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Mental toughness in elite and sub-elite female soccer players
Abstract
Mental toughness (MT) is seen as an important psychological factor in the athletic success of elite athletes. Research on the subject has usually concerned male athletes. Our purpose was to investigate whether there are differences in mental toughness between female players who compete in an elite league and those who play at lower levels. In total, 298 female soccer players (M = 20.7 years, SD = 3.7 years) from three levels of Norwegian soccer responded to the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire. The MT Constancy subscale was removed from analysis due to an unacceptable Cronbach alpha (0.57). The results revealed that elite league players had significantly higher MT Global scores than those in lower leagues. The elite players had higher scores than the third league players on the MT Confidence subscale. For MT Control, the elite league players had a significantly higher score than the second league players, but the elite players did not differ significantly from the third league players on this subscale. These results partially confirm a relationship between mental toughness and playing level among female soccer players.
... A recent systematic review showed that higher-level female football players had elevated scores for some psychological factors (Pettersen et al., 2021). For example, grit (passion and perseverance for long-term goals; Duckworth et al., 2007) showed a tendency to increase with the increasing level of the players (Meyer et al., 2017;Sigmundsson et al., 2020a), as did mental toughness (the ability to achieve personal goals in the face of pressure from a wide range of different stressors ;Hardy et al., 2014) in both female (Danielsen et al., 2017) and male (Guillen and Santana, 2018) football players. The personality trait of conscientiousness has also been associated with better football performance when performance is rated by coaches (Piedmont et al., 1999). ...
... Although these factors have been examined separately before, no study has combined them and used an objective measurement tool (such as the InStat Index) to measure match performance. We hypothesized that mental toughness, grit, extraversion, conscientiousness, perceived motivational climate, and self-regulated learning would predict individual objective match performance in female football players (Piedmont et al., 1999;Toering et al., 2009;Weiss et al., 2009;Danielsen et al., 2017;Meyer et al., 2017). ...
... Our findings demonstrated that, among several psychological factors, a perceived mastery motivational climate and extraversion were the only significant predictors of individual performance in women's football. The confidence subscale of mental toughness revealed a negative relation to match performance, although we question the validity of this finding because it is contradictive of previous findings (Danielsen et al., 2017; Kristjánsdóttir et al., 2019). It is difficult to understand why lower levels of mental toughness should be beneficial to football performance, and this possibly spurious finding may be a result of the specific measure used or perhaps a statistical artifact. ...
Introduction
Even though there is a clear agreement among researchers that psychological factors are a vital part of a football player’s performance, the topic has not been investigated thoroughly. The present study aimed to examine the predictive value of psychological factors on female football players’ match performance.
Methods
A sample of 156 players from the top two leagues in Norway completed the following questionnaires: Perceived Motivational Climate in Sport Questionnaire 2 (PMCSQ-2), Big Five Inventory (BFI-20), Self-Regulated Learning questionnaire, and Grit-S and Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ). Match performance data were collected from the online database of the performance analysis company InStat.
Results
Results from a linear mixed model analysis showed that perceived mastery climate and extraversion were the only significant predictors of performance. Other relevant indicators, such as mental toughness, self-regulated learning, and grit, did not predict performance.
Discussion
These findings suggest that the team climate facilitated by coaches may be more important for predicting match performance than individual psychological factors.
... La importancia de la relación entre la fortaleza mental y el rendimiento deportivo ha sido demostrada, ya que según la revisión de la literatura efectuada por Cowden (2017a), el 88% de los estudios relevantes encontraron que los deportistas con niveles más altos de fortaleza mental tendían a mayores niveles de logro y de rendimiento. Pero además de los beneficios sobre el deportista en competición, se ha comprobado que la fortaleza mental también se asocia a una mayor confianza (Chen & Cheesman, 2013), un mayor control emocional (Danielsen et al., 2017) y bienestar psicológico (Stamp et al., 2015), mejor afrontamiento y gestión del estrés (Nicholls et al., 2008;Levy et al., 2012), y al mismo tiempo, la fortaleza mental se ha relacionado con menores niveles de burnout (Madigan & Nicholls, 2017), de ansiedad (Schaefer et al., 2016) y de síntomas depresivos (Brand et al., 2014). ...
... El SMTQ cuenta con una validez convergente positiva entre cada uno de sus factores, y las saturaciones de cada ítem resultan aceptables, a excepción de dos ítems (2 y 10), los cuales deberían de ser tenidos en cuenta en futuras investigación que utilicen este instrumento. Al mismo tiempo debemos tener en cuenta otros estudios previos que han identificado bajos niveles de consistencia interna (Cowden et al., 2016;Crust & Swann, 2011;Danielsen et al., 2017). También existen problemas en cuanto a la validez discriminante, que entra en conflicto con la perspectiva multidimensional que ha sido afirmada para el SMTQ (Sheard et al., 2009). ...
... Por todo ello, y a pesar de los resultados contradictorios en cuanto a sus propiedades psicométricas encontrados por los estudios que han analizado el SMTQ, consideramos que el instrumento no debe ser descartado, pues el presente estudio es un análisis preliminar de sus propiedades, y coincidimos con Danielsen et al. (2017) en que quizás sean necesarias revisiones adicionales del SMTQ para modificar o mejorar su contenido y posibilitar así su empleo en futuras investigaciones. Sin embargo, no podemos obviar las críticas realizadas al cuestionario, pues se ha señalado que adolece de una base teórica firme, y no se ha identificado un modelo conceptual explícito (Gucciardi et al., 2011). ...
The objective of this study was to analyze the psychometric properties of the Mental Toughness Index (MTI) and Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ), for their adaptation and use in the field of Mexican sport. The MTI consists of eight items and constitutes a one-dimensional measure of mental toughness. The SMTQ is composed of 14 items, with three factors (confidence, constancy, and control). The sample was composed of 375 athletes from different sports. The results indicated appropriate characteristics of MTI and its one-dimensional structure, with a reliability of α=.81, adequate factor loads, satisfactory goodness and fit indices, and convergent validity. The SMTQ presented inferior results, with α=.69 for total scale, and low reliability of constancy and control. Fit indices were not optimal, and there were low correlations between scales and discriminant validity problems.
... Mental preparation aims to enhance the athlete's performance, monitor the athlete's psychological state, and achieve an empirically well-founded intervention, taking into account the wide-ranging diagnostic of individual-specific features. All this can be the key to an athlete's success, as international trends are increasingly reflecting that the outcome of a world competition depends to a great extent on the athlete's psychological state (Danielsen, Rodahl, Giske, & Høigaard, 2017). On the other hand, applied sport psychology is the application of psychological principles of human performance in helping athletes consistently perform in the upper range of their capabilities and more thoroughly enjoy the sport performance process (Portenga et al., 2017). ...
