to grasp the subtle concepts central to Bourdieuâs theory, to theorists interested in his points of departure from structuralism (especially fom Lévi-Strauss), and to critics eager to understand what role his theory gives to human agency. It also reveals Bourdieu to be an anthropological theorist of considerable originality and power.
Food choice decisions are frequent, multifaceted, situational, dynamic, and complex and lead to food behaviors where people acquire, prepare, serve, give away, store, eat, and clean up. Many disciplines and fields examine decision making.
Several classes of theories are applicable to food decision making, including social behavior, social facts, and social definition perspectives. Each offers some insights but also makes limiting assumptions that prevent fully explaining food choice decisions.
We used constructionist social definition perspectives to inductively develop a food choice process model that organizes a broad scope of factors and dynamics involved in food behaviors.
This food choice process model includes (1) life course events and experiences that establish a food choice trajectory through transitions, turning points, timing, and contexts; (2) influences on food choices that include cultural ideals, personal factors, resources, social factors, and present contexts; and (3) a personal system that develops food choice values, negotiates and balances values, classifies foods and situations, and forms/revises food choice strategies, scripts, and routines. The parts of the model dynamically interact to make food choice decisions leading to food behaviors.
No single theory can fully explain decision making in food behavior. Multiple perspectives are needed, including constructionist thinking.
Prior studies have found that family meals and other aspects of meal structure are associated with dietary intake during adolescence, but little research has characterized meals in young adulthood.
This study was designed to describe attitudes regarding the social nature of meals, time constraints on meals, and meal regularity in young adults. In addition, this study aimed to describe the sociodemographic characteristics of young adults who report eating dinner with others and "eating on the run," and examine associations of these behaviors with meal attitudes and dietary intake.
Data for this cross-sectional analysis were drawn from Project EAT (Eating Among Teens)-II, the second wave of a Minnesota population-based study.
Mailed surveys and food frequency questionnaires were completed in 2003-2004 by 1,687 young adult (mean age=20.5 years; 44% male) participants. MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURED AND STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED: chi(2) tests were calculated to examine differences in meal attitudes and behaviors according to sociodemographic characteristics. Relationships between meal attitudes and behaviors were explored using Spearman's correlation coefficients. Linear regression models adjusted for demographic characteristics were used to examine associations between meal behaviors and dietary intake variables.
The majority of young adults reported they enjoy and value eating with others, but 35% of males and 42% of females reported lacking time to sit down and eat a meal. Eating dinner with others was significantly associated (P</=0.01) with several markers of better dietary intake, including higher intakes of fruit, vegetables, and dark-green and orange vegetables. Eating on the run was significantly associated (P<0.01) with higher intakes of soft drinks, fast food, total fat and saturated fat, and lower intake of several healthful foods.
Findings suggest that health services and programs for young adults should encourage taking the time to sit down for meals and to share meals with others.
Eating routines are a compelling issue because recurring eating behaviors influence nutrition and health. As non-traditional and individualized eating patterns have become more common, new ways of thinking about routine eating practices are needed. This study sought to gain conceptual understanding of working adults' eating routines. Forty-two purposively sampled US adults reported food intake and contextual details about eating episodes in qualitative 24-h dietary recalls conducted over 7 consecutive days. Using the constant comparative method, researchers analyzed interview transcripts for recurrent ways of eating that were either explicitly reported by study participants as "routines" or emergent in the data. Participants' eating routines included repetition in food consumption as well as eating context, and also involved sequences of eating episodes. Eating routines were embedded in daily schedules for work, family, and recreation. Participants maintained purposeful routines that helped balance tension between demands and values, but they modified routines as circumstances changed. Participants monitored and reflected upon their eating practices and tended to assess their practices in light of their personal identities. These findings provide conceptual insights for food choice researchers and present a perspective from which practitioners who work with individuals seeking to adopt healthful eating practices might usefully approach their tasks.
The construct of involvement has been found to influence brand loyalty, product information search processing, responses to advertising communications, diffusion of innovations, and ultimately, product choice decisions. Traditionally, involvement has been defined as being a characteristic of either a product or of an individual. In the present research, we make an assumption that an individual's 'food involvement' is a somewhat stable characteristic and we hypothesized that involvement with foods would vary between individuals, that individuals who are more highly involved with food would be better able to discriminate between a set of food samples than would less food involved individuals, and that this discrimination would operate both in affective and perceptive relative judgments. Using standard scale construction techniques, we developed a measure of the characteristic of food involvement, based on activities relating to food acquisition, preparation, cooking, eating and disposal. After several iterations, a final 12-item measure was found to have good test-retest reliability and internal consistency within two subscales. A behavioral validation study demonstrated that measures of food involvement were associated with discrimination and hedonic ratings for a range of foods in a laboratory setting. These findings suggest that food involvement, as measured by the Food Involvement Scale, may be an important mediator to consider when undertaking research with food and food habits.