... Psychological skills are fundamental factors of performance comprising cognitive abilities that can be polished through psychological skills training (Solomon & Kausar, 2017). These skills lead players towards elite performance during critical situations of the match, therefore, it can be postulated that performance is a process that is learnt with the help of different types of psychological and mental abilities (Danielsen et al., 2017). Psychological skills' training is an organized preparation of psychological skills for the enhancement of performance, achieving enjoyment in sports, and satisfaction from physical activity (Orlick, 2016). ...
... Psycho-competitiveness included to different psychological skills that help players during crucial match situations such as self-talk, imagery and planned ignoring for pressure situations (Anderson et al., 2014;Olmedilla et al., 2017). Hockey players and cricketers are thought to be able to enhance their performance on tasks in their domains by regulating their psychological state through the use of basic psychological skills: Confidence, commitment, concentration and control (Danielsen et al., 2017). These skills include advanced psychological skills, such as the ability to regulate anxiety and basic psychological skills such as self-talk that underpin use of psychological skills during crucial situations. ...
The present research was carried to develop an indigenous, valid, and reliable scale to assess psychological skills of hockey players and cricketers. An initial item pool of 130 items was generated through detailed, open-ended, and semi-structured interviews with six international hockey players and two international cricketers, whereas, a preliminary questionnaire was administered on 518 players (261 hockey players and 257 cricketers). Principal Factor Analysis with Varimax rotation postulated 84 items with three distinct factors: Psycho-Performance Skills, Perceived Psychological Support, and Psycho-Competitiveness. The internal consistency of the items for Psychological Skills Scale for Hockey Players and Cricketers was determined by using Cronbach’s alpha that emerged .94 for final 84 items, whereas, Psycho-Performance Skills, Perceived Psychological Support, and Psycho-Competitiveness had .92, .90, and .87 reliability; respectively. Further researches can be conducted to confirm these three factors extracted through this study by including other sports or considering various other psychological skills of hockey players and cricketers. This research would be helpful for Pakistan Hockey Federation and Pakistan Cricket Board to determine psychological profiling of cricketers and develop psychological profiling system based on the results of Psychological Skills Scale for hockey players and cricketers.
... One of the few that do exist found that there was a difference in post-game confidence among collegiate female football players between starters and non-starters, favoring the starters (Haneishi, Fry, Moore, Schilling, Li & Fry, 2007). In a similar line, another study conducted with Norwegian women football players found differences in confidence, but only between the first and third divisions (Danielsen, Rodahl, Giske & Høigaard, 2017). ...
... For MT in the univariate analysis, there were higher confidence and total scores in national team than in first division players, and in the latter higher than in second division players. These data partially agree with those of a study of Norwegian women football players for whom there were differences in the "confidence" sub-scale, but only between the first and third division players (Danielsen et al., 2017). Also in the same line as the present results are those of a study which found differences in MT in male players of 14-19 years in age depending on their team's classification in the league, with highest scores in the topranked team (Guillen & Santana, 2018). ...
... It should be noted, however, that MT may be influenced by other psychological attributes such as task and ego orientation ( Alvarez, Walker & Castillo, 2018). With respect to studies carried out on women footballers (Danielsen et al., 2017;Guillen & Santana, 2018;Wieser & Thiel, 2014), there seems to be a relationship between MT and performance, although this relationship is influenced by the player's level and age. Again, which criterion is chosen for "performance" might influence that relationship (Cowden, 2017). ...
Women's football has been far less studied than men's. This work's objectives were to: (1) analyze the differences in psychological skills, mental toughness (MT), and anxiety in women football players according to their level (national team, first division, and second division); and (2) predict those three levels (using a multivariate model) according to the players’ psychological skills, mental toughness, and anxiety. One hundred and forty‐two Icelandic women football players (23.5 ± 3.5 years) participated in the study. They were classified into three groups according to their level: national team, and first and second divisions. Three questionnaires were used: the Test of Performance Strategies Questionnaire, the Sport Mental Toughness Questionnaire, and the Sport Anxiety Scale‐2 questionnaire. A one‐way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc correction was used to examine differences between teams. Applying a classification tree analysis, the participants were classified into three groups according to their level. There were few differences between the three groups in psychological skills, but in mental toughness and anxiety the national team had the highest and lowest values respectively, and the first and second division players differed in relaxation in competition (TOPS), total score and confidence (SMTQ), and worry (SAS‐2). The classification tree correctly classified 54.9% of the sample with the variables total score (SMTQ) and activation in practice (TOPS). Therefore, given the relevance that psychological attributes appear to have for women football players’ performance, it would seem indispensable to incorporate the figure of the sports psychologist into national and club teams.
... Resilience, competitiveness and decision making were all jointly rated as the most important behavioural attributes in the present study. We postulate resilience was rated highly because of a range of characteristics that combine to make up this attribute [62]. To illustrate, while resilience can be defined as having the capacity to bounce back from adversities [30], the attribute is seen as a significant component of mental toughness [62]. ...
... We postulate resilience was rated highly because of a range of characteristics that combine to make up this attribute [62]. To illustrate, while resilience can be defined as having the capacity to bounce back from adversities [30], the attribute is seen as a significant component of mental toughness [62]. Mental toughness is thought to facilitate the development of various coping strategies that help players overcome obstacles [33] thereby increasing their confidence to deal with setbacks [30,33] and reducing the fear of failure [63]. ...
The aim of this research was to assess the validity and reliability of a newly developed scoring tool, designed for monitoring youth soccer players during match-play performance to support coaches/scouts with the talent identification process. The method used to design the Hull Soccer Behavioural Scoring Tool comprised of a five-stage process of (i) conducting an initial literature review to establish content validity (ii) gaining content validity through a cross sectional online survey (iii) establishing face validity via expert coach feedback (iv) conducting inter-rater reliability tests and (v) intra-rater reliability tests. In stage two, twenty-two soccer academy practitioners completed an online survey, which revealed that player behaviours such as resilience, competitiveness, and decision making were all valued as the most important behavioural characteristics by practitioners (90.9%), whilst X-factor was valued as least important by a significant amount (27.2%). Stages three to five of the testing procedure included a sample of four academy coaches not involved in the preceding stage. Twenty male collegiate soccer players (under-16 to under-18) involved in the study took part in four versus four small-sided games (SSG) in a ‘round-robin’ tournament across three weeks which accumulated 14 SSG’s, 100–140 minutes of playing time and 70–98 individual player grades. Two of the four academy coaches watched the SSG’s and used the Hull Soccer Behavioural Scoring Tool to assess live evidence of desirable player behaviours, which was subsequently followed by retrospective video analysis for intra-rater reliability testing. The remaining two academy coaches watched the same SSG retrospective video footage to test for inter-rater reliability. Reliability results revealed an acceptable level of agreement with scores between 81.25%—89.9% for inter-rater whilst intra-rater provided scores between 80.35%—99.4%. Preliminary evidence here suggests that the Hull Soccer Behavioural Scoring Tool is both a valid and reliable method to assess desirable player behaviours during talent identification processes. Thus, youth soccer practitioners and researchers should seek to test and further validate the tool in order to confirm its utility as a means of measuring behavioural characteristics of youth soccer players.
... elite leagues and national teams) tend to report significantly higher scores of mental toughness in comparison to those competing at a lower level. One of these empirical studies was conducted by Danielsen et al. (2017) with a sample of 298 female soccer players from three Norwegian leagues, showing that elite league players reported significantly higher mental toughness scores than players from the third league. Yet, no significant differences were obtained between the players of the elite and the second league, nor between the players of the second and the third league. ...
... Specifically, the obtained results support the inclusion of conscientiousness and mental toughness in the psychological assessment of soccer players for selection and talent development purposes, given its meaningful positive effects on individual soccer performance, as previous research started to show (e.g. Danielsen et al., 2017;Guillén & Santana, 2018;Piedmont et al., 1999). Furthermore, in light of research suggesting that players' mental toughness can be enhanced through focal intervention, such as the creation of an autonomy-supportive coaching environments (i.e., contexts conducive to mastery development, non-hostile interactions and positive social constellations) and the related nurturing of basic psychological needs (Gucciardi et al., 2009;Mahoney et al., 2014), coaches and technical staff should capitalise on these aspects to promote the benefits of mental toughness for performance. ...
Background
Drawing upon Motowidlo et al.’s theory of individual differences in individual performance, the current study aims to con-tribute to a better understanding of the relationship between conscientiousness and individual soccer performance, by exam-ining whether mental toughness, posited as a characteristic adaptation, acts as a psychological mechanism underlying this link.
Participants and procedure
Relying upon a concurrent validity design, 130 soccer players completed a survey including the measures of conscientious-ness and mental toughness. Participants were also instructed to provide a subjective assessment of their individual soccer performance, by self-rating their physical, technical and tactical performance levels. Their objective performance was also measured as the total amount of minutes each player participated in official games, during the first half-season.
Results
The findings showed that conscientiousness and mental toughness represent significant and meaningful predictors of both individual soccer performance measures gathered, i.e. individual soccer subjective and objective performance. As expected, further mediation analyses showed that the influence of conscientiousness on subjective performance is totally indirect, via mental toughness. Still, for the objective performance criterion, only the direct effect of conscientiousness was supported.
Conclusions
These findings support the merits of conscientiousness as a valid predictor of human performance across achievement con-texts, namely in sports settings and specifically in the domain of soccer. They also suggest that while this personality factor exerts a direct impact on individual soccer objective performance, it seems to play a more distal influence on subjective per-formance, by enacting individual mental toughness resources. Major theoretical and applied research implications are dis-cussed.
... Keywords: Decision-making skills; Mental skills; Athletes; Non-athletes; University students. competitiveness among athletes and non-athletes received numerous evidences [4], [10][11][12]. It includes exploring mental toughness [10] and imagery skills [6] between them as well as towards different categorization of sports such as open and closed-skill sports [5,[13][14][15]. ...
... competitiveness among athletes and non-athletes received numerous evidences [4], [10][11][12]. It includes exploring mental toughness [10] and imagery skills [6] between them as well as towards different categorization of sports such as open and closed-skill sports [5,[13][14][15]. ...
Cognitive skills are one of the components of mental skills. These skills deal with a high level of cognitive processing, including decision-making. Athletes with high cognitive skills have superior positive thinking and decision-making. The objectives of this study are to evaluate mental skills performance on athletes and non-athletes in university and to investigate the difference of mental skills among athletes and non-athletes in university. 229 active students from Bachelor of Sports Science, Universiti Teknologi MARA Perlis Branch participated in this study. Descriptive statistical methods were used using Microsoft Excel 2020 and the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 25.0 version). The significant value for determining the significant difference of the data gathered was valued as p < 0.001 and p < 0.05. All descriptive data calculated were presented in mean ± standard deviation (SD). A statistically significant of the result for vigilance’s approach showed that there was no significant difference between athletes and non-athletes. As for buck-passing and procrastination approach, there was a significant difference recorded as the test result indicated p < 0.001 and p < 0.05 respectively. Lastly, hypervigilance approach showed that there was a significant difference between athletes and non-athletes with the value p < 0.001. This study suggests that there is a significant difference of buck-passing, procrastination and hypervigilance between athletes and non-athletes among university students. Future study can consider investigating demographic and athletes’ competitiveness factors to understand better on the underlying influences on how individual participation and exposure in sports affecting mental skills development.
... Researchers (Middleton et al., 2004;Crust & Azadi, 2010) have established a positive relationship between mental toughness and successful sport performance, not only in football (Thelwell et al., 2010), but also in cricketers (Bull, Shambrook, 470 Williams, Coopoo, Van Niekerk and Fortuin James & Brooks, 2005), endurance athletes (Zieger & Zieger, 2018), Australian footballers (Gucciardi et al., 2008) and other categories of sports men and women. In their study of the mental toughness of woman football players in Norway, Danielsen et al. (2017) compared the mental toughness of both elite and sub-elite woman football players and found preliminary evidence that those in elite leagues seem to have a higher mental toughness than their peers participating in lower leagues. Furthermore, it has been established that anxiety can negatively affect athletes' mental toughness, while self-esteem, which is, according to Weinberg and Gould (2015), a situation specific type of self-confidence, could have a positive or enhancing effect on mental toughness. ...
... This result indicates that although the women football players were eager to participate in sport and achieve their goals, coaches might rely too much on their motivation to compensate for the lack of other salient mental skills,, thereby rendering them ill prepared mentally for competition. These results are consistent with those reported for male football players in South African academies (Van Niekerk, 2012) and those in other countries (Bull, Shambrook, James & Brooks, 2005;Gucciardi et al., 2008;Zieger & Zieger, 2018) as well as women football players in Norway (Danielsen et al., 2017). Therefore, the neglect of mental or psychological skills training seem to be a global phenomenon and not just localised in the women South African context. ...
The mental preparation of woman athletes, including woman football players, have been neglected for quite some time. For woman football players to perform to their full potential, they need to know how to play under pressure, get out of difficulties effectively and maintain their good performance when faced with continuous challenges during the game.
... One of the approaches for studying the role of the psychological variables in sport performance is based on the personality traits (Mahoney and Avener, 1977;Gould et al., 1981;Burnik et al., 2005;Rasmus and Kocur, 2006;Cabrita et al., 2014), as the recent published study by Danielsen et al. (2017) where a relationship was found between the influence of mental toughness and the level of competition in female soccer players. Another approach studies differences between athletes and non-athlete population. ...
... In recent years the number of works that show an especial attention in the study of the relationship between psychological factors and sport performance in female soccer has increased considerably (Danielsen et al., 2017). Specifically, the main psychological factors studied have been self-esteem and anxiety control (Williams, 2017), the prediction of the goal orientations suggesting coach's specific actions (Granero-Gallegos et al., 2015;Domínguez-Escribano et al., 2017), some mental health indicators as depression and anxiety (Junge and Feddermann-Demont, 2016;Olmedilla et al., 2018a), and mood states (Arroyo del Bosque et al., 2016). ...