Ageing is associated with reduced energy intake and loss of appetite. Older men tend to have poorer dietary intakes including consumption of fewer fruits and vegetables in comparison to older women. Living and eating alone further diminishes food consumption and dietary quality. The aim of the present study was to explore food choice and energy intake in older men living alone using both quantitative and qualitative methods. 39 older men were interviewed and completed questionnaires on health, food choice, dietary patterns and appetite. Few men managed to consume recommended levels of energy, essential trace elements or vitamins A and D. Age and BMI failed to predict patterns of intake, but men with good cooking skills reported better physical health and higher intake of vegetables. However, cooking skills were negatively correlated with energy intake. Men who managed to consume at least 4 portions of fruits and vegetables each day had significantly higher vitamin C levels, a greater percentage of energy as protein and generally more adequate diets. Interviews revealed that poor cooking skills and low motivation to change eating habits may constitute barriers to improving energy intake, healthy eating and appetite in older men (193).
Conceptual understanding of how management of food and eating is linked to life course events and experiences.
Individual qualitative interviews with adults in upstate New York.
Fourteen men and 11 women with moderate to low incomes. PHENOMENON: Food choice capacity.
Constant comparative method.
A conceptual model of food choice capacity emerged. Food choice capacity represented participants' confidence in meeting their standards for food and eating given their food management skills and circumstances. Standards (expectations for how participants felt they should eat) were based on life course events and experiences. Food management skills (mental and physical talents to keep food costs down and prepare meals) were sources of self-esteem for many participants. Most participants had faced challenging and changing circumstances (income, employment, social support, roles, health conditions). Participants linked strong food management skills with high levels of food choice capacity, except in the case of extreme financial circumstances or the absence of strong standards.
Recognizing people's experiences and perspectives in food choice is important. Characterizing food management skills as durable, adaptive resources positions them conceptually for researchers and in a way that practitioners can apply in developing programs for adults.
This study sought to gain conceptual understanding of the situational nature of eating and drinking by analyzing 7 consecutive, qualitative 24-h recalls of foods and beverages consumed from 42 US adults who worked in non-managerial, non-professional positions. Participants were purposively recruited to vary in age, gender, occupation, and household composition. For each recall, participants described foods and beverages consumed, location, people present, thoughts and feelings, and activities occurring at that time. Analysis of verbatim transcripts of interviews identified 1448 eating and drinking episodes. Constant comparative analysis of participants' descriptions for episodes resulted in a conceptual framework that characterizes eating and drinking episodes as holistic and as having eight interconnected dimensions (food and drink, time, location, activities, social setting, mental processes, physical condition, recurrence). Each dimension has multiple features that can be used to describe the episodes. In recalling episodes, participants used conventional labels (e.g. "dinner") as well as modified-conventional labels (e.g. "birthday dinner") and uniquely constructed labels (e.g. "unwind time"). Labels provided insights into the dimensions of the episodes. Results suggest approaches for researchers and practitioners who seek to understand how people manage everyday eating at a time when traditional meal patterns are changing.
To describe food-preparation behaviors, cooking skills, resources for preparing food, and associations with diet quality among young adults.
Cross-sectional analyses were performed in a sample of young adults who responded to the second wave of a population-based longitudinal study. Measures pertaining to food preparation were self-reported and dietary intake was assessed by a food frequency questionnaire, both by a mailed survey.
Males (n = 764) and females (n = 946) ages 18 to 23 years.
Cross-tabulations and chi2 tests were used to examine associations between food preparation, skills/resources for preparing foods, and characteristics of young adults. Mixed regression models were used to generate expected probabilities of meeting the Healthy People 2010 dietary objectives according to reported behaviors and skills/resources.
Food-preparation behaviors were not performed by the majority of young adults even weekly. Sex (male), race (African American), and living situation (campus housing) were significantly related to less frequent food preparation. Lower perceived adequacy of skills and resources for food preparation was related to reported race (African American or Hispanic) and student status (part-time or not in school). The most common barrier to food preparation was lack of time, reported by 36% of young adults. Young adults who reported frequent food preparation reported less frequent fast-food use and were more likely to meet dietary objectives for fat (P < 0.001), calcium (P < 0.001), fruit (P < 0.001), vegetable (P < 0.001), and whole-grain (P = 0.003) consumption.
To improve dietary intake, interventions among young adults should teach skills for preparing quick and healthful meals.
The evidence- and practice-based Satter Eating Competence Model (ecSatter) outlines an inclusive definition of the interrelated spectrum of eating attitudes and behaviors. The model is predicated on the utility and effectiveness of biopsychosocial processes: hunger and the drive to survive, appetite and the need for subjective reward and the biological propensity to maintain preferred and stable body weight. According to ecSatter, competent eaters have 1) positive attitudes about eating and about food, 2) food acceptance skills that support eating an ever-increasing variety of the available food, 3) internal regulation skills that allow intuitively consuming enough food to give energy and stamina and to support stable body weight, and 4) skills and resources for managing the food context and orchestrating family meals. Identifying these four constructs allows nutrition professionals to target interventions as well as trust and support the individual's own capabilities and tendency to learn and grow.
The joy of cooking? Contexts
- S Bowen
- S Elliott
- J Brenton
Bowen, S., Elliott, S., & Brenton, J. (2014). The joy of cooking? Contexts, 13(20), 20-25.