The athletes’ psychological disposition is a factor that is increasingly considered by researchers as a key to sports performance, even as a mediator between the physical, technical and tactical abilities of the athlete and their competitive performance, thus acquiring great relevance in training and in sports performance. The purpose of this study is to analyze the psychological characteristics of young soccer players and their relation to their performance perception, made both by the player herself and by their coaches. The sample is composed of 108 women (M age = 15.53, SD age = 1.05), with ages between 13 and 17 years (13 years, n = 1, 14 years, n = 18, 15 years, n = 36, 16 years, n = 29, 17 years, n = 24), and with a sport practice experience of 7.27 years on average (SD = 2.64). For to address this aim, we used the Psychological Characteristics related to the Sport Performance Questionnaire (CPRD) and the Psychological Skills Inventory for Sports (PSIS). In addition, regarding the evaluation of performance perception, an ad hoc short questionnaire was created, composed by one question addressed to the player and one directed to the coach. The results indicate that the group of players of the under-16 category obtained higher scores in all the psychological dimensions than the U-18 players, showing significant differences in Team Cohesion (p < 0.048). Regarding the degree of congruence between the player’s psychological features, and the player’s and coach’s performance perceptions, the results show statistically significant and negative correlations between the Team Cohesion factor and the athlete’s own outcome perception for the match #1 (rxy = -0.479; p < 0.001), and match #2 (rxy = -0.402; p < 0.01). The results of this study may contribute to establish the differences between different constellations of psychological characteristics according to the categories of competition and their relationship with the perception of performance. This knowledge can be used by sports professionals: coaches, psychologists, physical educators, etc., in order to help athletes to reach their maximum performance.
... This assigns a very important role to coaches in fostering athletes' sport psychological skills, as it demonstrates the impact that their behavior has on their learning. 41,90,91 Finally, this can also be observed in the indirect relationships between disempowering climate and sport psychological skills through competitive anxiety, as it has been significantly and negatively related to negative coping control and attentional control. These data suggest that disempowering climate, through increased anxiety, could affect the athlete's psychological development, 92,93 impairing them in improving aspects that could help them cope with competition demands more effectively. ...
The relationship between motivational climate and psychological sporting abilities could be influenced by levels of competitive anxiety and self-confidence. The purpose of this research was to explore the relationships between empowering and disempowering motivational climates with negative coping control and attentional control, analyzing whether there was an effect of self-confidence and competitive anxiety on these relationships. A total of 328 male adolescents, aged between 14 and 18 years (M = 15.85; SD = 1.44), participated in this research. To collect the information, the Empowering and Disempowering Motivational Climate Questionnaire (EDMCQ-C), the Inventario Psicológico de Ejecución Deportiva (IPED), and the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2R) were used. The structural equation model revealed positive and statistically significant associations between empowering motivational climate and self-confidence, between disempowering climate and competitive anxiety, as well as between self-confidence and psychological sporting abilities (negative coping control and attentional control). On the other hand, the analyses highlighted negative relationships between competitive anxiety and negative coping control, as well as attentional control. Furthermore, the model revealed indirect associations between empowering climate and negative coping control, and attentional control through self-confidence, as well as between disempowering climate and negative coping control, and attentional control through competitive anxiety. This information could be valuable for professionals in the field of sports, including coaches, psychologists, athletes, managers, or even individuals close to the athletes such as family members or mentors.
... Yazıcı (2016) found that the mental toughness levels of professional basketball players varied significantly by league level. Likewise, a study on elite female football players (Danielsen, Rodahl, Giske & Høigaard, 2017) noted that 1st League players demonstrated significantly higher mental toughness scores than those in the 2nd and 3rd Leagues. These studies align with our findings. ...
This study aims to examine the mental toughness, goal orientation and motivational climate levels of 887 professional footballers from TFF 1st League, TFF 2nd League and TFF 3rd League registered in Turkish Football Federation and whether these characteristics change according to age, league level and sport experience. The results showed that mental toughness scores of footballers were significantly correlated with age, league level and sport experience. Significant difference was found in goal orientation scores with age and league level, but not with sport experience. Motivational climate scores were found to vary significantly with age, league level and sport experience. In addition, it was found that task orientation had a positive effect on mental toughness, and mastery climate, one of the sub-dimensions of motivational climate, had a positive effect on mental toughness. However, performance climate was found to have a significant and negative effect on mental toughness. This study showed that the levels of mental toughness, goal orientation and motivational climate in professional football players have significant relationships with demographic factors and with each other.
... Morgan et al. [27] defined team resilience as "a dynamic, psychosocial process which protects a group of individuals from the potential negative effect of stressors they collectively encounter." Thus, it is important to link tactical contents in different team sports [28][29][30][31][32] to pressure and scenarios of coping with stressful situations to determine how they influence team resilience and players' anxiety [33,34]. ...
The present study examined the effects of stressful constraints during soccer trainings on psychological skill development and internal load when compared with control (nonstressful) trainings. A total of 51 elite male youth soccer players (27 in the experimental group, M = 16.54 years; 24 in the control group, M = 15.44 years) participated in the study. In a 12-week longitudinal survey, team resilience, using the Spanish version of the Characteristics of Resilience in Sports Teams Inventory, and anxiety, using the Sport Anxiety Scale, were measured at baseline (after 4 weeks of regular trainings), postprotocol (after 4 weeks of control or experimental trainings), and follow-up (after 4 weeks of regular trainings). Results show that, when compared with the control group, a program with stressful constraints helped young soccer players to develop better psychological skills: specifically, increased ability to cope with impairments in resilience (both resilience characteristics and team vulnerability under pressure; p < 0.001). Increases in anxiety (p = 0.06) and decreases in preoccupation (p < 0.001) and lack of concentration (p < 0.001) were also observed. The adaptation of human behavior to specific trainings may explain these results. In conclusion, the regular exposure of young soccer players to stressful situations during trainings shows benefits for their psychological skill development in soccer. Then, benefits on internal load were also observed.
... Lack of experience of younger athletes, whereas older athletes have experienced a more prolonged period playing games to build their mental toughness (Guillén, & Santana, 2018). The level of performance also showed the difference between elite and amateur players, where Danielsen, Rodahl, Giske et al. (2017) found out there was a difference between division 1 and division 3 Norwegian league, as the higher division players have a high score in mental toughness compared to the lowest division. This statement is supported by athletes of a higher level of performance with higher mental toughness scores than athletes who had shorter experience performance, thus having lower mental toughness scores (Meggs & Chen, 2018). ...
The main purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between cardiovascular endurance and mental toughness among football players of Academy Mokhtar Dahari (AMD). Twenty players were selected as respondents. Data were collected using Yo-Yo test level 1 and Mental Emotional Bodily Toughness (MeBTough) Questionnaires (Mark, 2008). This study showed that cardiovascular endurance parameters were good (M=2064.00, SD=251.45), while mental toughness measures appeared moderate (M=126.55, SD=15.10). Moreover, this study has indicated no significant relationship between cardiovascular endurance and mental toughness (r=0.38, p>0.05). Analyze showed that a 10-week athlete’s training does not significantly influence the relationship between cardiovascular endurance and mental toughness even if the athletes have attained high cardiovascular endurance. The result showed that the duration of the training, experience, and effort to enhance both physiological and psychological skills needed to improve mental toughness among sports players. Keywords: Academy Mokhtar Dahari (AMD), Cardiovascular endurance, footballer under-16, mental toughness
... However, even if all respondents expressed that despair, shame, and an acceptance of defeat were soon-to-be a reality, there was still an attitude in the team that they had to fight to the end of the match, at least to prevent an even more humiliating result and to maintain their self-respect. This "fight to the end" attitude at the individual level demonstrates the attributes of mental toughness which is reported in elite athletes (Thelwell et al., 2005;Danielsen et al., 2017). At the team level, it may be a characteristic of a resilient sports team. ...
The current case study focused on a crucial match in the qualification for the Norwegian Premier League (Eliteserien). In the match, the participants of the study experienced a radical change in performance toward the end of the second half, from being behind by several goals to scoring 3 goals in 6 min and winning the qualifying game. The purpose of this study was therefore to examine the perceptions and reflections of players and coaches (sporting director) on what occurred within their own team and within the opposing team. The momentum shift in the opposition team can be described as a collective collapse. In the study, the theoretical collective collapse process model was used as a guide for the design of the interview questions where five semi-structured interviews were conducted with participants involved in the match (players, coach, and sporting director). The participants watched excerpt clips from the match to recall the main events, which they subsequently reflected on. The results highlighted the importance of the “before-game” aspects (i.e., pressure, first game result), the “during-the-game” behavior (i.e., goals scored, playing with a low degree of risk) and the cognitive (i.e., feelings of pressure, despair) and emotional reactions (i.e., frustration, joy) to the match unfolding. In addition, social contagion processes were evident in both teams relating to emotion and behavior. Overall, the data from this study investigated the general structure of the process model of collective sport team collapse and found support for the notion of a temporal cascade of causes for a team collapse. Future research is encouraged to examine this model, to provide guidance to teams, coaches, and sport psychologists in order to make recommendations for dealing with collective collapse in sport teams.
... These results are somewhat expected. Previous studies showed that lower league football players have lower values of some psychological characteristics (Memmert, Baker, & Bertsch, 2010;Vestberg, Gustafson, Maurex, Ingvar, & Petrović, 2012;Danielsen, Rodahl, Giske, & Høigaard, 2017), and general physical fitness parameters than those from higher leagues (Davis, Brewer, & Atkin, 1992;Cometti, Maffiuletti, Pousson, Chatard, & Maffulli, 2001). Since participants involved in this research played in the second and third football league, it can be assumed that they have relatively lower values for the afore mentioned properties, which could lead to low grades when it comes individual creativity, overall success and success in the attack phase. ...
The main aim of this research was to determine to which degree the system of variables used to evaluate specific motor skills correlated with the system of variables used to evaluate successful performance in football play. The study was conducted on a sample of 170 senior football players. There were 16 predictor variables to assess specific motor skills and eight criterion variables to assess successful performance. A canonical correlation analysis was applied in the statistical procedure to determine the relationships (correlations) between these spaces. Correlations were established between the investigated spaces with four pairs of canonical factors, and it has been shown that situational motor skills have high correlations with performance success in the game of football (Can R.=0.71, on average). It is indicated that the participants whose performance in football play was more successful also had better situational motor skills and that the mechanism for structuring movement is shown to be of great importance for the successful performance of tactical and technical elements in football players.
... Given their level of performance and as members of the most representative team of their region, the players of UD Las Palmas showed higher levels of mental toughness than players from the other teams who obtained a lower position, and in turn, less social recognition. This is consistent with the findings by Danielsen, Rodahl, Giske, & Hnigaard (2017) in Norwegian soccer players who responded to the SMTQ. Significantly higher scores in MT were found in 1st division players than in 3 rd division players. ...
The objective of the present study was to assess mental toughness in two groups of soccer players of different levels of performance. The participants included 242 male soccer players, ranging from 14 to 19 years of age who participated in official competitions for under 16s and under 19s. The Mental Toughness Index (MTI) was used and they were asked three questions related to their perception of their capacity to reach higher levels. Results show significant differences between under 16 players and under 19 players. Some differences were also observed between players of UD Las Palmas and the other teams. Overall, results appear to indicate that from an early age, some differences in regard to mental toughness can be found depending on the level of performance. This study provides data of very young athletes and uses an instrument which had never been used on Spanish soccer players. Further research in this field would be interesting, focusing on younger subjects and other individual and team sports.
The purpose of this study was to analysis the relationship of sport engagement and mental toughness in elite tennis players from Ecuador and Portugal. The study featured 265 elite tennis players (127 from Ecuador and 138 from Portugal), with ages between 15 and 30 years old (Mage = 18.81; SD = 3.73) and belonging to the most advanced categories of the national ranking of both countries. Two questionnaires were used including the Mental Toughness Index and Athlete Engagement Questionnaire. We realized a quantitative analysis, where the ANOVA statistical analysis test of unidirectional repetitive measures, Pearson correlation (ρ) and Cronbach (α) were used, which supported the analysis. The results showed that tennis players from both countries have high levels of sport engagement and mental toughness. In addition, the results showed positively relationship between sport engagement and mental toughness, indicating that players to become mentally tougher need to be dedicated and enthusiastic about the sport. On the other hand, not significant differences between both genders and countries were evident. This study reinforces the importance of developing psychological programs, based on sport engagement and mental toughness in order to developing determined, tough and component athletes to overcome adversity.
Introduction:
The present systematic review aimed to compile the information available in the literature having to do with sport psychology regarding futsal and soccer players, in order to identify which psychological constructs are being investigated in these athletes and by means of which instruments and analysis techniques.
Method:
The search was carried out in the APA (PsycINFO), EBSCO (SportDiscus), PubMed, Web of Science, Scielo, Science Direct, Scopus, BVS and EMBASE databases, with the following descriptors: psychological construct; psychological factor; psychological variable; psychological phenomenon; soccer; futsal and athlete, in English, Spanish and Portuguese.
Results:
Initially, 66 studies met the established eligibility criteria. Of these, 46 studies were conducted with soccer players, 19 with futsal players and one with athletes who participate in both sports. The psychological constructs most studied in the soccer modality were anxiety, stress, motivation, coping, motivational climate, depression, self-efficacy and group cohesion. With regard to the futsal modality, the most studied psychological constructs were group cohesion, perfectionism, motivation, athlete satisfaction, leadership style, perceived parenting styles and burnout.
Conclusions:
Group cohesion was associated with several other psychological aspects of an individual nature, with cohesion being the construct of both modalities which is of the greatest interest to researchers possibly because it is a collective modality. It can be established that important psychological factors have not been studied in soccer and futsal modalities, especially among female athletes. Therefore, it is recommended that the research carried out with male athletes be extended to include female populations.
The amount of research conducted on female football players, compared to male players, is sparce. Even though research on female football players have increased the past decade, there is still a lack of studies of how psychological factors affect their performance. The objective of the current systematic review was therefore to summarize existing quantitative research into the relationship between psychological factors and performance in women’s football. Literature was sourced from MEDLINE/PubMed, Embase and PsychInfo. Two independent reviewers applied the selection criteria and assessed the quality of the studies. A total of 14 studies met the inclusion criteria. The total number of participants were 1449 and 15 psychological factors were examined in relation to football performance. The results revealed a tendency for higher leveled players to score higher on psychological factors like mental toughness, conscientiousness, and executive functions. They also had lower levels of anxiety. Enjoyment and a perceived mastery climate were related to increased levels of performance and perceived competence. Mood was unrelated to performance. Limitations and implications for future research are discussed.
Abstract: Elite football can make players' feel nervous, and personality characteristics, as well as experience, affect how well pressure is handled before important games. Studying the psychological characteristics of female football players can provide information on how well psychological pressure is handled and provide knowledge on how to support players in order to improve performance. Based on a sample of 128 female elite football players from 8 top-level teams, the present study investigates whether psychological characteristics, football experience / player status in elite female football players can predict state anxiety before important matches. Our results outline that high age and national team experience negatively predicted most of the trait anxiety subscales. In line with previous research no psychological differences were found between goalkeepers, defenders, midfielders, and strikers while starting players revealed to have significantly lower trait anxiety. When measuring before important matches we found that somatic state anxiety was negatively associated with senior national team experience, and positively associated with worry trait anxiety and fear of failure. Cognitive state anxiety was negatively associated with hope for success and positively associated with somatic and worry trait anxiety. Self-confidence was positively associated with youth national team experience and negatively associated with worry trait anxiety. It can be concluded that psychological characteristics and national team experience are both important for optimal state anxiety before important matches in elite-level women's football. Implications for practice and future research are discussed.
Mental toughness is a factor related to performance, better coping, and increased confidence. There has been a growing trend toward assessing mental toughness behaviorally. The purpose of this paper was to develop a behavioral assessment of mental toughness in volleyball. Following a five-stage process to develop a systematic observation instrument, the current study identified 10 mental toughness behaviors in volleyball, specifically, six behaviors occurring during a play and four behaviors after a play (i.e., when a point is scored from the opposing team). Furthermore, eight behaviors represent mentally tough actions, while two behaviors represent mentally weak actions. The results indicate that the behavioral checklist is a reliable systematic observation instrument. Coaches and certified mental performance consultants can benefit from using this checklist by discussing mental toughness and behaviors corresponding to mental toughness during game play, and then have a quantifiable way to track behaviors with individuals and volleyball teams.
The present study investigated the relationships between mental toughness (MT), resilience, and stress among competitive South African tennis players. A total of 351 tennis players participating at various competitive standards completed the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire, the Resilience Scale for Adults, and a modified version of the Recovery-Stress Questionnaire for Athletes. The results indicated that total MT was positively associated with total resilience (r = 0.59), but negatively associated with total stress (r = -0.44). The resilience subscales of perception of self, perception of future, social competence, and social resources, but not family cohesion, significantly predicted total MT (R² = 0.35). Both total resilience and total MT significantly predicted total stress (R² = 0.21). Based on the findings, interrelations between MT and resilience are explored, implications outlined, and additional research is suggested to ascertain the contextual relevance and outcomes associated with each construct in sport.
The purpose of this study was to compare 60 top ranked and 60 lower ranked u/19 rugby union players from the PUK Rugby Institute (18.78 ± 0.28 years). Results show slight differences regarding previous consultations with sport psychologists, perceived importance of and need for psychological skills training sessions and the players' perceived ability to be psychologically well prepared for competitions. Effect size results (indicating practical significance) show that the top ranked players perceive psychosocial factors such as team members/team spirit, coaches, and financial aspects as significantly more positive (d 0.4) than the lower ranked players, while they are also significantly better (d 0.4) at fitting in with new team members, settling in with coaches and adapting to change in general. The top ranked players also showed significantly greater self-confidence (d 0.4), personal coping resources, coping with adversity, average psychological skills and activation control scores than their lower ranked counterparts, stressing the important role of sport psychological skills towards rugby performance. It can be concluded that sport psychological skill levels and related psychosocial factors can distinguish between rugby union players of different participation levels. Results are discussed in reference to practical implications for future sport psychological skills training programmes.
Purpose of the present study was to compare mental skills in male and female elite and non-elite volleyball players. 104 Iranian Super League volleyball players (20 males and 30 females) and Student Competitions (30 males and 24 females) completed OMSAT3. Result of 2x2 ANOVA showed that elites had better Mental Skill than the sub-elite group. There was no significant difference between males and females. Group and gender's interaction was significant (p=0.05). Considering the results, the reason for the advantage of elites over sub-elite group is associated with psychological factors. Enjoying a higher level of focusing, self-confidence, and higher mental efficacy, they are less affected by excitation and therefore, have a better performance. (C) 2011 Published by Elsevier Ltd. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of the 2nd World Conference on Psychology, Counselling and Guidance.
This study included 235 Canadian Olympic athletes who participated in the 1984 Olympic Games in Sarajevo and Los Angeles. Individual interviews were carried out with 75 athletes and a questionnaire was completed by another 160 to assess their mental readiness for the Olympic Games and factors related to mental readiness. Common elements of success were identified, as well as factors that interfered with optimal performance at the Olympic Games. Statistically significant links were found between Olympic performance outcome and certain mental skills. This investigation assessed the level of mental readiness and mental control experienced by Canadian athletes at the 1984 Olympic Games. A large-scale study was undertaken involving 235 Canadian Olympians who participated in the 1984 Olympic Games in Sarajevo or Los Angeles. It was a two-stage study involving an interview sample and a questionnaire survey sample.
Purpose
This study explored the relationship between mental toughness and college basketball performance, specifically examining possible moderating variables (gender and starting status).
Methods
Male and female (n = 197) college basketball players completed the Psychological Performance Inventory-Alternative (PPI-A), a measure of characteristics and skills consistent with mental toughness, and the PERF, an objective measure of basketball performance.
Results
Findings suggest that basketball performance can be partially predicted by mental toughness and starting status. Males reported greater mental toughness than females. Starters and nonstarters did not differ in mental toughness. Moderated hierarchical regression analysis indicated that mental toughness was related to performance for male players as both a main effect and interaction with starter status. For female players, in contrast, starter status was the only significant predictor of performance. Practitioners are encouraged to foster the psychological skills associated with mental toughness in females and non-starters in basketball.
Conclusion
Discussion of the PPI-A as a measure of mental toughness and suggestions for its improvement are explored. A need exists for additional research on mental toughness and objective performance, as performance enhancement is a major impetus for research on mental toughness.
This paper tested relations between two measures of mental toughness. A sample of 110 male athletes (M age=20.81years, SD=2.76), derived from University sports teams and local sports clubs, gave informed consent before completing two questionnaires to assess mental toughness. It was hypothesized that scales and subscales from the two different instruments, which purported to measure the same or substantially overlapping scales, would be strongly correlated. Predictions concerning the expected relations were made a priori. Pearson correlations revealed a significant and positive relationship between higher order mental toughness scores (r=.75; p
This study examines the construct validity of an original self-report instrument for the assessment of mental toughness: the Sports Mental Toughness Questionnaire (SMTQ). Two independent studies supported a three-factor (Confidence, Constancy, and Control) 14-item model for the SMTQ. With a sample of 633 athletes (427 males, 206 females; M age = 21.5 years; SD = 5.48), drawn from 25 sport classifications, and competing at international, national, county and provincial, or club and regional standards, the first study utilized item development and exploratory factor analytic techniques to establish the psychometric properties of the SMTQ. Study 2 employed confirmatory factor analytic techniques with an independent sample of 509 sports performers (351 males, 158 females; M age = 20.2 years; SD = 3.35), competing at the aforementioned standards, and representative of 26 sports. Confirmatory analysis using structural equation modeling confirmed the overall structure. A single factor underlying mental toughness (Gmt) was identified with higher-order exploratory factor analysis using the Schmid-Leiman procedure. Collectively, satisfying absolute and incremental fit-index benchmarks, the inventory was shown to possess satisfactory psychometric properties, with adequate reliability, divergent validity, and discriminative power. The results revealed promising features of the SMTQ, lending preliminary support to the instrument’s factorial validity and reliability. Further construct validation of the SMTQ is recommended, including its use as an index for evaluating the effect of intervention programs.
This study was designed to examine psychological characteristics and their development in Olympic champions. Ten U.S. Olympic champions (winners of 32 Olympic medals) were interviewed, as were one of their coaches ( n = 10), and a parent, guardian, or significant other ( n = 10). A battery of psychological inventories was also administered to the athletes. It was found that the athletes were characterized by: (a) the ability to cope with and control anxiety; (b) confidence; (c) mental toughness/resiliency; (d) sport intelligence; (e) the ability to focus and block out distractions; (f) competitiveness; (g) a hard-work ethic; (h) the ability to set and achieve goals; (i) coachability; (j) high levels of dispositional hope; (k) optimism; and (l) adaptive perfectionism. Results also revealed that a number of individuals and institutions influenced the athletes' psychological development including the community, family, the individual himself or herself, non-sport personnel, sport environment personnel, and the sport process. Coach and family influences were particularly important. Ways in which these sources influenced the athletes were both direct, like teaching or emphasizing certain psychological lessons, and indirect, involving modeling or unintentionally creating certain psychological environments. Psychological characteristic findings verified current sport psychological research on psychological characteristics associated with peak performance (Williams & Krane, 2001). They also suggest that adaptive perfectionism, dispositional hope, and high levels of optimism are new variables to consider. Results are also discussed relative to Bloom's (1985), Côtè's (1999) and Csikzentmihalyi, Rathunde, Whalen, and Wong's (1993) talent development research. Practical implications focus on implementing parenting and coaching practices related to the development of psychological characteristics associated with athletic success.
We explored mental toughness in soccer using a triangulation of data capture involving players (n = 6), coaches (n = 4), and parents (n = 5). Semi-structured interviews, based on a personal construct psychology (Kelly, 1955/1991) framework, were conducted to elicit participants' perspectives on the key characteristics and their contrasts, situations demanding mental toughness, and the behaviours displayed and cognitions employed by mentally tough soccer players. The results from the research provided further evidence that mental toughness is conceptually distinct from other psychological constructs such as hardiness. The findings also supported Gucciardi, Gordon, and Dimmock's (200914.
Gucciardi , D. F. ,
Gordon , S. and
Dimmock , J. A. 2009. Advancing mental toughness research and theory using personal construct psychology. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 2: 54–72. [Taylor & Francis Online]View all references) process model of mental toughness. A winning mentality and desire was identified as a key attribute of mentally tough soccer players in addition to other previously reported qualities such as self-belief, physical toughness, work ethic/motivation, and resilience. Key cognitions reported by mentally tough soccer players enabled them to remain focused and competitive during training and matches and highlighted the adoption of several forms of self-talk in dealing with challenging situations. Minor revisions to Gucciardi and colleagues' definition of mental toughness are proposed.
The concept of mental toughness has been found to be related to outcome performance measures in sport and other competitive situations. Despite this, little attention has been devoted to understanding the cognitive mechanisms that underlie mental toughness. The current study attempted to identify the cognitive underpinnings of mental toughness using the directed forgetting paradigm, in which participants are given a surprise memory test for material they were previously instructed to forget. Regression analyses showed that mental toughness, as measured by the MTQ48 (Clough, Earle, & Sewell, 2002), did not influence the recall of a to-be-forgotten list, but participants with high mental toughness showed better recall of a to-be-remembered list following instructions to forget the previous list. The superior recall of the to-be-remembered list suggests that mentally tough individuals have an enhanced ability to prevent unwanted information from interfering with current goals. These findings support the proposal that cognitive inhibition is one of the mechanisms underpinning mental toughness.
2 Abstract: The aim of the present study was to compare some psychological skills of superior and non-superior male karate kas dispatched to Japan World Competitions (2008). The statistical population of this study includes all the superior male karate kas participated in the elective competitions of Iran karate national team in order to be dispatched to Japan world competitions. South Australian Sport Institute Self-Assessment Test (SASI Psych) was used in order to compare subjects' psychological skills. The comparison of the mean of psychological skill variables between the two groups showed a significant difference between the two groups in concentration, controlling psychological level and imagery variables (P
The literature on mental toughness is characterized by a general lack of conceptual clarity and consensus as to its definition, as well as a general failure to operationalize the construct in a consistent manner. This study addressed two fundamental issues surrounding mental toughness: how can it be defined? and what are the essential attributes required to be a mentally tough performer? Ten international performers participated in either a focus group or one-toone interviews, from which a definition of mental toughness and the attributes of the ideal mentally tough performer emerged. The resulting definition emphasized both general and specific dimensions, while the 12 attributes covered self-belief, desire/motivation, dealing with pressure and anxiety, focus (performance-related), focus (lifestyle-related), and pain/hardship factors.
Mental toughness is a critical element in contemporary international cricket. However, little is known beyond the obvious basics of what constitutes mental toughness in an English cricketer. This study addressed two main objectives: 1) develop a greater understanding of what mental toughness is within cricket, and 2) identify how existing mentally tough English cricketers developed their mental toughness. Twelve English cricketers identified as being among the mentally toughest during the previous 20 years were interviewed. Analysis of the focused interview transcripts identified the critical role of the player's environment in influencing ‘Tough Character,’ ‘Tough Attitudes,’ and ‘Tough Thinking.’ The global themes are presented in a mental toughness framework that has been used to disseminate the findings to the cricket coaching and playing population in England. The contrasting and complementary nature of the global themes are used to help provide a structural appreciation of the need for consistent interaction between environment, character, attitudes, and thinking in order that a performer can consistently be considered as mentally tough in cricket. Implications of the findings in relation to the delivery of sport psychology support within English cricket are also highlighted.
The purpose of the present study was to explore coaches' perceptions of mental toughness attributes as well as the strategies used to build mental toughness. Participants were 10 National Collegiate Athletic Association head coaches from a variety of sports. In-depth interviews were conducted using standard qualitative methodology and content analyzed by three researchers. Based on raw data responses, lower and then higher-order themes were developed to capture the main ideas of mental toughness discussed by coaches. Regarding mental toughness attributes, psychological skills, motivation to succeed, and resilience emerged as higher-order themes, indicating some overlapping themes with previous studies exploring attributes from athletes' perspectives. Creating a tough physical practice environment, a positive mental environment, and providing mental toughness learning opportunities were themes that emerged as strategies coaches used to build mentally tough athletes. Findings are discussed in reference to previous literature on mental toughness and the psychology of excellence.
The 1st edition of "Applied Sport Psychology: Personal Growth to Peak Performance" was one of the 1st books written specifically to introduce coaches and sport psychologists to psychological theories and techniques that could be used to enhance the performance and personal growth of athletes from youth sport to elite levels. . . . The 2nd edition continues to have the same focus [as the 1st], but has been expanded to cover more topics.
[The book] is particularly well-suited as a text for classes in applied sport psychology and psychology of coaching. The book will also be a valuable reference for practicing coaches and sport psychologists who did not have the opportunity for such training in their own formal education. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined changes in, and antecedents of, cognitive anxiety, somatic anxiety, and self-confidence in a sample of 28 male and 28 female university athletes. Ss responded to the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory—2 and 6 antecedent items during the week preceding an important competition. In the case of cognitive anxiety, men showed no change across time; women showed a progressive increase as the competition neared. Men and women showed the same patterning in somatic anxiety with increases occurring only on the day of competition. Self-confidence scores revealed a reduction in self-confidence as the competition neared in both genders, but there was a greater decrease in women. Significant predictors of cognitive anxiety and self-confidence in the females were associated with personal goals and standards; significant predictors in the men were associated with interpersonal comparison and winning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
101 intercollegiate wrestling coaches completed a survey concerning the importance of, use of, frequency of problems arising with, and degree of success experienced in changing or developing 21 psychological skills. Mental toughness, positive attitude, individual motivation, and attention-concentration were judged to be most important for success in wrestling. Anxiety-stress control, attention-concentration, lack of confidence, and mental toughness were reported as areas in which wrestlers frequently experienced problems. Strategies most easily developed were goal setting, team cohesion, and mental practice-imagery. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It was hypothesized that there would be significant differences in mental toughness among athletes of different: (a) achievement level, (b) gender, (c) age, (d) sporting experience, and (e) sport type (team vs. individual and contact vs. non-contact sports). Participants were 677 athletes and consisted of sports performers competing at international (n = 60), national (n = 99), county (n = 198), club/university (n = 289), and beginner (n = 3 1) levels. Results revealed a significant relationship between mental toughness and gender, age, and sporting experience. However, achievement level and the type of sport an athlete participated in was not significantly associated with mental toughness.
The increasingly business-like environment of professional sport has resulted in greater scrutiny and analysis of players’ performance. The roles of physiological parameters in predicting success in the world of professional and amateur sport are well established. However, to date, evidence is sparse concerning the role of personality traits in predicting such success. The present study examined the potency of measures of personality style and mental skills in predicting success in the criterion sport of professional rugby league. Mental toughness was assessed by questionnaire using the Psychological Performance Inventory. Hardiness was assessed by questionnaire using the Personal Views Survey III-R. Subjects in this study were 115 professional rugby league footballers representing the top three playing levels in the game in Great Britain (International, Super League, and Division One). Findings demonstrated that performers playing at the highest standard (International players) scored significantly higher in all three hardiness subscales (commitment, control and challenge) and in two of the seven mental toughness subscales (negative energy control and attention control). Results are discussed relative to previous findings, in particular, of the efficacy of high levels of hardiness. Practical implications focus on the advocacy of mental toughness and hardiness training to improve sports performance.
The concept of mental toughness is widely used, but empirical evidence is required to fully understand this construct and its related variables. The purpose of this paper was to explore the relationship between: (a) mental toughness and coping, (b) mental toughness and optimism, and (c) coping and optimism. Participants were 677 athletes (male 454; female 223) aged between 15 and 58 years (M age = 22.66 years, SD = 7.20). Mental toughness correlated significantly with 8 of the 10 coping subscales and optimism. In particular, higher levels of mental toughness were associated with more problem or approach coping strategies (mental imagery, effort expenditure, thought control, and logical analysis) but less use of avoidance coping strategies (distancing, mental distraction, and resignation). Eight coping subscales were significantly correlated with optimism and pessimism. In conclusion, the relationships observed in this study emphasize the need for the inclusion of coping and optimism training in mental toughness interventions.
The purpose of this research project was to develop a psychometrically sound measure of mental toughness in cricket, using a multi-method research design. Two qualitative studies in which current and former cricketers' (n = 16) perceptions of the key components of mental toughness in cricket and the suitability of an item pool to target those key components (n = 9) were assessed. We then conducted two quantitative studies to examine both the within- and between-network properties of the Cricket Mental Toughness Inventory (CMTI) using confirmatory factor analysis and correlations. Support for the existence of a five-factor, 15-item model was revealed with three independent samples of cricketers; two contained cricketers from several different countries (n = 285 and 285), whereas one contained Australian cricketers only (n = 433). Each of the five subscales (affective intelligence, attentional control, resilience, self-belief, and desire to achieve) were positively correlated with dispositional flow, hardiness, and resilience and negatively correlated with athlete burnout. Although requiring replication and extension, the results of the present study provide preliminary support for the factor structure, internal reliability, and construct validity of the CMTI.
This study examined the relationship between multidimensional competitive state anxiety and cognitive (i.e. digit span) and motor (i.e. perceptuo-motor speed) subcomponents of performance in an experimental group of hockey players during the period leading up to an important hockey match, and also in a control group of hockey players before a routine training session. Using a 'time-to-event' experimental paradigm, an increase in somatic anxiety 20 min before the hockey match was accompanied by improved perceptuo-motor speed performance. Stepwise multiple regression analyses showed that somatic anxiety was negatively related to digit span performance, whilst somatic anxiety and self-confidence were positively related to perceptuo-motor speed performance. These findings suggest that somatic anxiety may be an important source of performance variance.
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